Journal of Humanistic Mathematics

Volume 9 | Issue 1 January 2019

cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

Maria Mannone

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cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

Cover Page Footnote

Maria Mannone is an Italian theoretical physicist and a composer. She achieved her Ph.D. in Composition
at the University of Minnesota.

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cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

Maria Mannone1

Palermo, ITALY
[email protected]

Synopsis

Mathematics can help investigate hidden patterns and structures in music and
visual arts. Also, math in and of itself possesses an intrinsic beauty. We can
explore such a specific beauty through the comparison of objects and processes
in math with objects and processes in the arts. Recent experimental studies
investigate the aesthetics of mathematical proofs compared to those of music.
We can contextualize these studies within the framework of category theory
applied to the arts (cARTegory theory), thanks to the helpfulness of categories
for the analysis of transformations and transformations of transformations. This
approach can be effective for the pedagogy of mathematics, mathematical music
theory, and STEAM.

Keywords: proof; elegance; crossmodal correspondences; gestural similarity;

categories

1. Introduction: The Math of Art, the Art of Math

If we leaf through Byrne’s edition of the Euclid’s Elements, beautifully illus-

trated, we first think of some Mondrian artworks [3]. Even if the result may
appear as a collection of abstract paintings, Byrne’s intention was merely
pedagogical: he aimed to make a visual aid for learning, an enjoyable tool
to diminish the effort and shorten the time spent by students to study the
Elements.

1
Maria Mannone is an Italian theoretical physicist and a composer. She achieved her
Ph.D. in Composition at the University of Minnesota.

Journal of Humanistic Mathematics Volume 9 Number 1 (January 2019)

278 cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

Art can be helpful in teaching mathematics through examples that include

visuals, music, and story-telling. A famous story helps us imagine being lifted
to higher geometric dimensions, as in the case of Flatland, a story that also
appears as a social satire through an enjoyable geometric metaphor [1].
Mathematics can use resources from figurative and abstract visual art: we
could also start teaching mathematical concepts from a collection of contem-
porary Fine Arts works. Even some conceptual and abstract art can embody
mathematical concepts [35], possibly independently from the artist’s inten-
tion.
Art can also help students get rid of their fear of mathematics. This is helpful
in the practice of teaching. During a psychology-of-mathematics experiment,
researchers asked prospective math teachers and elementary school students
to represent mathematics through a metaphor, an animal, or a monster [25].
The answers embodied both students’ and prospective teachers’ fears. After
training, the outcome was less frightening, and probably, for the subjects
involved in the experiment, future teaching will be more effective.
From elementary education to university classes, mathematics is sometimes
loved and sometimes feared. According to some scholars, there is a need for
a new way to convey mathematical content, beyond the formalism and the
rigor [32]. According to [29], sometimes a (temporary) lack of rigor can be
helpful if we are dealing with a cutting-edge concept, method, or frontier of
research. Arts, and even humor, can be a way to convey passion about the
field and surprise for mathematical methods, results, and way of thinking,
as illustrated by the stand-up mathematician Matt Parker during his public
lectures.
The aspects of entertainment, enjoyment, comparison of arts and nature can
stimulate students’ learning, and help them see the world in a new light. A
classic book about Symmetry takes the ground from beautiful shapes and
patterns in nature and the arts [40]. In this book, the author, Hermann
Weyl, recalls the image of the Triskelion and Monreale mosaics in Sicily.2
These sources inspired Escher, the celebrated artist who spent several years
in Southern Italy, and whose woodcuts illustrate several math books and
have given inspiration to generations of mathematical artists.

2
As pointed out by Weyl, mathematicians were familiar with the Triskelion because it
was the symbol of the journal Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo.
 Maria C. Mannone 279

