Engine

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Animation showing the four stages of the four-stroke gasoline combustion engine cycle:

1. Induction (Fuel enters)
2. Compression
3. Ignition (Fuel is burnt)
4. Emission (Exhaust out)

For other uses, see Engine (disambiguation).

"Motor" redirects here. For other uses, see Motor (disambiguation).
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form
of energy into mechanical energy.[1][2] Heat engines, like the internal combustion engine,
burn a fuel to create heat which is then used to do work. Electric motors convert
electrical energy into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air,
and clockwork motors in wind-up toys use elastic energy. In biological
systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create
forces and ultimately motion.

Contents

 1Terminology
 2History
o 2.1Antiquity
o 2.2Medieval
 o 2.3Industrial Revolution
o 2.4Automobiles
 2.4.1Horizontally opposed pistons
 2.4.2Advancement
 2.4.3Increasing power
 2.4.4Combustion efficiency
 2.4.5Engine configuration
 3Types
o 3.1Heat engine
 3.1.1Combustion engine
 3.1.2Internal combustion engine
 3.1.3External combustion engine
 3.1.4Air-breathing combustion engines
 3.1.5Environmental effects
 3.1.6Air quality
 3.1.7Non-combusting heat engines
o 3.2Non-thermal chemically powered motor
o 3.3Electric motor
o 3.4Physically powered motor
 3.4.1Pneumatic motor
 3.4.2Hydraulic motor
 4Performance
o 4.1Speed
o 4.2Thrust
o 4.3Torque
o 4.4Power
o 4.5Efficiency
o 4.6Sound levels
 5Engines by use
 6See also
 7References
o 7.1Citations
o 7.2Sources
 8External links

Terminology[edit]
The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the
word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such
as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, and knowledge
of how to construct them was often treated as a military secret. The word gin, as
in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the industrial
revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example.
However, the original steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not
mechanical engines but pumps. In this manner, a fire engine in its original form was
merely a water pump, with the engine being transported to the fire by horses. [3]
In modern usage, the term engine typically describes devices, like steam engines and
internal combustion engines, that burn or otherwise consume fuel to
perform mechanical work by exerting a torque or linear force (usually in the form
of thrust). Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply
as engines.[4] Examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile
gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which
produce thrust include turbofans and rockets.
When the internal combustion engine was invented, the term motor was initially used to
distinguish it from the steam engine—which was in wide use at the time, powering
locomotives and other vehicles such as steam rollers. The term motor derives from the
Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a
device that imparts motion.
Motor and engine are interchangeable in standard English.[5] In some engineering
jargons, the two words have different meanings, in which engine is a device
that burns or otherwise consumes fuel, changing its chemical composition, and a motor
is a device driven by electricity, air, or hydraulic pressure, which does not change the
chemical composition of its energy source. [6][7] However, rocketry uses the term rocket
motor, even though they consume fuel.
A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow
or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy.[8] An automobile powered by
an internal combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps, but
ultimately all such devices derive their power from the engine. Another way of looking at
it is that a motor receives power from an external source, and then converts it into
mechanical energy, while an engine creates power from pressure (derived directly from
the explosive force of combustion or other chemical reaction, or secondarily from the
action of some such force on other substances such as air, water, or steam). [9]

History[edit]
Antiquity[edit]
Simple machines, such as the club and oar (examples of the lever), are prehistoric.
More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind
power and even steam power date back to antiquity. Human power was focused by the
use of simple engines, such as the capstan, windlass or treadmill, and
with ropes, pulleys, and block and tackle arrangements; this power was transmitted
usually with the forces multiplied and the speed reduced. These were used
in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water
pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times,
including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace,
so their invention may be more ancient. By the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were
used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times.
According to Strabo, a water-powered mill was built in Kaberia of the kingdom of
Mithridates during the 1st century BC. Use of water wheels in mills spread throughout
the Roman Empire over the next few centuries. Some were quite complex,
with aqueducts, dams, and sluices to maintain and channel the water, along with
systems of gears, or toothed-wheels made of wood and metal to regulate the speed of
rotation. More sophisticated small devices, such as the Antikythera Mechanism used
complex trains of gears and dials to act as calendars or predict astronomical events. In
a poem by Ausonius in the 4th century AD, he mentions a stone-cutting saw powered
by water. Hero of Alexandria is credited with many such wind and steam powered
machines in the 1st century AD, including the Aeolipile and the vending machine, often
these machines were associated with worship, such as animated altars and automated
temple doors.
Medieval[edit]
Medieval Muslim engineers employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and
used dams as a source of water power to provide additional power to watermills and
water-raising machines.[10] In the medieval Islamic world, such advances made it
possible to mechanize many industrial tasks previously carried out by manual labour.
In 1206, al-Jazari employed a crank-conrod system for two of his water-raising
machines. A rudimentary steam turbine device was described by Taqi al-Din[11] in 1551
and by Giovanni Branca[12] in 1629.[13]
In the 13th century, the solid rocket motor was invented in China. Driven by gunpowder,
this simplest form of internal combustion engine was unable to deliver sustained power,
but was useful for propelling weaponry at high speeds towards enemies in battle and
for fireworks. After invention, this innovation spread throughout Europe.
Industrial Revolution[edit]

