Chapter I
THE PROBLEM AND THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Excessive use of plastic is one of the major problems that our society is facing. Form the
clothing to food packaging, plastic is massively use. As this excessive usage of plastic continues,
problems are arising from here and there. Plastic pollution is affecting not just life on land but as
well as marine life mainly due to its improper disposal and non-biodegradable feature. It is for
this reason that the researchers hope to conduct a research study about Carabao (Bubalus
bubalis carabanesis) Manure as a component in starch-based bio-plastic.
Furthermore, on a report given by the NGO GAIA last March (2019), an audit in the
Philippines has shown the country uses a "shocking" amount of single-use plastic, including
nearly 60 billion sachets a year. Every day, almost 48 million shopping bags are used throughout
the Philippines, adding up to more than 17 billion a year. That figure does not include the
smaller, thinner and often transparent plastic bags known as "labo" bags—around 16.5 billion of
those are used per year across the country. The figures are based on 21 waste assessments
conducted in six cities and seven municipalities across the Philippines, with the national figures
produced by extrapolating from local results.
On the local level, Barangays in Surigao city are also experiencing plastic pollution. In
the river of Barangay San Juan, it is very observable that most plastic wastes are thrown at the
sea and river especially those who are settled at riverbanks. As a result, the water becomes
polluted and caused the deterioration of marine life. In the attempts of addressing this problem,
the researchers attempts to study an alternative plastic, commonly called as bio-plastic. Bio-
plastics are plastic like materials that are bio-based and biodegradable that can replace or can be
used as a substitute for actual plastics. They are materials that can be made of renewable
resources like woodchips, sawdust, starch, recycled food waste etc. It serves as a solution to
plastics that are suffocating our planet and our environment. It is for this reason that the
researchers hope to conduct a research study about Carabao (Bubalus bubalis carabanesis)
Manure as a key factor in strengthening starch-based bio-plastic.
In addition, a study of Solomonides (2016) said that the bio-plastic composition can
include 11.0% starch, 49.4% glycerin, and 37.6% water, and 2.0% acid. The bio-plastic
composition can include at least one starch at a concentration between 5 wt. % and 20 wt. %. It
also needs fiber in order for it to be eco- friendly. According to Steadter (2018), Carabao manure
is the waste that has man benefits to human beings because it can be made as fertilizer to plants.
It has a cellulose fiber coming from the plants that is not completely digested by the carabao.
This fiber decreases energy usage or pollution and it increases biodegradability by replacing
synthetic fibers in bio-plastics. Many researchers have demonstrated the interest of using filler as
reinforcement in thermoplastic matrixes and have shown that fiber incorporation can increase
films tensile strength and elasticity modulus and decreases their elongation capacity. In short, the
researcher attempts to extract cellulose fibers from Carabao manure and incorporate it with the
starch-based bio-plastic for greater tensile strength.
Moreover, farmers in the Philippines face 2 million tons of manure a year. Excessive
amount of methane and ammonia gases pollute the air and phosphorous and nitrogen runoff
contaminates rivers, lakes and oceans. This is why the researchers attempts to utilize Carabao
Manure.
Review of Related Literature
Bio-plastic
According to Brodin, et. al. (2017) on “Lignocellulosics as sustainable resources for
production of bio-plastics”, the bio-based economy requires a sustainable utilization of bio-
resources for production of a range of products, including pulp, paper, chemicals, biofuel and
bio-plastics. Currently, various types of bio-plastics are produced industrially, competing in
performance and price with the conventional fossil-oil based plastics. However, there is also a
major interest in utilizing non-food crops, such as lignocellulosics, for production of drop-in
polymers or new dedicated bio-plastics. Lignocellulosic resources have a potential to replace
plastics and materials, which have been traditionally based on fossil resources. This is important,
as the development of high performance bio-based and renewable materials is one important
factor for sustainable growth of the bio-based industry. However, production of bio-plastics from
forestry biomass requires a dedicated fractionation into the major components, i.e. cellulose,
hemicelluloses and lignin, effective purification processes and cost-effective routes for
conversion into monomers and platform molecules, utilized as a basis for bio-plastics production.