Connections between art and mathematics are not only limited to objects;
they also include the transformations of some visual or musical material.
Transformational processes in the context of the arts are discussed by the
composer Salvatore Sciarrino [36]. Even if the mathematical reference is
limited to simple operations such as addition or multiplication, we can inves-
tigate and formalize these examples in the framework of categories. Category
theory is a branch of mathematics born to formalize generic transformations
and transformations between transformations. It has also been applied to
music, including to the description of musical gestures [27, 9, 8].
The concept of transformation can be framed in mathematical discourse,
as well as in discourse on a theory of arts. The connecting ideas are also
suitable for applications in mathematical pedagogy: the math within arts
and the art within math allow us to teach math starting from the arts. The
pedagogy of mathematics can be related to education in mathematical music
theory. In this field, one of the main challenges is accessibility [41]: in fact,
the popularization of topics — and their connection with other areas — can
be a helpful tool to overcome difficulties generated by the need of specialized
knowledge and high skills to access math-musical interdisciplinary research
[30, 41]. With a well-organized popularization strategy, a broader audience
can get acquainted with both math and music. The same applies to the
more general pedagogy of STEAM, where the abstract power of categories
can help connecting objects and processes from different research areas.
Moreover, the employment of games, by using adequate tools, can also facil-
itate math learning and, at the same time, it can constitute a source and an
opportunity for enjoyment. The well-known Rubik’s cube was invented as a
teaching tool to visualize and introduce group theory. A musical application
of Rubik’s cube, the CubeHarmonic,3 can be used as a teaching tool in the
context of mathematical music theory, joining, in a tangible device, group
theory and chord permutations [23].
In mathematical research, aesthetic enjoyment and investigation play a rel-
evant role. According to Poincaré, aesthetics of mathematical ideas may

3
The CubeHarmonic was first thought of by Maria Mannone in 2013 during her studies
of mathematics and music in Paris, and first published in a math-music textbook [28]. The
CubeHarmonic is currently under development as a physical device and a real musical
instrument, in collaboration with the Tohoku University in Japan [24].
280 cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

lead to more productive results [33, 37]. Elegance and aesthetic qualities in
mathematics are often emphasized [7]. In the same way, the importance of
aesthetics in the “making” of mathematics is highlighted [6]. Aesthetic judg-
ments may be relevant also in the search for new proofs of existing theorems
[12], preferring the most beautiful and simplest proofs [26], and appreciating
the aesthetic pleasure of a perfect solution [34]. As it happens for the arts,
the style of mathematical proofs, too, can depend on the historical period
and on the specific personalities of scientists. For example, we find reciprocal
influences between Archimedes’ mathematical work and the Hellenistic art
style [31].
In this article I consider a recent study [10, 11] on the aesthetic psychology
of mathematics within the framework of category theory applied to the arts.
I use the framework of current research on cARTegory theory [19, 20], that
is, the application of basic concepts of category theory to the arts, to include
theoretical concepts and to connect elements of music and visual arts. Some
examples of application involve the categorical description of a spherical in-
florescence [20] and of the pangolin’s armor sonification.4 See Figure 1 for
the pangolin and Figure 2 for the flowers. According to this approach, which
constitutes a development of the mathematical theory of musical gestures,
the gesture is seen as a common generator of both images and sounds and
helps us define gestural similarity.5 Recent research on mathematical theory
of musical gestures also involves knots, networks, and tensor categories [22],
because, as said above, mathematics can describe elements of the arts, and,
vice versa, the arts can help describe characteristics and methods of math.

4
The pangolin is a particular mammal with keratin scale armor.
5
Let us summarize what gestural similarity is [19]. In music, a crescendo can be
seen as a transformation between two loudness levels, and an accelerando transforms a
slower crescendo into a faster crescendo. Two musical gestures are defined as similar if the
performer’s movements have visual analogies in their respective spaces — e.g., a hitting of
the piano in a forte, a strong hitting in timpani playing, an intense air emission for trumpet
— that induce similar transformations in their respective sound spectra — e.g., a ‘forte’
loudness/timbre effect for piano, timpani, and trumpet. A visual shape and a musical
fragment are similar if their gestural generators are similar — e.g., a detached movement
in piano playing and a detached movement of a pencil making points on a paper — and
their effect present crossmodal correspondences — e.g., a collection of staccato notes and
isolated dots. Two gestures can be similar concerning some components, and not for
others. We can also define a degree of similarity, for example as a value comprised within
[0, 1].
 Maria C. Mannone 281

