MODULE IN CROP SCIENCE 41 (Principles of Crop Production)

First Semester, SY 2020-2021

MODULE IN UNIT 5– Factors Affecting Crop Production

Introduction

As highlighed in the previous modules, crop production is a complex process. Its

success depends on crop and environmental factors. These factors are to be taken into
consideration by a crop producer (farmer) during crop planning & crop production.
Some of these factors are under control of a producer, whereas, others can be modified
for obtaining good results. On the contrary, some factors are beyond the control of crop
producer. These various factors can be categorized as (a) Factor within total control
(b) Factors that can be manipulated and (c) Factors outside the producer’s control .
It is believed that, a farmer can control some of these factors. A crop producer may
experience difficulty in managing some factors; these are temperature, solar radiation,
strong winds, flood, rainfall, carbon dioxide and altitude.

In totality, there are two elements greatly affecting crop production:Genetic

factors and environmental factors. The environmental factors affecting crop yields can
be classified into abiotic and biotic constraints. Actually, these factors are more
intensified with global warming which leads to climate change. Abiotic stresses
adversely affect growth, productivity and trigger a series of morphological, physiological,
biochemical and molecular changes in plants. The abiotic constraints include soil
properties (soil components, pH, physicochemical and biological properties), and
climatic stresses (drought, cold, flood, heat stress, etc.). On the other hand, biotic
factors include beneficial organisms (pollinators, decomposers and natural enemies),
pests (arthropods, pathogens, weeds, vertebrate pests) and anthropogenic evolution.

The production of enough food to match population growth while preserving the
environment is a key challenge, especially in the face of climate change. This module
will review factors affecting yields of crops.

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Intended Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this Unit, the students are expected to:
1. Identify the different factors affecting crop production
2. Classify and establish relationship between the different factors affecting
crop growth and development
3. Develop awareness, appreciation and love of nature

Topics/Subtopics Covered:
1. Abiotic Factors
2. Biotic Factors
3. Genetic Factors
4. Interaction between genetic and environmental factors

Engaging Activities:
The students shall:
1. Do self-pace reading and understanding of the lessons provided for the duration
stated in this module;
2. Internalize and review the lessons given;

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3. Perform activities and submit the required documents to the teacher at the end
lessons through email and/or courier (LBC, etc).

Activity 5.0 Let there be Light Activity

Overview: Students will learn about how light is important to plants, and
How quality of light affect plant growth.

Objectives:
Learn about variations in light quality and quantity
Design and conduct experiments using varous lights to demonstrate the
impactof variations in light on plant growth.
Draw conclusions about the best and most efficient source of light for plants.
 urce of light for plants.

Materials/Methods:
Choose 3 plants of almost the same age and size. Place them under your grow lights. Your goal is to
test light quality’s effect on plants, so to limit the number of variables that affect your data. Use the
same size containers, place them in exactly the same location under the lights, and n for the same
length of time each day. To differentiate light color, you can cover one plant using red water
cellophane, another plant covered with blue water cellophane, third plant with green water cellophane
and the control plant will be ultimately expose to direct sunlght without any cover. (Please see figure
below for visualization) For ease of conduct you can watch this video
[Link]

Track plant growth. Keep a journal of data, including height measurements and notes on
appearance , changes in color. Depending on the number of plants you choose to grow, you can
either track the growth of individual plants or calculate an average [Link] this activity for an entre
week. Photo documentation is very important as supporting evidences for your claim.

Explain the results of your experiment using concepts you will learn in this module (Highlighting
Effects of Quality of Light on Plant Growth and Development)
Relating your explaination on the followign queries:
How does light quality affects plant growth and development?
How Light Affects the Growth of a Plant
What Kind of Light Do Plants Need?
What are the problems with too much light and too little light?

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 Assessment 5:

1. Climate change is the result of global warming. It has devastating effects on plant growth
and crop yield which can affects directly, indirectly, and socio-economically reduce crop
yields by up to 70%. Using the previous statement as the baseline information (a) make a
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM of the different factors affecting crop production as presented in
this Module. (b) Include the positive and negative impacts in the environment. Kindly check
the sample blank schematic diagram below. Expand your answers. Add details and be
concise.