These processes are now technologically demanding and not profitable.
Furthermore, it is important to understand is that even though the waste bag is produced
from a biodegradable plastic film, the waste bag may not necessarily fulfil the environmental
legislation for a waste bag which is allowed to be used in a decaying process. It is particularly
important that the remaining digested sludge is free from plastic fragments, and many of the
plastic films used today contain polyolefin, and polyolefin are not biodegradable. Instead plastic
films containing polyolefin ends up as plastic fragments within nature. Rosen and Ake (2017) on
“Biodegradable plastics, method for production thereof and use thereof” concluded that there is a
need for an improved biodegradable plastic film material which may be used for waste bags for
collection of organic waste for decomposition and decaying, and especially for decaying
Plastic can be made from fossil-based or bio-based materials and can be biodegradable or
non-biodegradable plastics while bio-plastic can be fully made from renewable-material,
whereas biodegradable plastic is made of either fossil-based polymer or a combination of
renewable and fossil materials. Bio-plastics are starch-based polymers that are easily degraded
by microorganisms, so they can be used as an alternative to the use of conventional plastics
according to Mangsur (2019) on “The influence of composition of CNT (Carbon nanotube) on
the physical properties of bio-plastic made from cassava starch”. Bio-plastics are kind of plastics
produce from natural and renewable raw materials biomass sources such as sugarcane, corn
starch, wood, waste paper, vegetable oils and fats, bacteria, algae, etc. Mostly, the commercial
plastics in the marketplace are made from non-renewable petroleum based and this product can
cause damaging to the ecosystem of the nature.
Arikan et. al. (2015) said that bio-plastics are not harmful to nature environment because
it can decompose back into carbon dioxide. Thus, the demand for the applications of bioplastics
is growing rapidly as bio-plastic production and consumption will grow bigger in the future in
the world The products made from bio-plastics should be commercialize because they are
renewable, biodegradable, compostable and environmentally friendly. There are three main types
of bio-plastics which are biodegradable and bio-based, biodegradable and fossil-based, and non-
biodegradable and bio-based while non-biodegradable and petroleum based are known as plastic.
Bio-based plastics are made using polymers derived from plant based sources e.g. starch,
cellulose, oils, lignin etc. Bio-based polymers can be used to make plastic packaging that
behaves like conventional plastic. It can also be used to make biodegradable and compostable
plastics.
In particular, higher proportions of hydrolyzed lignin improved hydrodynamics, oxygen
barrier, grease resistance, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties, whereas a higher xylan
content was related to more ductile mechanical behavior, comparable to synthetic and bio-based
polymers commonly used for packaging applications. In addition, these bio-plastics showed high
biodegradation rates in seawater. Such new polymeric materials are presented as alternatives to
common man-made petroleum-based plastics used for food packaging stated by Tedeschi et. al.
(2020) on a journal about “Multifunctional bioplastics inspired by wood composition: effect of
hydrolysed lignin in addition to xylan-cellulose matrices”.
Cellulose
Cellulose has attracted considerable attention as the strongest potential candidate
feedstock for bio- based polymeric material production. During the past decade, significant
progress in the production of biopolymers based on different cellulosic forms has been achieved.
The development of more sustainable processes for a greener and bio-based future is a current
global goal. This has led to research aimed at developing bio-based polymers to address
environmental issues and to decrease the current dependence on fossil resources. Cellulose is a
promising feedstock for the production of chemicals and cellulose-derived monomers. A wide
variety of monomers are already obtained from cellulose via convenient catalytic processes and
these have potential applications in production of biopolymers for use in various industries. The
production capacity of cellulose-based sustainable biopolymers was 61.8% of overall bio-based
structural polymer production in 2013, and production growth is increasing annually. Cellulose-
based composites are the focus of a current trend toward environmentally friendly composites.
Interest in the use of cellulose, cellulose nanoparticles, and cellulose derivatives as one of the
(nano) composite phases has been growing in the past few years because of their excellent
mechanical properties, reinforcing capabilities, low weight, low filler load requirements,
biodegradability, and wide availability. They can also be used as (nano) fillers or matrices in
polymer bio (nano) composites according to Shaghaleh, et. al.(2018) on her article “Current
progress in production of biopolymeric materials based on cellulose, cellulose nanofibers, and
cellulose derivatives”.