Figure 1: The pangolin is a mammal that, when it is scared, curls up into an armored
ball. In the image, the figure of the closed pangolin is reconstructed starting from a single
scale and following a sequence of transformations. Each black arrow in the left half of the
image corresponds to a morphism in the category “scales” or, better, “visual fragments”.
In the right half of the image, there is a sequence of musical fragments and musical trans-
formations, which belong to the category of musical fragments. Each musical fragment
is derived from visuals. The sequence of black (musical) arrows represents a sequence
of musical transformations, which are the musical transposition of visual transformations
discussed before. Red arrows transform scales and their combinations into musical frag-
ments, and green arrows transform visual morphisms into musical morphisms. Thus, red
and green arrows describe the action of a functor, that is, the sonification functor [23].
Drawings and music by M. Mannone.
282 cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

Category theory, thanks to its abstraction power, seems particularly suitable

to describe and compare artistic methods. Let us focus on music: while
the mathematical theory of music aims to mathematically describe forms,
structures, and practice of music, we may use music, as well as visual arts, to
capture some essential mechanisms in mathematics. Also, we can recursively
use mathematics to describe the artistic aspect that is inside mathematics
itself. This would lead us to both the “Math of Art” and the “Art of Math”!
This article is organized in the following way. In Section 2, I summarize
the main points of recent research on mathematics and aesthetics [10, 11].
In this framework I introduce the categorical contextualization that is the
focus of the article, referring to some elements of Gestalt analysis of music
and visual arts. Section 3 concludes the paper with a view toward further
research, both from the mathematical as well as musical point of view.

2. This proof . . . sounds good!

A category is given by objects and morphisms between them [17]. In dia-

grams, objects are represented by points and morphisms by arrows. Mor-
phisms verify the associative and identity properties. Morphisms between
two categories connect objects of the first category with objects of the sec-
ond category and morphisms of the first category with morphisms of the
second category. Morphisms between categories are called functors. If we
have two functors F and G, a natural transformation is defined from F to
G; see Figure 2 for a natural — and naturalistic — depiction.6 Categories
may help connect mathematics with other disciplines, and to compare their
methods, styles, maybe also aesthetics. But . . . is it possible to quantitatively
approach aesthetics in mathematics?
In [10, 11], Samuel Johnson and Stefan Steinerberger tried to determine if
there might be some quantitative explanation behind statements such as
“this theorem is elegant” et similia. The authors first picked four mathe-
matical proofs, easy enough to be understood and also appreciated by non-

6
In category theory, a natural transformation allows the comparison between the action
of a functor and the action of another functor. As an intuitive example, we can look at the
different shapes of the inflorescences in Figure 2. The natural transformation α transforms
the action of S into the action of H: α : S → H; in the flower example, it transforms the
spherical shape into the ellipsoidal shape.
 Maria C. Mannone 283

Figure 2: A floral representation of functors and natural transformations [20]. This

is inspired by the spherical inflorescences of the Southern globe thistle, Echinops Ritro.
Functor S brings single (simplified) flowers (objects of the category single flowers) into
spheres of flowers as in the product flower × sphere (objects of the category spheres of
flowers). Functor H creates an imaginary variation, an ellipsoidal inflorescence. Natu-
ral transformation α accounts for the shape difference between spherical and ellipsoidal
inflorescences. Drawings by M. Mannone.

mathematicians. Then, they asked the participants to establish a relationship

and assign a grade of similarity between each mathematical proof and the
beginning of a short musical piece selected among four choices, and more-
over between each mathematical proof and a painting selected among four
choices. Experimental material included piano pieces of different genre, and
landscape images. Landscapes are not traditionally compared with math-
ematics, and this set to zero any bias for the experiment. The similarity
degree values ranged from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 10.
Data analysis revealed significant correlations between specific proof styles
and music styles, and between proof styles and painting styles, with stronger
correlations between proofs and musical pieces. Experimental subjects were
professional mathematicians, math students, and non-specialists. The au-
thors found analogies between the answers of mathematicians and math
students; however, also the results given by laymen-data analysis revealed
significant correspondences between proof-styles and artwork-styles.
Using abstract artwork might lead to an interesting extension of the exper-
iments above, as well as the comparison with “atomic elements” — in the
sense of “essential elements” — taken from visuals and musical pieces, such
as an isolated chord sequence, or unexpected articulation change.
284 cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

The research by Johnson and Steinerberger [10, 11] aims to find similarities
between the structure and style of a mathematical proof, a musical piece,
and a painting. This process of comparison can be analyzed in light of the
categorical formalism I have been working on in recent works [20, 22]. Let
us consider Figure 3.