Additional Information/Viewings on Youtube:

 Factors affecting Crop Production on

[Link]
 Factors Affecting Yield of Crops By Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton
Charles [Link]
security/factors-affecting-yield-of-crops
 The basics about light [Link]
 Red and Blue Light Significantly Affect Photosynthetic Properties..
[Link]
antly_Affect_Photosynthetic_Properties_and_Ultrastructure_of_Mesophyll_Cells_in
_Senescing_Grape_Leaves
 Plant responses to temperature change
[Link]
 Factors affecting Crop Production
[Link]
 Abiotic Factors Affecting the Food Production Ability of Plants
 [Link]

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 MODULE 5 - FACTORS AFFECTNG CROP PRODUCTION

An environmental factor is any external force, substances or condition which

affect the growth of a biological organism –plant or animal. The sum total of all such
factors constitute the environment.

When the factors for growth, development and yield performance are external to
the plants, they are called environmental factors which may alter the growth of plants.

1. light intensity 6. disease organism

2. available water 7. temperature
3. daylength 8. chemicals (pesticides)
4. humidity 9. fertilizer nutrients
5. weeds

1. SOLAR RADIATION/LIGHT is the only source of plants energy that can be used
to drive the photosynthesis of plants. The energy of light is a physical energy
and is most recognized in the form of heat from sunlight. When the light strikes
the green leaf of the plant, the physical energy of light is transformed by the
chlorophyll into chemical energy.

a. Light intensity – the intensity of light affects the rate of photosynthesis.

Very high light intensity may be damaging to the plants. Solarization may
occur which is the photo destruction of chlorophyll by excessive light
illumination.

b. Light utilization by plants. Plants with high percentages of light

utilization has a high energy efficiency of converting light into dry matter.
Maximum use of intercepted sunlight can be made possible with proper
cultural and management practices such as: proper spacing, balance
fertilization, proper control of pests and diseases, proper weed control,
multiple cropping, etc.

Varieties with high efficiency of light utilization (upright leaves) can

produce high dry matter even under low light intensity such as rice
varieties with upright leaves and varieties with high harvest index.

“Solar radiation regulates temeprature and temperature regulates

crop production”

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Additional Notes on Solar radiation:

Solar energy
 Solar energy is produced in the sun by thermonuclear reactions (i.e., nuclear fusion
of hydrogen to produce helium)
 Energy from the sun is transmitted through space in the form of electromagnetic
waves
 No loss of energy as the waves travel through space
 Though its intensity continuously drops with increasing distance from the sun
 Not all light are absorb by the plants

Light energy radiates from

a source in electromagnetic waves
of different lengths and frequencies.
Some of these waves aren’t visible
to humans, but those we can see
are perceived as different colors.
Visible light with the longest
wavelength and lowest frequency is
seen as red, and that with the shortest wavelength and highest frequency is seen as
violet. Orange, yellow, green and blue fall in between. When all visible wavelengths are
combined, the light appears to be white or colorless, like sunlight. However, when you
separate the light, as with a prism, you can see all the colors in the spectrum.

Light is either reflected or absorbed by objects. When you look at an object, the
color you see is actually the color of light that the object reflects. If the object is white,
it’s reflecting all the waves and absorbing none; if it’s black then it’s reflecting none of
the waves and absorbing them all. Thus, plants appear green because they are
reflecting the green light waves and absorbing all the others.

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Properties of Plants that affect light Utilization

1. Optical Properties of the leaf. Moisture of the leaf increases in absorption of

solar radiation since it takes longer period of a moist leaf to be saturated with
heat.

Deficiency of elements in plants such as sulfur have greater reflection of light

that those deficient in N, P, and K.

Reflection pattern: S>N>K>P

Light colored leaves have greater reflection than purple leaf.

2. Leaf Area Index is the ratio of the ground area occupied by a particular leaf.
a. Critical LAI – is the amount of LAI required for95% interception of
solar radiation at local noon. The most distinguishing characteristics of
a critical LAI response is that failure for the increment weight/unit time
to decline at higher LAI.

b. Optimum LAI – a point at which the lower leaves are at their

compensation point. There is no more addition of dry matter due to the
fact that in lower leaves, photosynthesis equals respiration.

c. Leaf Area Duration (LAD) – the capacity of the leaf absorbing

surfaces to remain functional for photosynthesis. LAD = Leaf area x
Time

d. Extinction coefficient – is the measure of the loss of light intensity as

it goes from the top of the canopy to the lower portion. If the extinction
coefficient is high, the higher is the radiation intensity that is wasted
due to less energy absorption by a given surface of the leaves.

e. Light Saturation Point – refers to an increase in light intensity that is

not followed by a corresponding increase in the rate of photosynthesis.

