ED423550 1998-00-00 Problem-Based
Learning in Language Instruction: A
Constructivist Model. Eric Digest.
ERIC Development Team
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Problem-Based Learning in Language Instruction: A Constructivist
Model. Eric Digest............................................................ 1
PBL IN LANGUAGE LEARNING............................................. 2
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER'S ROLE IN PBL.............................3
THE PBL PROCESS: A BRIEF EXAMPLE.................................3
PBL AND CURRICULUM......................................................4
REFERENCES.................................................................. 5
ERIC Identifier: ED423550
Publication Date: 1998-00-00
Author: Abdullah, Mardziah Hayati
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading English and Communication Bloomington IN.
Problem-Based Learning in Language
Instruction: A Constructivist Model. Eric
Digest.
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THEORETICAL BASIS OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
The assumption of non-constructivist approaches to learning has been that as long as
learners are provided with knowledge, they will be able to use it. Education based on
that assumption is thus primarily concerned with transferring substance to the learner,
and little importance is placed on the role of the learning activity. From a constructivist
view, on the other hand, learning is the process of constructing knowledge - not merely
obtaining it - in social environments (Brooks & Brooks, 1993). The theory of situated
learning consistent with this view asserts that what we come to know and understand is
fundamentally a product of the learning situation and the nature of the learning activity.
Learning tasks should thus, as far as possible, be embedded in the target context and
require the kind of thinking that would be done in real life (Brown et al., 1989; Lave &
Wenger, 1991).
One method which supports learning in the target domain is Problem-Based-Learning
(PBL). It was created by Barrows (1986) as an alternative instructional method to
prepare medical students for real-world problems by letting them solve medical
problems based on real-life cases, rather than having them learn mainly through
lectures which taught the sciences out of context. The students worked in teams, and
were assigned a medical practitioner who acted as facilitator. This practice was
consistent with the assumption that learning occurs not in the "heads of individual
speakers" but in the fields of social interaction (Lave & Wenger, 1991), where social
partners also determine what and how someone learns (Cole & Engestrom, 1993;
Salomon, 1993). It was argued that PBL made learning more applicable by encouraging
students to think and act like they would in the real world of medicine. This same
method, Duffy and Cunningham (1997) believe, can be applied in other domains.
PBL IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
The behaviorist trend in language instruction has been to define desired goals
independently of the learners and situation, present language in a structured, linear
fashion, then attempt to reinforce the content through decontextualized practice.
Learners end up knowing about the language but not how to use it (Short, Harste &
Burke, 1996). The constructivist view, in contrast, is that language learners should
develop their understanding of the conventios of language use by engaging in the kinds
of language activity found in real life, and not by learning lists of rules.
PBL can situate language learning in the real world. By posing language learners
problems like those found in real life, teachers can bridge the gap between language
use in the real world and what Dyson calls the 'fake' world of school. Problems used in
PBL are "ill-structured," that is, they do not have clear-cut, absolute answers (Spiro et
al., 1991; Perkins, 1991), and they reflect the complexity of real-world problems (as
opposed to short-answer, true-false, and multiple-choice questions). They are also
relevant to the learners' situations. In addition, they require learners to explore
Page 2 of 6 ED423550 1998-00-00 Problem-Based Learning in Language Instruction: A
Constructivist Model. Eric Digest.
ERIC Resource Center [Link]
resources other than the teacher, including reference materials and community
members, and to draw on knowledge from various subject areas such as mathematics,
geography, and science. During the inquiry process that learners go through to develop
solutions, they need to use language to obtain and communicate information, express
opinions, and negotiate, as they would in occupational domains. As they document
discussions and decisions, consult reference materials, talk to others, or present
findings, they learn to listen, speak, read, and write effectively. They develop
vocabulary, learn rules of grammar and conventions of social language use, and
integrate the use of different sign systems. In short, they construct an understanding of
language as it is used in real-world contexts.
THE LANGUAGE TEACHER'S ROLE IN PBL
In a PBL setting, teachers need to decenter their roles as the source of knowledge by
consciously refraining from giving only right-wrong answers, and helping students
observe how other resources can teach them about effective language use. Acting as
"facilitators" and "cognitive coaches" (Barrows, 1992; Duffy & Cunningham, 1997),
teachers need to ask questions such as: "Why? What do you mean?" and "How do you
know that is true?" (Savery & Duffy, 1994, p.12) instead of content-laden questions. The
purpose is to challenge the students' reasoning and to help them consider carefully
each step they take in their inquiry. By asking such questions, facilitators also model
critical thinking, with the purpose of stepping back and letting students begin to ask
themselves and their peers those same types of questions. As facilitators, teachers also
design problems and provide critical resources needed for the inquiry process.