Figure 3: A categorical depiction of steps and transformations in a mathematical proof,

steps and transformations within a musical piece, and their connection as well as possible
structural similarities.

On the left, we have a simple three-step mathematical proof. On the right,

we have a three-step musical fragment. In the mathematical proof, each
step is connected with the following one through transformations called pro-
cess 1 and process 2, respectively. If these two transformations are iden-
tical, then the arrow change of process will be an identity. On the musi-
cal side, the steps might correspond to musical sequences, musical chords,
some musical elements that are transformed the one into the other through
a musical process 1 and process 2. Also in this case, if these two trans-
formations are identical, the arrow change of process will be an identity.
 Maria C. Mannone 285

Because associative and identity properties are verified,7 mathematical steps

and processes belong to the category math proof, while musical fragments
and their transformations belong to the category musical piece. It is worth
mentioning that we are not considering an entire musical piece, but parts of
it, though. Blue and red arrows represent the action of an imaginary functor
of “structure translation” from math processes to musical processes. Blue
arrows represent the translation of objects, while the red arrows the transla-
tion of processes. While translating processes, we can investigate about their
similarity of mechanisms. We can compare the same mathematical proof
with musical sequences, ideally defining different functors, and the differ-
ences between these functors can be formalized by natural transformations.
Data collection and analysis conducted by Johnson and Steinerberger can
be framed in terms of natural transformations. The authors evaluated the
similarity degree between mathematical and musical processes. We could
make an equivalent diagram by using ‘abstract’ visual transformations, or
some transformations extracted from an existing painting. Mathematical
objects and musical objects, connected by blue arrows, may or may not
present analogies. However, this is not fundamental for our research, because
we are here more focused on transformational processes.
In the lower part of Figure 3, we see the arrows “processes” as points, and, on
the bottom right, we have a metaphorical exemplification of the partial trace
concept from quantum physics [2]. Let us consider a state that describes the
configuration of a system and its environment. If we perform the operation of
trace with respect to the environment, we are left with the system only, and
vice versa. Let us suppose that we can perform an operation equivalent to the
trace operation on the processes of Figure 3. If we “trace” a mathematical
process on math, we get the basic idea of the process; at the same time, if we
“trace” a musical process on music, we get the basic idea of that process, too.8

7
Combining mathematical steps we get mathematical steps and mathematical objects,
thus objects and morphisms are still in the same category, and the associative property is
verified. The identity process is defined; the same is true for musical transformations.
8
We can see such a “trace operation” as an extraction of essential information, as a
filtering. If our object of study is a process, a “trace” of it gives the essential information
about the given process: this is a “filtered process”, obtained via some “filtering process”.
In this way, the comparison between different processes can be reduced to an analysis and
comparison of their filtered versions.
286 cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

If we have a high degree of similarity between the considered mathematical

process and the considered musical process, we would expect to have an
equality of their basic ideas. Or, more realistically, an equality up to an
isomorphism.9 By “tracing” on the specific medium — visual arts, music,
or a mathematical proof — we can find essential elements of sequences of
transformations, and we can compare them, finding their similarities. This
would constitute a theoretical framework to contextualize data analysis in
[10, 11]. In [11], the authors explicitly talk about similarity with music.
A musical piece can be seen as a process, as an entity developing in time.
However, an image is not usually seen as an entity in time. If we “scan”
an image, we explore it through time, thus we add a temporal dimension.
More broadly, think here of the “making” of an image, with the creation of a
whole starting from one element, as a collection of steps to paper-and-pencil
drawing an image. Once we have such a building process, we can translate
it into music.10
In Figure 4, the mechanism described in Figure 3 is applied to a simple case.
On the left is a categorical representation of the proof scheme for the sum
of infinite geometric series through half-cutting a square. This is the first
example provided in [11]. On the right is a sequence of musical duration
values, from a whole note to a quarter note. On the left, we are in the
category of mathematical objects; on the right, we are in the category of
music. The similarity of processes is evident, with a musical equivalent of
“taking the half” applied to musical duration. When we consider processes
as points, and we perform a trace-like operation with respect to math or
music respectively, we lose all but the main, essential idea of “taking half”.
We could make a corresponding analysis with visual arts: for example, a
representation of the complete human body that is little by little reduced
to the representation of isolated parts, or the repetition of the same shape
whose size is taken progressively smaller by half.
This can be connected with the concept of musical gesture in the follow-
ing manner: a shorter note requires a shorter permanence of the hand on
the keyboard or an earlier interruption of the air stream for a wind player.