3. Photoperiod

A major effect of light on plants is caused by differences in daylength or

photoperiod. Days are longest in June and shortest in December and or
intermediate length between these dates. The length of day required to stimulate,
delay or prevent flowering is controlled by genes and therefore, dependent on the
variety.

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2. TEMPERATURE

The temperature is very closely related to light. Both are derived from the same
source, the emission of electromagnetic radiation by the sun. However, light and
temperature differ because certain wavelength of radiation can be seen and observed
by the naked eye (visible light) while adjacent wavelengths cannot be seen are best
detected as heat by man’s sense of feel. A certain rule stated that for every increase of
the temperature by 10oC, the rate of biochemical reactions are doubled provided that
temperature ranges are within 5oC to 35oC.

Temperature Regime:
1. Optimum temperature – temperature at which plant growth is best which
means rapid growth (rapid cell division) and rapid utilization of more CHO.

2. Below optimum – slower cell division and slower rate of photosynthesis.

Little amount of energy (CHO) produced or less heat is absorbed by the
chlorophyll.

3. Above optimum
a. Very high respiration rate
b. Loss of chlorophyll content
c. enzyme activity stops

The Role of Temperature

Temperature determines the diffusion rates of gases and liquids in plant system.
As temperature decreases, the viscosity of water increases, hence the rate of
absorption slows down.

Solubility of various substances is temperature dependent. Carbon dioxide is

twice as soluble in cold water as it is in warm water. The inverse is true for most solids
like sugar. It is much more soluble in warm than in cold water.

The rate of reaction is affected by temperature. Usually the higher the

temperature, the faster the reaction with certain limits. The physiological limit of
temperature is 5 to 35oC.

Temperature affects the stability of enzyme systems:

o At optimal temperature, enzyme systems function well and remain stable

for long period of time.

o At high temperature, they completely breakdown.

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3. ATMOSPHERIC GASES

All gases, solid and liquid present in the air that influence plant growth are factors
of the atmospheric environment.

a. Oxygen is required for respiration of all living organisms. It constitutes 20%

in the air.

b. Carbon dioxide – along with water is the major chemical building blocks
used in photosynthesis and plant growth. It makes up 0.03% of the air.

c. Nitrogen – constitutes 70% of the air but gaseous nitrogen is inert and exert
a little influence upon the growth of plants not until it is converted to ammonia
(NH4) or nitrate (NO3) forms in the soil or not until these chemical form
nitrogen are added to the soil as fertilizers.

4. SOIL Factors

Besides providing the physical support and anchorage for the plants, the soil is
the major source of minerals and water used by the plants. Variations in soil conditions
and mineral content affects plant growth.

Nutrient content – For successful crop production (in general) N, P, and K

contents in the soil must be adjusted regularly to suit to what is required by the plants by
adding either commercial fertilizer or animal manures. Mineral elements needed by the
plants in lesser quantities (micronutrients) may be added too.

Physiological Disorders
These are caused by non-parasitic agents. Non-infectious diseases are
recognized by their symptoms. A knowledge of the soil condition, temperature ranges
and the weather immediately before and during disease occurrence and other
environmental factors are often necessary for correct diagnosis.

The most common physiological disorders are as follows:

1. Diseases caused by too low temperature

a. freezing injury which is common is areas where temperature gets down

to below) degree Celsius due to the formation of ice crystal
inter/intracellularly which kills the cells

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 b. chilling injury – occurs at low temperature slightly above freezing point.
Tropical fruits and vegetables are susceptible. Symptoms are pitting and
water soaking, predisposed to anthracnose and alternaria fruit rot.

2. Diseases caused by too high temperature

a. sunscald – fruits/vegetables exposed to high temperature and bright
sunlight. Affected area exhibits light colored, blistered or
discoloration of the skin

b. heat necrosis – ex. are potatoes grown in light soils where it is

hot and dry; characterized by yellowing or browning of the skin

3. Lack of oxygen
a. blackheart – the internal tissue becomes black, common in water-logged
and poorly aerated storage areas

4. Too much/little of light

a. etiolation – due to inadequate light; increase susceptibility to non-obligate
parasites

b. scorching/sunscalding – too much light along with high temperature

5. adverse meteorological condition

ex. strong winds, heavy rains, lightning, etc

6. air pollutants – any factor mediated by the atmosphere that causes unwanted effect.
These are gases and particulates (dusts, soot and ashes). It inhibits plant growth
causing acute diseases causes deleterious effect in plants.

