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SURFACE TENSION & VISCOSITY

THEORY AND EXERCISE BOOKLET

CONTENTS

S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. Cohesive & Adhesive Force ..................................................... 3

2. Surface Tension ................................................................. 3 – 6

3. Contact Angle and Shape of liquid Surface ................................ 7

4. Capillary Rise .................................................................... 7 – 11

5. Viscosity and Newtons' law of viscous force .......................... 11 – 12

6. Stokes law .......................................................................... 12

7. Terminal Velocity (VT) ............................................................ 13

8. Exercise - 1 ...................................................................... 14 – 18

9. Exercise - 2 ...................................................................... 19 - 22

10. Exercise - 3 .................................................................... 23 – 24

11. Answer key ....................................................................... 24

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Syllabus :

Surface energy and surface tension, capillary rise; Viscosity

(Poiseuille’s equation excluded), Stoke’s law; Terminal velocity

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1.(a) COHESIVE FORCE

The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance is called cohesive force
In case of solids, the force of cohesin is very large and due to this solids have definite shape and
size. On the other hand, the force of cohesion in case of liquids is weaker than that of solids. Hence
liquids do not have definite shape but have definite volume. The foce of cohesion is negligible in
case of gases. Because of this fact, gases have neither fixed shape nor volume.
Example.
(i) Two drops of a liquid coalesce into one when brought in mutual contact because of the
cohesive force.
(ii) It is difficult to separate two sticky plates of glass wetted with water because a large force
has to be applied against the cohesive force between the molecules of water.
(iii) It is very difficult to break a drop of mercury into small droplets because of large cohesive
force between mercury molecules.
1.(b) ADHESIVE FORCE
The force at attraction between molecules of different substances is called adhesive force
Examples.
(i) Adhesive force enables us to write on the black board with a chalk.
(ii) Adhesive force helps us to write on the paper with ink.
(iii) Large force of adhesion between cement and bricks helps us in constrution work.
(v) Fevicol and gum are used in gluing two surfaces together because of adhesive force.
2. SURFACE TENSION
The property of a liquid at rest due to which its free surface tries to have minimum surface area and
behaves as if it were under tension somewhat like a stretched elastic membrane is called surface
tension.
The molecules of the liquid exert attractive forces on each other. There is zero net force on a
molecule inside the volume of the liquid.

But a surface molecules is drawn into the volume. Thus, the

liquid tends to minimize its surface area, just as a stretched
membrane does.
Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the force acting per
unit length on either side of an imaginary line drawn on the free F F
surface of liquid, the direction of this force being pependicular
to the line and tangential to the free surface of liquid. So if F is
the force acting on one side of imaginary line of length L. then
T = (F/L)
Regarding surface tension it is worth noting that :
(1) It depends only on the nature of liquid and is independent of the area of surface or length of
line considered.
(2) It is a scalar as it has a unique direction which is not to be specified.
(3) It has dimension [ML–2] and SI units N/m while CGS unit dyne/cm, so that one MKS unit of
surface tension = 103 dyne/cm
(4) Surface tension of a liquid decreases with rise in temperature
(5) The surface tension of a liquid is very sensitive to impurities on the surface (called contami-
nation) and decreases with contamination of surface.
(6) In case of soluble impurities surface tension may increase or decrease depending on the
nature of impurity. Usually highly soluble salt such as sodium chloride increases surface
tension while sparingly soluble salt such as soap decreases surface tension.