9
The expression “up to an isomorphism” is quite used in category theory, where the
notion of equality is weakened in favor of a more flexible, and general, concept.
10
See the musical rendition of the pangolin, Figure 1.
 Maria C. Mannone 287

Figure 4: An application of the abstract diagrams shown in Figure 3.

In mathematics, a geometrical transformation might be seen as the result of

a movement, an action. This is a concept already present in Gilles Châtelet’s
work [4]. Taking half of a square makes us thinking of the action of half-
folding a paper, or cutting it into two equal parts.
The analogies between the beauty that is inside a mathematical structure
and within a piece of art stimulate more deep questions about cognition, in
particular about Gestalt (meaning “shape, figure, form” in German). Gestalt
psychology is a theory of cognition aiming to explain how we can perceive a
whole as more than the sum of its parts. (See [13] for one of the foundational
texts.) There are several studies in the field of shape perception of a mu-
sical piece or of a visual artwork, and in particular, about musical versions
of Gestalt laws [16]. Translations from music to visual arts (visualization)
and vice versa (sonification) can be framed in a categorical context (see Fig-
ure 1) and be the object of a joint mathematical-cognitive research [21, 22].
288 cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

Such a formalization would especially regard the similarity between initial

and final objects, and the possibility to keep an “essential Gestalt” during
such a translational process. We can wonder if an artwork could be “Gestalt-
invariant”, i.e., if its shape/main aesthetic content could remain unchanged
during a medium translation. This implies that the main shape and aesthetic
content of an artwork could be independent of the specific media chosen: a
piano piece, a fresco painting, or a black and white picture. We can make
music out of a snail shell, a mathematical conchoid: the music reproduces
the “getting closer” of the shell’s spirals, through shortening of silence and
approaching of the pitch.11 In this sense, we are keeping the main idea of the
conchoid from the domain of visuals to the domain of sounds, through an
opportune mapping of its mathematical definition via a 3-component para-
metric equation [18, 28]. We can explain the eventual analogies between
mathematical steps and visual steps through crossmodal correspondences [38]
and the identification of audiovisual objects [14], as well as gestural similarity
[19]. We can build networks of similar images and sounds and investigate
their connections [21].
If we shift our attention from visual/auditory objects to visual/auditory
transformations, in categorical terms we are focusing not on points but on
arrows. Investigating similarities between processes means examining trans-
formations of transformations. In this way, we can analyze the style of a
mathematical proof. It means finding how some given mathematical objects
are modified from the beginning to the end of a proof, and how the arrows
differ, e.g., how a process between two steps differs from a process between
other two steps. Because transformational processes in arts are relevant for
the definition of style — let us think of the theme treatment in a Beethoven’s
symphony or in an Italian opera aria — we can investigate the Gestalt not
only of objects but also of morphisms.
We can wonder if the style of a mathematical proof can be labeled with some
sort of Mathematical Gestalt. If this is true, we can use basic concepts of
category theory to describe Gestalt translations between artistic media and
to investigate the Gestalt of a proof.

11
We can have different musical renditions of the same snail-shell according to the
choice of mapping or of the composition style, however, an effective musical rendition of
the same snail’s shell should evoke the described effect of progressively approaching of
points.
 Maria C. Mannone 289

In mathematics, the concept of the envelope is well-defined. This might be

related to Gestalt: we see some elements, but we also perceive the overall
shape they belong to, or they create. In the Gestalt examples, the contour
can be recreated by the mind: in the Kanizsa triangle, there is no real white
triangle, but our mind builds it obeying to the law of the “good shape”. In
visual arts, we can have a collection of small images that, taken together,
constitute a new image: this is the case of Arcimboldo portraits, for ex-
ample. In music, we can have micro-meaningful unities that, when overall
considered, constitute a clearly-identifiable structure. In the mathematical
theory of musical gestures, the concept of gesture of gestures is an equivalent
of this [27], and it has been extended to visual arts and higher categories
[22]. In a mathematical proof, we can distinguish between the detail of every
single step, of every single transformation/process between two steps, and
the overall structure constituted by the whole sequence of transformations.
This might be seen as an equivalent of the concept of the envelope, and it
may be helpful to identify some stylistic features within more structured and
complex proofs. A higher-level Gestalt, that is, some hypergestural structure
in a mathematical proof-style, easily envisaged in higher-categories, may be
an object of future research.