THE PBL PROCESS: A BRIEF EXAMPLE
Savery and Duffy's (1995) model of the PBL process proposes some steps that a
facilitator could follow:
(i) Facilitator identifies or designs an ill-structured problem or task relevant to the
learner. (e.g., Vandalism is on the rise in school. Because it is a large school with
several buildings, lockers have been broken into, personal belongings stolen, furniture
scratched, and walls defaced even during school hours, without anyone seeing the
culprits. Among the safety measures the school plans to take are: students will no
longer be allowed to leave the cafeteria during lunch, and there will be no outside
recess so that no student can wander around without being seen. Hall passes will also
be limited. Students will have to leave their bags in their lockers as soon as they get to
school so that no one can carry around dangerous articles. You find these rules
unreasonable and potentially ineffective. You feel that innocent students will be
inconvenienced, and that there must be better measures. What can you do?)
(ii) Facilitator presents the problem to the learners.
(iii)Learners, in their own groups, collaboratively
ED423550 1998-00-00 Problem-Based Learning in Language Instruction: A Page 3 of 6
Constructivist Model. Eric Digest.
[Link] ERIC Custom Transformations Team
*generate working ideas or possible solutions (e.g., write a petition, suggest alternative
measures, form volunteer student patrols, survey students' views and present them);
*identify available information related to the problem (e.g., school policies, sample
petition, sections of the school most vandalized);
*identify learning issues (things they need to find out, e.g., survey formats, how to form
patrols, what other schools may be doing);
*identify resources to look up or consult (e.g., home pages of other schools, friends in
the police force, sample survey);
*assign tasks to the various group members (i.e. who is responsible for working on each
learning issue.);
*gather information (e.g. visit Web sites, interview students and community members,
draft a petition.);
*propose solution(s).
Some of the steps in (iii) may be revisited. Ideas, learning issues, and solutions may
differ among groups, and the class can discuss the viability of each proposed solution.
Throughout the process, learners will need to act as scribes or recorders to take notes.
PBL AND CURRICULUM
Although several research groups have developed full PBL curricula, language teachers
may find PBL more useful as one method among many, as the inquiry process takes
time and may not always meet other curricular demands. A better understanding of PBL
and the facilitator's role may help teachers assess the applicability of the method. Useful
information may be found at the following web sites:
Center for Problem-Based Learning (1998)
([Link]
Problem-Based Learning at the University of Delaware (1998)
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Constructivist Model. Eric Digest.
ERIC Resource Center [Link]
([Link]
REFERENCES
Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problem based learning methods. Medical
Education, 20, 481-86.
Barrows, H. S. (1992). The tutorial process. Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois School of
Medicine.
Brooks, J.G., & Brooks, M.G. (1993). In search of understanding: The case for
constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum.
[ED 366 428]
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., and Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of
learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42. [EJ 386 603]
Cole, M., and Engestrom, Y. (1993). A cultural-historical approach to distributed
cognition. In Gavriel Salomon (Ed.). Distributed cognitions: Psychological and
educational considerations. NY: Cambridge University Press.
Duffy, T.M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1997). Constructivism: Implications for the design
and delivery of instruction. In David Jonassen (Ed.). Handbook of research in education,
communication, and technology. New York: Macmillan.
Duffy, T.M., & Savery, J.R. (1994). Problem-based learning: An instructional model and
its constructivist framework. In Brent G. Wilson (Ed.) Constructivist learning
environments: Case studies in instructional design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational
Technology Publications. [EJ 512 183]
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press.
Salomon, G. (1993). Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational
considerations. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Short, K.G., Harste, J. & Burke, C. (1996). Creating classrooms for authors and
inquirers (2nd edition). Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann.
Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P.J., Jacobson, M.J., & Coulson, R.L. (1991). Cognitive flexibility,
constructivism and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge
acquisition in ill-structured domains. Educational Technology, 31, 24-33.
This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract No RR93002011.
Contractors undertaking such projects under government sponsorship are encouraged
ED423550 1998-00-00 Problem-Based Learning in Language Instruction: A Page 5 of 6
Constructivist Model. Eric Digest.
[Link] ERIC Custom Transformations Team
to express freely their judgment in professional and technical matters. Points of view or
opinions, however, do not necessarily represent the official view or opinions of the
Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
Title: Problem-Based Learning in Language Instruction: A Constructivist Model. Eric
Digest.
Document Type: Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs)
(071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text (073);
Target Audience: Practitioners, Teachers
Available From: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication,
Indiana University, 2805 E. 10th Street, Suite 150, Bloomington, IN 47408-2698.
Descriptors: Constructivism (Learning), Elementary Secondary Education, Inquiry,
Language Acquisition, Learning Processes, Models, Problem Based Learning, Teacher
Role, Theory Practice Relationship
Identifiers: ERIC Digests, Facilitators
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