MTE 1101
Mechatronic Systems
Dip Kumar Saha
Lecturer
Dept. of Mechatronics Engineering
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
dip07me@[Link]
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Book References
Reference Books:
Mechatronics by W Bolton
Mechatronics by R.K Rajput
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Course Outline
Sensor & Transducer
Introduction to sensors and transducers
Sensor terminologies
Sensor characteristics
Classification of sensors
Proximity sensors
Potentiometer
Wheatstone bridge
Op-amps
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Sensors and Transducers
Sensor:
It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being
measured. Here, the output is usually an ‘electrical quantity’ and measurand is
a ‘physical quantity, property or condition which is to be measured’. Thus in
the case of, say, a variable inductance displacement element, the quantity
being measured is displacement and the sensor transforms an input of
displacement into a change in inductance.
Transducer:
It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change
experiences a related change or an element which converts a specified
measurand into a usable output by using a transduction principle.
It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of
energy to another form.
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Sensors and Transducers
A wire of Constantan alloy can be called as a sensor because variation in
mechanical displacement (tension or compression) can be sensed as change
in electric resistance. This wire becomes a transducer with appropriate
electrodes and input-output mechanism attached to it. Thus we can say that
‘Sensors are also a type of transducers’.
The main difference between sensor and transducer is that a transducer is a
device that can convert energy from one form to another, whereas a sensor is
a device that can detect a physical quantity and convert the data into an
electrical signal.
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Sensors and Transducers
Performance terminology:
1. Range and Span: The range of a transducer defines the limits between
which the input can vary. The span is the maximum value of the input
minus the minimum value. Thus, for example, a load cell for the
measurement of forces might have a range of 0 to 50 kN and a span of 50
kN.
2. Error: Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and
the true value of the quantity being measured:
3. Accuracy: Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by a
measurement system might be wrong. It is thus the summation of all the
possible errors that are likely to occur, as well as the accuracy to which
the transducer has been calibrated.
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Sensors and Transducers
Performance terminology:
4. Sensitivity: The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output
there is per unit input, i.e. output/input. For example, a resistance
thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5 V/°C.
5. Hysteresis error: Transducers can give different outputs from the same
value of quantity being measured according to whether that value has
been reached by a continuously increasing change or a continuously
decreasing change. This effect is called hysteresis.
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Sensors and Transducers
Performance terminology:
6. Non-linearity error:
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Sensors and Transducers
Performance terminology:
7. Repeatability/reproducibility:The terms repeatability and reproducibility
of a transducer are used to describe its ability to give the same output for
repeated applications of the same input value.
8. Stability: The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output
when used to measure a constant input over a period of time. The term
drift is often used to describe the change in output that occurs over time.
9. Dead band/time: The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the
range of input values for which there is no output. For example, bearing
friction in a flowmeter using a rotor might mean that there is no output until
the input has reached a particular velocity threshold. The dead time is the
length of time from the application of an input until the output begins to
respond and change.
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Sensors and Transducers
Performance terminology:
10. Resolution: When the input varies continuously over the range, the
output signals for some sensors may change in small steps. The
resolution is the smallest change in the input value that will produce an
observable change in the output.
11. Output Impedance: When a sensor giving an electrical output is
interfaced with an electronic circuit it is necessary to know the output
impedance since this impedance is being connected in either series or
parallel with that circuit. The inclusion of the sensor can thus significantly
modify the behavior of the system to which it is connected.
Specification of strain gauge pressure transducer:
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Sensors and Transducers
Static and Dynamic Characteristics:
The static characteristics are the values given when steady-state conditions
occur, i.e. the values given when the transducer has settled down after having
received some input.
The dynamic characteristics refer to the behavior between the time that the
input value changes and the time that the value given by the transducer
settles down to the steady-state value
1. Response time: This is the time which elapses after a constant input, a
step input, is applied to the transducer up to the point at which the
transducer gives an output corresponding to some specified percentage,
e.g. 95%, of the value of the input.
2. Time constant: This is the 63.2% response time. A thermocouple in air
might have a time constant of perhaps 40 to 100 s. The time constant is a
measure of the inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will react to
changes in its input.
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Sensors and Transducers
Static and Dynamic Characteristics:
3. Rise Time:This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified
percentage of the steady-state output. Often the rise time refers to the
time taken for the output to rise from 10% of the steady-state value to 90
or 95% of the steady-state value.
4. Settling Time:This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some
percentage, e.g. 2%, of the steady-state value.
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Sensors and Transducers
Classification of Transducer:
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Sensors and Transducers
Classification of Transducer:
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Sensors and Transducers
Classification of Transducer:
sensor
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Sensors and Transducers
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor:
Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but
conductive materials. They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a
triggering circuit. When an alternating current is passed thru this coil, an
alternative magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the close
proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the
magnetic field.
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Sensors and Transducers
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor (cont.):
These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the
magnetic field responsible for their generation. As a result, impedance of the
coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current. This can be used to
trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change in current. Eddy
current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly
reliable and have high sensitivity for small displacements.
Applications:
Automation requiring precise location
Machine tool monitoring
Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a
vibrating element,
Drive shaft monitoring
Vibration measurements
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Sensors and Transducers
Pneumatic Proximity Switch:
Pneumatic sensors involve the use of compressed air, displacement or the
proximity of an object being transformed into a change in air pressure. Figure
shows the basic form of such a sensor.
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Sensors and Transducers
Proximity Switches:
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Sensors and Transducers
Potentiometer Sensor:
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Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning processes:
1. Protection to prevent damage to the next element, e.g. a
microprocessor, as a result of high current or voltage. Thus there
can be series current limiting resistors, fuses to break if the current
is too high, polarity protection and voltage limitation circuits
2. Getting the signal into the right type of signal. This can mean
making the signal into a d.c. voltage or current. Thus, for example,
the resistance change of a strain gauge has to be converted into a
voltage change.
3. Getting the level of the signal right. The signal from a
thermocouple might be just a few millivolts. If the signal is to be fed
into an analogue to digital converter for inputting to a
microprocessor then it needs to be made much larger, volts rather
than millivolts. Operational amplifiers are widely used for
amplification.
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Signal Conditioning
Signal conditioning processes:
4. Eliminating or reducing noise. For example, filters might be used
to eliminate
5. Signal manipulation, e.g. making it a linear function of some
variable. The signals from some sensors, e.g. a flowmeter, are non-
linear and thus a signal conditioner might be used so that the signal
fed on to the next element is linear mains noise from a signal.
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Operational Amplifier
The basis of many signal conditioning modules is the
operational amplifier. The operational amplifier is a high-gain
d.c. amplifier, the gain typically being of the order of 100 000 or
more.
An ideal model for an operational amplifier is as an amplifier
with an infinite gain, infinite input impedance and zero output
impedance, i.e. the output voltage is independent of the load.
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Operational Amplifier
Types of amplifier:
Inverting amplifier:
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Operational Amplifier
Non Inverting amplifier:
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Operational Amplifier
Summing amplifier:
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Operational Amplifier
Difference amplifier:
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Sensors and Transducers
Thank You
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