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1.(a) COHESIVE FORCE

The force of attraction between the molecules of the same substance is called cohesive force
In case of solids, the force of cohesin is very large and due to this solids have definite shape and
size. On the other hand, the force of cohesion in case of liquids is weaker than that of solids. Hence
liquids do not have definite shape but have definite volume. The foce of cohesion is negligible in
case of gases. Because of this fact, gases have neither fixed shape nor volume.
Example.
(i) Two drops of a liquid coalesce into one when brought in mutual contact because of the
cohesive force.
(ii) It is difficult to separate two sticky plates of glass wetted with water because a large force
has to be applied against the cohesive force between the molecules of water.
(iii) It is very difficult to break a drop of mercury into small droplets because of large cohesive
force between mercury molecules.
1.(b) ADHESIVE FORCE
The force at attraction between molecules of different substances is called adhesive force
Examples.
(i) Adhesive force enables us to write on the black board with a chalk.
(ii) Adhesive force helps us to write on the paper with ink.
(iii) Large force of adhesion between cement and bricks helps us in constrution work.
(v) Fevicol and gum are used in gluing two surfaces together because of adhesive force.
2. SURFACE TENSION
The property of a liquid at rest due to which its free surface tries to have minimum surface area and
behaves as if it were under tension somewhat like a stretched elastic membrane is called surface
tension.
The molecules of the liquid exert attractive forces on each other. There is zero net force on a
molecule inside the volume of the liquid.

But a surface molecules is drawn into the volume. Thus, the

liquid tends to minimize its surface area, just as a stretched
membrane does.
Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the force acting per
unit length on either side of an imaginary line drawn on the free F F
surface of liquid, the direction of this force being pependicular
to the line and tangential to the free surface of liquid. So if F is
the force acting on one side of imaginary line of length L. then
T = (F/L)
Regarding surface tension it is worth noting that :
(1) It depends only on the nature of liquid and is independent of the area of surface or length of
line considered.
(2) It is a scalar as it has a unique direction which is not to be specified.
(3) It has dimension [ML–2] and SI units N/m while CGS unit dyne/cm, so that one MKS unit of
surface tension = 103 dyne/cm
(4) Surface tension of a liquid decreases with rise in temperature
(5) The surface tension of a liquid is very sensitive to impurities on the surface (called contami-
nation) and decreases with contamination of surface.
(6) In case of soluble impurities surface tension may increase or decrease depending on the
nature of impurity. Usually highly soluble salt such as sodium chloride increases surface
tension while sparingly soluble salt such as soap decreases surface tension.

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2.2 Excess Pressure Insider a liquid drop :

Consider a liquid drop of radius 'R' and surface tension
'T' A liquid drop has only one surface film, hence the
surface tension force is T(2R) Pin
2
Force due to inside pressure (Pin) is Pin × area i.e. Pin R Pin
similarly force due to outiside pressure (P0) is P0R2 since P0
P0
each half of the liquid drop is in equilibrium lower half shows
P0R2 + T (2R) = Pin (R2) in figure

2T
Pin – P0 = = Excess Pressure
R

2.3 Excess pressure inside a bubble

Consider a bubble of radius 'R' and surface tension 'T'. A bubble consists of two spherical surface
films with a thin layer of liquid between them.
The total surface tension force for each surface inner and outer T (2R) for a total of (2T) (2R)
Force due to inside pressure (Pin) is Pin R2 and due to outside pressure (P0) is P0R2

Pin
Pin
P0
P0
Since each half of bubble is in equilibrium (lower half shown in figure)
P0 R2 + 2T(2R) = Pin R2

4T
Pin – P0 = = Excess pressure
R
Note : (1) If we have an air bubble inside a liquid, a single surface is
formed. There is air on the concave side and liquid on the
convex side. The pressure in the concave side (that is in the
P2
air) is greater than the pressure in the convex side (that is in P1
the liquid) by an
2T
amount .
R
2T
 P2  P1 
R
The above expression has been written by assuming P1 to be constat from all sides of the bubble.
For small size bubbles this can be assumed.
(2) From the above discussion, we can make a general statement. The pressure on the concave
2T
side of a spherical liquid surface is greater than the convex side by .
R

 1 1 
3. For any curved surface excess pressure on the concave side = T  R  R  where R1 & R2 are radius
 1 2 

of curvature of the surface in two perpendicular direction of instead of liquid surface, liquid film is
given then above exression will be