Boulton & Watt engine of 1788

The Watt steam engine was the first type of steam engine to make use of steam at a
pressure just above atmospheric to drive the piston helped by a partial vacuum.
Improving on the design of the 1712 Newcomen steam engine, the Watt steam engine,
developed sporadically from 1763 to 1775, was a great step in the development of the
steam engine. Offering a dramatic increase in fuel efficiency, James Watt's design
became synonymous with steam engines, due in no small part to his business
partner, Matthew Boulton. It enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated
factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower was not
available. Later development led to steam locomotives and great expansion of railway
transportation.
As for internal combustion piston engines, these were tested in France in 1807 by de
Rivaz and independently, by the Niépce brothers. They were theoretically advanced
by Carnot in 1824.[citation needed] In 1853–57 Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci invented
and patented an engine using the free-piston principle that was possibly the first 4-cycle
engine.[14]
The invention of an internal combustion engine which was later commercially successful
was made during 1860 by Etienne Lenoir.[15]
In 1877 the Otto cycle was capable of giving a far higher power to weight ratio than
steam engines and worked much better for many transportation applications such as
cars and aircraft.

A V6 internal combustion engine from a Mercedes-Benz

Automobiles[edit]
The first commercially successful automobile, created by Karl Benz, added to the
interest in light and powerful engines. The lightweight gasoline internal combustion
engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has been the most successful for light
automobiles, while the more efficient Diesel engine is used for trucks and buses.
However, in recent years, turbo Diesel engines have become increasingly popular,
especially outside of the United States, even for quite small cars.
Horizontally opposed pistons[edit]
In 1896, Karl Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first engine with
horizontally opposed pistons. His design created an engine in which the corresponding
pistons move in horizontal cylinders and reach top dead center simultaneously, thus
automatically balancing each other with respect to their individual momentum. Engines
of this design are often referred to as flat engines because of their shape and lower
profile. They were used in the Volkswagen Beetle, the Citroën 2CV, some Porsche and
Subaru cars, many BMW and Honda motorcycles, and propeller aircraft engines.
Advancement[edit]
Continuance of the use of the internal combustion engine for automobiles is partly due
to the improvement of engine control systems (onboard computers providing engine
management processes, and electronically controlled fuel injection). Forced air
induction by turbocharging and supercharging have increased power outputs and
engine efficiencies. Similar changes have been applied to smaller diesel engines giving
them almost the same power characteristics as gasoline engines. This is especially
evident with the popularity of smaller diesel engine propelled cars in Europe. Larger
diesel engines are still often used in trucks and heavy machinery, although they require
special machining not available in most factories. Diesel engines produce
lower hydrocarbon and CO
2 emissions, but greater particulate and NO
x pollution, than gasoline engines. [16] Diesel engines are also 40% more fuel efficient than
comparable gasoline engines.[16]
Increasing power[edit]
In the first half of the 20th century, a trend of increasing engine power occurred,
particularly in the U.S models.[clarification needed] Design changes incorporated all known methods
of increasing engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the cylinders to
improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the rate at which
the engine produces work. The higher forces and pressures created by these changes
created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines
with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight-line arrangements.
Combustion efficiency[edit]
The design principles favoured in Europe, because of economic and other restraints
such as smaller and twistier roads, leant toward smaller cars and corresponding to the
design principles that concentrated on increasing the combustion efficiency of smaller
engines. This produced more economical engines with earlier four-cylinder designs
rated at 40 horsepower (30 kW) and six-cylinder designs rated as low as 80 horsepower
(60 kW), compared with the large volume V-8 American engines with power ratings in
the range from 250 to 350 hp, some even over 400 hp (190 to 260 kW).[clarification needed][citation needed]
Engine configuration[edit]
Earlier automobile engine development produced a much larger range of engines than
is in common use today. Engines have ranged from 1- to 16-cylinder designs with
corresponding differences in overall size, weight, engine displacement, and
cylinder bores. Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW) were
followed in a majority of the models. Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models
were built while most engines had straight or in-line cylinders. There were several V-
type models and horizontally opposed two- and four-cylinder makes too.
Overhead camshafts were frequently employed. The smaller engines were commonly
air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively low.
The 1970s and 1980s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy, which
caused a return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with as many as five valves per
cylinder to improve efficiency. The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 operates with a W16 engine,
meaning that two V8 cylinder layouts are positioned next to each other to create the
W shape sharing the same crankshaft.
The largest internal combustion engine ever built is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C, a 14-
cylinder, 2-stroke turbocharged diesel engine that was designed to power the Emma
Mærsk, the largest container ship in the world when launched in 2006. This engine has
a mass of 2,300 tonnes, and when running at 102 RPM (1.7 Hz) produces over 80 MW,
and can use up to 250 tonnes of fuel per day.