Seo, et. al. (2018) on his study about “Cellulose based nanocrystals: sources and applications via
agricultural product” defined the Cellulose as a substance extracted from plants. It is an
environmentally friendly natural resource and is worthy of use in various bio-industries.
Furthermore, they classified it into two, being cellulose nanofibers, and cellulose nanocrystals.
Lignocellulosic Biomass
According to Shaghaleh, et. Al (2018), the first generation of bio-based polymers was
dependent on synthesizing the building blocks (monomers) from renewable resources, including
lignocellulosic biomass (starch and cellulose), fatty acids, and organic waste. Worldwide
production of lignocelluloses, which are the most abundant monomer resource, represent 210.7 ×
106 tonnes of plant material per year; this is not in competition with food supplies. Cellulose is
one of the main components of lignocellulosic biomass, along with lignin and hemicellulose, and
accounts for 35–50% of biomass. It is the strongest candidate for replacing petroleum-based
polymers because of its abundance and eco-friendly properties such as renewability,
biocompatibility, and biodegradability.
Cellulose on Animal Manure
Moreover, according to Prof. Alexander Bismarck, who is a researcher at the University
of Vienna cited by Coxworth (2018) in “When life gives you manure, make paper”, animals eat
low-grade biomass containing cellulose, chew it and expose it to enzymes and acid in their
stomach, and then produce manure. Depending on the animal, up to 40 percent of that manure is
cellulose, which is then easily accessible. It is with this that opted the idea to extract cellulose
form Carabao Manure (dung) and reinforce it with the starch-based bio-plastic. Thus, we can
conclude that with cellulose it increases the tensile strength of the product bio-plastic. Moreover,
according to Steadter (2018), many researchers have demonstrated interest of using filler as
reinforcement in the thermoplastic matrixes and have shown that fiber incorporation can increase
films tensile strength and elasticity modulus and decreases their elongation capacity.
In the process of extraction of the cellulose fibers, a team of scientists from the
University of Vienna collected a fresh sample of manure, it is then heated in an oven for two
hours at 120 degrees Celsius (248 degrees Fahrenheit) to kill any pathogens. Next, they mixed
the sterilized manure with a solution of water and sodium hydroxide to remove animal matter,
such as dead cells and tissue. They then purified it using common bleach and mixed it in a
common household blender. Lastly, they poured the suspension through a filter to remove any
excess water. The result was a gel-like substance of pure cellulose. After spreading the substance
flat onto a mold, they pressed it with a weight and left it to dry. This process was based on the
study of Staedter (2018) on her article “Making Paper from Poop offers a solution to the world's
Manure Problem”. The same method will be used in this research at the stage of extracting the
cellulose fiber and incorporate it to the starch-based bio-plastic mixture. Given that
lignocellulosic fibers are combination of starch and cellulose, the research hypothesize that after
the cellulose and the starch based mixture of bio-plastic, it will yield to a lignocellulosic-based
product.
Following the suggested methods, the researchers aim that with this study, it will help
expand the horizon of farmers in the local area through the production of strengthened
starch0based bio-plastic. This study also hopes to address the excessive amount of methane and
ammonia gases that pollute the air and phosphorous and nitrogen runoff that contaminates rivers,
lakes, and oceans and in addition, the plastic pollution that the community is facing nowadays.
Conceptual Framework of the Study
Collection of Carabao Manure
Extraction of Cellulose contents from the Carabao Manure
1. In the process of extraction of the cellulose fibers, a team of scientists from the
University of Vienna collected a fresh sample of manure, it is then heated in an oven for
two hours at 120 degrees Celsius (248 degrees Fahrenheit) to kill any pathogens;
2. Next, they mixed the sterilized manure with a solution of water and sodium hydroxide
to remove animal matter, such as dead cells and tissue;
3. They then purified it using common bleach and mixed it in a common household
blender.
4. Lastly, they poured the suspension through a filter to remove any excess water. The
result was a gel-like substance of pure cellulose. After spreading the substance flat onto
a mold, they pressed it with a weight and left it to dry.