Sources of air pollutants are:

a. ethylene – a plant hormone in proper concentration at the right time

effect : premature senescence, etiolation, flower drop, leaf
malformation
source: motor vehicle exhaust (common in large cities)

b. nitrogen oxides – combustion of coal, gasoline, natural gas and fuel oil
effect :irregular brown or white lesions along leaf margins and between
veins
source: automobile exhaust

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 c. peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs) – when nitrogen oxides undergo
photochemical reaction with gaseous hydrocarbons to form ozone
and PANs
effect: plasmolysis the spongy mesophyll and lower epidermal cells
followed by dehydration and the filling up of empty spaces with air
source: smog of large cities

d. other air pollutants

 chlorine
 sulfur dioxide
 fluorides
 hydrogen chloride

7. diseases caused by mineral deficiency

a. N deficiency – chlorotic leaves, dwarfing, defoliation, poor seed and

fruit production

b. P deficiency – subnormal roots, leaves are erect, small necrotic, reddish, or

purplish tinged in cereals

c. K deficiency – tips of leaves become chlorotic, tips and margins appear

scorched, leaves develop bronzing and marginal scorching; turning
reddish brown and dying

d. Mg deficiency – chlorosis first appear on older leaves; necrotic lesions

may develop

e. Fe deficiency – general chlorosis; leaves colorless; mottling and die-

back of twigs
f. Mn deficiency - chlorosis and scattered necrotic spots on young
tissues; dwarfing and premature death

g. S deficiency – yellowing of leaves and die-back

a. B deficiency – poor growth, young growing parts become yellowish

and terminal shoots die

b. Cu deficiency – die-back of leaf tips; wilting, stunting, distortion of

certain plant parts

c. Zn deficiency – mottled chlorosis followed by necrosis and defoliation,

die-back of twigs of fruit trees, and abnormal shortening of growing parts

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 k. Co deficiency – leaf mesophyll tissues, stems and flower stalks collapse and
growing points may be killed; roots poorly developed

l. Mo deficiency – leaf blades do not develop leaving the midribs bare

8. excess of nutrients

Diseases:

a. luxuriant vegetative growth (too much nitrogen)

b. necrosis and dwarfing (too much boron)
c. stunting and death of plant (too much copper)
d. burning of leaf margins, tips, bronzing and premature defoliation (excess
chloride)
9. Unfavorable pH
High pH (alkaline) affects the availability of calcium minerals required for
plant growth.
Low pH (acidic) can cause the accumulation of toxic levels of iron and other
elements.

10. improper agricultural practices

a. too high concentrations of pesticides
b. excessive fertilizer application
c. inadequate or too little watering
d. too deep cultivation

11. improper use of pesticides

Symptoms:
a. yellowing of leaves
b. drying of leaves
a. distortion of new leaves

12. lack or excess of soil moisture

Inadequate moisture causes temporary or permanent wilting of plants. Irregular
water supply causes blossom-end rot and growth cracks in tomato.

Flooding results in reducing the plants oxygen supply and weakening the
root system.

13. naturally occurring toxic chemicals – substances produced by other plants and toxic
to other plants

a. juglone formed by walnut that is toxic to potatoes, tomatoes and apples

b. amygladin produced by old peach roots is broken down to toxic hydrogen
cyanide and benzaldehyde which are lethal to new peach trees

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B. BIOTIC Factors
All life forms existing around the immediate vicinity of the crop are considered
biotic factors. Soil microorganisms, plant diseases, insects, weeds and other animals
constitute the crop’s biotic environment. Most of them compete with the crop for space,
food, water and light, but a number of agronomic crops also greatly benefit from the
activities of beneficial organisms.

Beneficial Organisms:

1. Pollinators: a number of agronomic crops greatly benefit from pollinators such as

bees, wasps, butterflies and moths. Specifically bees and other insects belonging to
Family Hymenoptera enhance natural pollination and fruit set. For crops which produce
separate male and female flowers and those which are dioecious, these organisms
increase the chances of pollination and increasing yield.

2. Nitrogen fixers – Legumes are capable of fixing nitrogen (n2) in the soil into NH4
(ammonia) which is the usable form of nitrogen. This is done by an unusual relationship
between the bacterium Rhizobium and the roots of legumes. The rhizobium infected
the roots causing the formation of root nodules or wet tubercles. The bacteria are the
actual agents for fixing the nitrogen.