Types[edit]
An engine can be put into a category according to two criteria: the form of energy it
accepts in order to create motion, and the type of motion it outputs.
Heat engine[edit]
Main article: Heat engine
Combustion engine[edit]
Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat of a combustion process.
Internal combustion engine[edit]

A three-horsepower internal combustion engine that ran on coal gas

Main article: Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel
(generally, fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In
an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and
high pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to
components of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by
moving it over a distance, generates mechanical work.[17][18][19][20]
External combustion engine[edit]
Main article: External combustion engine
An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine where an internal
working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source, through the engine wall or
a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the
engine produces motion and usable work.[21] The fluid is then cooled, compressed and
reused (closed cycle), or (less commonly) dumped, and cool fluid pulled in (open cycle
air engine).
"Combustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat. Engines of
similar (or even identical) configuration and operation may use a supply of heat from
other sources such as nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not involving
combustion; but are not then strictly classed as external combustion engines, but as
external thermal engines.
The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engine, or steam as in a steam engine or
an organic liquid such as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine cycle. The fluid can be of
any composition; gas is by far the most common, although even single-phase liquid is
sometimes used. In the case of the steam engine, the fluid changes phases between
liquid and gas.
Air-breathing combustion engines[edit]
Air-breathing combustion engines are combustion engines that use the oxygen in
atmospheric air to oxidise ('burn') the fuel, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in
a rocket. Theoretically, this should result in a better specific impulse than for rocket
engines.
A continuous stream of air flows through the air-breathing engine. This air is
compressed, mixed with fuel, ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas.
Examples
Typical air-breathing engines include:

 Reciprocating engine
 Steam engine
 Gas turbine
 Airbreathing jet engine
 Turbo-propeller engine
 Pulse detonation engine
 Pulse jet
 Ramjet
 Scramjet
 Liquid air cycle engine/Reaction Engines SABRE.
Environmental effects[edit]
The operation of engines typically has a negative impact upon air quality and
ambient sound levels. There has been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing
features of automotive power systems. This has created new interest in alternate power
sources and internal-combustion engine refinements. Though a few limited-production
battery-powered electric vehicles have appeared, they have not proved competitive
owing to costs and operating characteristics. [citation needed] In the 21st century the diesel
engine has been increasing in popularity with automobile owners. However, the
gasoline engine and the Diesel engine, with their new emission-control devices to
improve emission performance, have not yet been significantly challenged. [citation needed] A
number of manufacturers have introduced hybrid engines, mainly involving a small
gasoline engine coupled with an electric motor and with a large battery bank, but these
too have yet to make much of an inroad into the market shares of gasoline and Diesel
engines.
Air quality[edit]
Exhaust gas from a spark ignition engine consists of the following: nitrogen 70 to 75%
(by volume), water vapor 10 to 12%, carbon dioxide 10 to 13.5%, hydrogen 0.5 to
2%, oxygen 0.2 to 2%, carbon monoxide: 0.1 to 6%, unburnt hydrocarbons and
partial oxidation products (e.g. aldehydes) 0.5 to 1%, nitrogen monoxide 0.01 to
0.4%, nitrous oxide <100 ppm, sulfur dioxide 15 to 60 ppm, traces of other compounds
such as fuel additives and lubricants, also halogen and metallic compounds, and other
particles.[22] Carbon monoxide is highly toxic, and can cause carbon monoxide poisoning,
so it is important to avoid any build-up of the gas in a confined space. Catalytic
converters can reduce toxic emissions, but not completely eliminate them. Also,
resulting greenhouse gas emissions, chiefly carbon dioxide, from the widespread use of
engines in the modern industrialized world is contributing to the global greenhouse
effect – a primary concern regarding global warming.
Non-combusting heat engines[edit]
Main article: heat engine
Some engines convert heat from noncombustive processes into mechanical work, for
example a nuclear power plant uses the heat from the nuclear reaction to produce
steam and drive a steam engine, or a gas turbine in a rocket engine may be driven by
decomposing hydrogen peroxide. Apart from the different energy source, the engine is
often engineered much the same as an internal or external combustion engine. Another
group of noncombustive engines includes thermoacoustic heat engines (sometimes
called "TA engines") which are thermoacoustic devices which use high-amplitude sound
waves to pump heat from one place to another, or conversely use a heat difference to
induce high-amplitude sound waves. In general, thermoacoustic engines can be divided
into standing wave and travelling wave devices. [23]
Non-thermal chemically powered motor[edit]
Non-thermal motors usually are powered by a chemical reaction, but are not heat
engines. Examples include:

 Molecular motor – motors found in living things

 Synthetic molecular motor.
Electric motor[edit]
Main articles: Electric motor and Electric vehicle
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, usually through
the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process,
producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by
a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks.
Electric motors can be run as generators and vice versa, although this is not always
practical. Electric motors are ubiquitous, being found in applications as diverse as
industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools,
and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current (for example a battery powered
portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating current from a central electrical
distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-
size motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient
mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for
propulsion of large ships, and for such purposes as pipeline compressors, with ratings
in the thousands of kilowatts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric
power, by their internal construction, and by their application.

Electric motor

The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric

current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing
efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of
electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical
distribution networks.
To reduce the electric energy consumption from motors and their associated carbon
footprints, various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and
implemented legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher efficiency
electric motors. A well-designed motor can convert over 90% of its input energy into
useful power for decades.[24] When the efficiency of a motor is raised by even a few
percentage points, the savings, in kilowatt hours (and therefore in cost), are enormous.
The electrical energy efficiency of a typical industrial induction motor can be improved
by: 1) reducing the electrical losses in the stator windings (e.g., by increasing the cross-
sectional area of the conductor, improving the winding technique, and using materials
with higher electrical conductivities, such as copper), 2) reducing the electrical losses in
the rotor coil or casting (e.g., by using materials with higher electrical conductivities,
such as copper), 3) reducing magnetic losses by using better quality magnetic steel, 4)
improving the aerodynamics of motors to reduce mechanical windage losses, 5)
improving bearings to reduce friction losses, and 6) minimizing
manufacturing tolerances. For further discussion on this subject, see Premium
efficiency.)
By convention, electric engine refers to a railroad electric locomotive, rather than an
electric motor.
Physically powered motor[edit]
Some motors are powered by potential or kinetic energy, for example
some funiculars, gravity plane and ropeway conveyors have used the energy from
moving water or rocks, and some clocks have a weight that falls under gravity. Other
forms of potential energy include compressed gases (such as pneumatic motors),
springs (clockwork motors) and elastic bands.
Historic military siege engines included large catapults, trebuchets, and (to some
extent) battering rams were powered by potential energy.
Pneumatic motor[edit]
Main article: Pneumatic motor
A pneumatic motor is a machine that converts potential energy in the form
of compressed air into mechanical work. Pneumatic motors generally convert the
compressed air to mechanical work through either linear or rotary motion. Linear motion
can come from either a diaphragm or piston actuator, while rotary motion is supplied by
either a vane type air motor or piston air motor. Pneumatic motors have found
widespread success in the hand-held tool industry and continual attempts are being
made to expand their use to the transportation industry. However, pneumatic motors
must overcome efficiency deficiencies before being seen as a viable option in the
transportation industry.
Hydraulic motor[edit]
Main article: Hydraulic motor
A hydraulic motor derives its power from a pressurized liquid. This type of engine is
used to move heavy loads and drive machinery.[25]