This process was based on the study of Staedter (2018) on her article “Making Paper from Poop offers a solution to the world's
Manure Problem”.
Combination Process of Starch-based bio-plastic with the Extracted Cellulose from Carabao
Manure
Submission of bio-plastic samples to DOST for laboratory testing
Testing and comparing the strength of the product in terms of tensile strength, density in varied
concentrations
Collection of Data
Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Figure 1. Flow of the study
Statement of the Problem
The aim of this study is to develop bioplastics with the use of Carabao Manure found in Brgy.
Quezon, Mainit, Surigao del Norte as an alternative to the synthetic components. With this in
mind, this study aims to answer the following questions:
1. Is there a significant difference between the starch-based bio-plastic and the starch-based
bio-plastic combined with extracted cellulose from Carabao Manure in terms of the
following:
1.a. Tensile Strength
1.b. Density
2. Is there a significant difference between the starch-based bio-plastic and the starch-based
bio-plastic combined with extracted cellulose from Carabao Manure in varied
concentrations of cellulose fibers?
Hypotheses
Ho1: There is no significant difference between the starch-based bio-plastic and the starch-based
bio-plastic combined with extracted cellulose from Carabao Manure in terms of tensile strength,
density and varied concentrations of cellulose.
Ho2: There is no significant difference between the starch-based bio-plastic and the starch-based
bio-plastic combined with extracted cellulose from Carabao Manure in varied concentrations of
cellulose fibers.
Significance of the Study
As time goes by, more and more plastics are being produced and the degradation process
is much longer than the creation of the plastic. This study is expected to be of significance to the
following sectors:
Community. This gives merit to communities who uses plastic as an essential part of
their daily living without doing any harm to the environment in such way that they themselves
will be affected by the calamities brought by the usage of plastics still with the sense of using
plastics in a more nature-friendly way.
Business. This such product is useful in the business sector as it can be sold. The said
product can enter the market for the reason that people nowadays are being aware of the effects
of the use of plastics to the society as a whole, thus making the people to be more particular in
choosing products that may diminish the use of plastic. Bioplastics sustains the use of the plastics
without affecting the environment nor doing harm to the people.
Carabao owners/ Farmers. Through the reproduction of the product with, the
owners/farmers can regenerate additional income. This can add help in terms of sustaining their
needs and the needs of their respective families.
Students. This study gives awareness to students that aside from being a fertilizer, the
manure of grass-eating animals can create different products like bioplastics.
Future researchers. Modification of the study and improvements can still be done in the
study.
Researchers. The study gave an opportunity for the researches to contribute something
for the improvement and development of the society. On the other hand, it also improved the
thinking skills and the analyzation skills of the researchers.
Scope and Limitation of the Study
The study focuses in using Carabao Manure found in Brgy. Quezon, Mainit, Surigao del Norte as
the main element in making bioplastics. This study will be conducted during the school year
2019-2020. Aside from using the Carabao Manure in making bioplastics, the study also covers
the Tensil strength, Durability and Weight of the bioplastic after using the cellulose fiber from
the manure as an alternative to synthetic fiber in bioplastic. This study does not cover all the
types of manure that is available in the area. Since the study only covers the suitability of using
carabao manure in making bioplastics, Green, Farmyard, and Compost Manure are not covered.
Cellulose fiber from the manure is the sole component in making the product and nothing more.
The study also aims to describe on how effective is the cellulose fiber from the carabao manure
as an alternative to the synthetic fibers in bioplastics. This study will not explain the uses of the
different types of manure that is available in Brgy. Quezon, Mainit, Surigao del Norte.
Definition of terms
Listed below are the terms used in this study:
Bioplastics. These are renewable/natural materials that can match the use of plastics.
Cellulose. It is an organic polysaccharide substance of a plant that is used in making
various natural products.
Fibers. Is a type of carbohydrate that the body cannot be digested.
Lignin. It is a class of complex organic polymers that form key structural materials in the
support tissues of vascular plants.
Lignocellulose. Is a combination of both lignin and cellulose.
Starch. It is a polysaccharide commonly found in food.
Tensile test. It is a test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until
failure.