3. Conclusion and further research

This article started from a recent study in the field of aesthetics of mathemat-
ics, attempting to give a quantitative meaning to qualitative statements such
as “this is an elegant mathematical proof” [11]. The authors therein quantita-
tively compared mathematicians’, students’, and laymen’s judgements about
similarity between simple mathematical proofs, musical pieces, and paintings
[10]. Here I contextualized this research within a categorical framework that
had been applied to musical performance theory [19, 22], and to music/visual
arts comparisons [22, 21]. In fact, the stylistic similarities between mathe-
matical proofs and artistic materials can be envisaged not in the “matter” —
mathematical objects are usually not directly related with musical themes,
or landscape features — but instead in their transformational processes. In
this sense, we can approach the structure of a musical piece or of a paint-
ing through the lenses of mathematical processes, as suggested by Salvatore
290 cARTegory Theory: Framing Aesthetics of Mathematics

Sciarrino12 [36]. The formalism that naturally allows us to compare trans-

formations, and thus to investigate transformations of transformations, is
category theory. To illustrate this, I began first by framing a general struc-
ture (Figure 3), and then offering a very simple application (Figure 4), in
order to contextualize a comparison between a generic mathematical proof
and a sequence of generic musical elements within the diagrammatic think-
ing. My goal throughout has been to initiate a deeper discussion between
categorical thinking and cognition.
Future research may involve more advanced categorical concepts through
intuitive musical examples. A possible starting point for new studies is the
categorical notion of subobject classifier and truth values [17]. In the case
of sets, we say that the object a belongs to the subgroup A0 of set A by
attributing a truth value 1 (true) or 0 (false). In music: Is this musical
gesture a subobject of “staccato”? A characteristic function gives the answer.
When we deal with degrees of similarities, our truth set extends from {0, 1}
to the whole interval [0, 1]. We can ask how far is an object a from the
objects of A0 ? and we can define a distance, and how much does the object
a belongs to A0 ?, and we can define a fuzzy inclusion. We need classifiers
and also degrees of inclusion, that are easily defined in a machine learning
framework. This would constitute a development of pioneering research in
category theory applied to machine learning [5].
Further theoretical developments would involve the use of fractals with their
self-similarity, which can be expressed through loop arrows in a categorical
framework, as well as with the formalism of attractors and fixed points [15,
39].
Other developments may involve composition and cognition experiments. We
can compose a musical piece based on a mathematical proof. Provocatively,
we may wonder about some “Beethoven’s Fifth Theorem” or “Fermat’s Last
Symphony”. We can take a “good” or “beautiful” proof, and we can make a
musical piece out of it, by using the sequence of transformations as a list of
composition techniques and instructions. Then, we can ask non-specialists
what do they think of it. We can ask a group of composers to write musical

12
Sciarrino’s musical works are well-known worldwide, but unfortunately this is not
true for his book Le Figure della Musica, that has never been translated into English, and
it was not reprinted.
 Maria C. Mannone 291

pieces based upon specific proof styles. Then, we can quantitatively measure
the (expected) similarities between pieces derived from the same theorem,
and we can ask listeners, selected among professional mathematicians, math
students, and laymen, to match proofs/musical pieces and to assign them
a degree of similarity, e.g., a real number between 0 and 1, or a natural
number between 0 and 10 as in former experiments. Finally, the obtained
results and the developed research methods can be used as teaching materials
for mathematics and music classes.
Of course, hidden mathematical beauty cannot be completely unrevealed
through simple experiments or measures. However, this work can help even
more appreciate the potentiality of math to describe art, and also the richness
of art hidden in mathematics.

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