Performance[edit]
The following are used in the assessment of the performance of an engine.
Speed[edit]
Speed refers to crankshaft rotation in piston engines and the speed of
compressor/turbine rotors and electric motor rotors. It is measured in revolutions per
minute (RPM).
Thrust[edit]
Thrust is the force exerted on an aircraft engine or its propeller after it has speeded up
the air passing through it.
Torque[edit]
Torque is a turning moment on a shaft and is calculated by multiplying the force causing
the moment by its distance from the shaft.
Power[edit]
Power is the measure of how fast work is done.
Efficiency[edit]
Main article: Engine efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how much fuel is wasted in producing power.
Sound levels[edit]
Vehicle noise is predominantly from the engine at low vehicle speeds and from tires and
the air flowing past the vehicle at higher speeds. [26] Electric motors are quieter than
internal combustion engines. Thrust-producing engines, such as turbofans, turbojets
and rockets emit the greatest amount of noise due to the way their thrust-producing,
high-velocity exhaust streams interact with the surrounding stationary air. Noise
reduction technology includes intake and exhaust system mufflers (silencers) on
gasoline and diesel engines and noise attenuation liners in turbofan inlets.

Engines by use[edit]
Particularly notable kinds of engines include:

 Aircraft engine
 Automobile engine
 Model engine
 Motorcycle engine
 Marine propulsion engines such as Outboard motor
 Non-road engine is the term used to define engines that
are not used by vehicles on roadways.
 Railway locomotive engine
 Spacecraft propulsion engines such as Rocket engine
 Traction engine

See also[edit]
 Aircraft engine
 Automobile engine replacement
 Electric motor
 Engine cooling
 Engine swap
 Gasoline engine
 HCCI engine
 Hesselman engine
 Hot bulb engine
 IRIS engine
 Multifuel
 Reaction engine
 Solid-state engine
  Timeline of heat engine technology
 Timeline of motor and engine technology

References[edit]
Citations[edit]
1. ^ "Motor". [Link]. Retrieved  2011-05-09.  a person
or thing that imparts motion, esp. a contrivance, as a steam engine,
that receives and modifies energy from some source in order to utilize
it in driving machinery.
2. ^ [Link]: (World heritage) "3. any device that converts
another form of energy into mechanical energy so as to produce
motion"
3. ^ "World Wide Words: Engine and Motor". World Wide Words.
Retrieved 2020-04-30.
4. ^ "Engine".  Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
5. ^ Dictionary definitions:
 "motor".  Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University
Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
 "engine". Oxford English Dictionary  (Online ed.). Oxford
University Press. (Subscription or participating institution
membership required.)
 "motor".  Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
 "engine". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
 "motor".  [Link]  Unabridged.  Random House.
 "engine". [Link] Unabridged. Random House.
6. ^ "Engine", McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and
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7. ^ Quinion, Michael.  "World Wide Words: Engine and
Motor".  Worldwide Words. Retrieved 2018-02-03.
8. ^ "Prime mover", McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and
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9. ^ Press, AIP, Associated (2007).  Stylebook and Briefing on Media
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11. ^ Hassan, Ahmad Y. (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical
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12. ^ "University of Rochester, NY,  The growth of the steam
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14. ^ "La documentazione essenziale per l'attribuzione della scoperta".  A
later request was presented to the Patent Office of the Reign of
Piedmont, under No. 700 of Volume VII of that Office. The text of this
 patent request is not available, only a photo of the table containing a
drawing of the engine. This may have been either a new patent or an
extension of a patent granted three days earlier, on 30 December
1857, at Turin.
15. ^ Victor Albert Walter Hillier, Peter Coombes – Hillier's Fundamentals
of Motor Vehicle Technology, Book 1 Nelson Thornes, 2004 ISBN 0-
7487-8082-3[Retrieved 2016-06-16]
16. ^ Jump up to:a b Harrison, Roy M.  (2001), Pollution: Causes, Effects and
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22. ^ Paul Degobert, Society of Automotive Engineers
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Sources[edit]
 J.G. Landels, Engineering in the Ancient World, ISBN 0-520-04127-5

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