3. Natural enemies of pests. These includes parasites and predators that attack and
kill pests of crops and are called as biological control agents (biocon). They are
regarded as beneficials because they help reduce the pest population.

c. Decomposers. These includes saprophytic bacteria, fungi and certain animals that
obtain nutrition by breaking down dead organic matter.

5. Mycorrhizae. These are species of fungi which are associated with plant roots and
help in nutrient uptake. These fungi also secrete growth factors (hormones) that
stimulate roots to grow and branch.

Pests

1. Insects – The destructive insects affect the yield of crops by feeding on the
leaves sucking cell saps and in some cases carrying disease-causing organisms
which are transferred to other plants. As a result, the area for photosynthesis is
reduced, plants are curled and under severe cases, the whole plant is totally
consumed. These lead to a considerable reductions in yields and quality of the
produce.

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 2. Diseases. Diseases are injurious physiological processes caused by the
continued irritation of a primary causal factors such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes,
mycoplasmas, viruses, viroids, rickettsias, protozoa and other parasitic higher
plants.

3. Weeds. These are plants growing where it is not desired. Plants that are
generally useless, unwanted, and undesirable because they compete with the
crop for resources such as sunlight, water and soil nutrients. Based on gross
morphology, weeds are described as grasses (Family Graminae), sedges
(Family Cyperaceae) and broadleaves (other families). Grasses have well-
defined nodes and internodes on their culm (stems). The stems are rounded and
the leaves are parallel in venation. The parts of the leaf are the leaf sheath and
the blade. Sedges bear close resemblance to the grasses however they
have triangular stems. Broadleaves are identified by their fully expanded, broad
leaf structure with netted venation.

4. Invertebrate and vertebrate pests. These includes the rodents, snails, and
astray animals. Rodents are serious pests in developing countries of the world.
Among the crops, rice is the most affected through spillage and or actual
consumption. The most common species of rats infesting rice fields in the
Philippines are the Rattus argentiventer, R.r. mindanensis and R. exulans. Yield
loss estimates ranges from 5-60%. Snails, golden apple snails (Pomacea
caniculata) has become a nuisance in rice fields ever since its introduction in the
early 1980s. They have efficient survival mechanisms under varying
environmental conditions. They are active when moisture is present and in the
absence of water, they burrow deep into the soil and hibernate until such time
when moisture becomes available.

C. GENETIC FACTORS

This refers to the genetic composition of a cell or an organism while phenotype is

the physical expression of the genes present in an organisms. Although the physical
expression of the genes may be influenced by the environment because of their
interaction, i.e. when the environment is not favorable, the genes may not be expressed
or its expression is modified. On the other hand, when the environment is favorable but
the genes are not present, the desired genotype will not be expressed. Therefore, the
phenotype of an organism is the product of the interaction of its genes and its
environment.

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) specifically GM crops are varieties which

were inserted or added with new traits through artificial gene transfer using tools and
techniques of modern biotechnology. The artificial gene transfer is referred to as
genetic engineering. The top 5 GM crops are Bt corn, Bt cotton, herbicide-tolerant
canola, herbicide-tolerant maize or corn and virus-resistant papaya.

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 Bt stands for Bacillus thuringiensis, a microorganism which is the source of the
resistance genes for lepidopterans. This gene from Bt forms protein crystals that are
toxic to the target Lepidopteran insets like corn borer. Bt crops therefore have the
resistance because they can now produce or synthesize their own insecticides against
the target insect pests.

Other examples of GM crops are delayed ripening of tomato (FlavrSvr), Bt rice,

golden rice (fortified with beta carotene) which is the precursor of Vitamin A, Bt corn and
low fat absorbing potato for French fries.

D. HUMAN FACTORS

Preference of farmers – The farmer is the basic input in every crop production.
Its success largely depends on what kind or what type of farmer is in question. Not all
farmers are receptive to new technologies and they have that wait and see attitudes.

Capability of the farmers – Capital is a grave problem for most of the

subsistence farmers that is why they do not have the liberty to practice crop production
to the best that they can. This concerns is further aggravated when they are not open
to other alternatives.

Cultural practices. Most Filipinos are deeply religious and many of our religious
beliefs have influenced our way of crop production. There are still farming communities
that practice rituals before planting their crops. Too much belief on traditional
knowledge may often hinder us from being receptive to better approaches in crop
production that are more sustainable and productive.

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