 1 1 
P  2T    For spherical curved surface R1, R2
 R1 R 2 

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Ex.3 What should be the pressure inside a small air bubble of 0.1 mm radius situated just below
the water surface. Surface tension of water  7.2  102 N/m and atmospheric pressure
 1.013  105 N/m2 .
Sol. Surface tension of water T  7.2  10 2 N / m
Radius of air bubble R = 0.1 mm = 10–4 m
The excess pressure inside the air bubble is given by,
2T
P2  P1 
R
2T
 Pressure insde the air bubble, P2  P1 
R
Substiting the values, we have
2  7.2  10–2
Pr = (1.013 × 105) + = 1.027 × 103 N/m2
10–4
Ex.4 A minute spherical air bubble is rising slowly through a column of mercury contained in a
deep jar. If the radius of the bubble at a depth of 100 cm is 0.1 mm, calculate its depth where
its radius is 0.126 mm, given that the surface tension of mercury is 567 dyne/cm. Assume
that the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm of mercury.
Sol. The total pressure inside the bubble at depth h1 is (P is atmospheric pressure)
2T
 (P  h1g)   P1
r1

2T
and the total pressure inside the bubble at depth h2 is = (P + h2 g) + r = P2
2

Now, according to Boyle's Law

4 3 4
P1V1 = P2V2 where V1   r1 , and V2   r23
3 3

 2T  4 3  2T  4 3
Hence we get (P  h1g)  r  3 r1  (P  h2 g)  r  3 r2
 1   2 

 2T  3  2T  3
or, (P  h1g)   r1  (P  h2 g)   r2
 r1   r2 
Given that : h1 = 100 cm, r1 = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm, r2 = 0.126 mm = 0.0126 cm, T = 567 dyne/cm, P
= 76 cm of mercury. Substituting all the values, we get
h2 = 9.48 cm

2.4 Pressure inside a charged bubble

Consider a charged bubble of radius 'R', surface tension 'T' and surface charge density 
The total surface tension force for each surface (inner and outer) is T (2R) for a total of 2T (2R)
Force due to inside pressure (Pin) is Pin R2 and due to outside pressure (P0) is P0  R2

2
2 T (2  R) + P0 R2 = Pin R2 + R 2
20

4T 2
Pin  P0  –
R 20

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3. CONTACT ANGLE AND SHAPE OF LIQUID SURFACE

The surface of a liquid when meets a solid, such as the wall of a container, it usually curves up or
down near the solid surface. The angle which the tangent to the is called the contact angle. The
curved liquid surface at the pt. of surface of the liquid is called meniscus. The shape of the
meniscus contact of liquid surface with (convex or concave) is determined by the relative strengths
of solid cohesive and adhesive forces surface with the solid surface inside the liquid.
Glass

Q
R Water
When the adhesive force (P) between solid and liquid molecules is more than the cohesive force
(Q) between liquid-liquid molecules (as with water and glass), shape of the meniscus is concave
and the angle of contact  is less than 90º. In this case the liquid wets or adheres to the solid
surface. The resultant (R) of P and Q passes through the solid.

Glass

P
Q
R
Mercury
On the other hand when P < Q (as with glass and mercury), shape of the meniscus is convex and
the angle of contact  > 90º. The resultant (R) of P and Q in this case passes through the liquid.
Let us now see why the liquid surface bends near the contact with a solid. A liquid in equilibrium
can not sustain trangential stress. The resultant force on any small part of the surface layer must
be perpendicular to the surface at that point. Basically three forces are acting on a small part of
the liquid surface near its contact with solid. These forces are,
(i) P, attraction due to the molecule of the solid surface near it i.e. adhesive force which acts
outwards at right angle to the wall of tube.
(ii) Q, attraction due to liquid molecules near this part and i.e. cohesive force which acts at an
angle of 45º to the vertical.
We have considered very small part, so weight of that part can be ignored for better understanding.
As we have seen in the last figures, to make the resultant (R) of P and Q perpendicular to the liquid
surface the surface becomes curved (convex or concave).

Note : The angle of contact between water and clean glass is zero.
4. CAPILLARY RISE
If a tube of very narrow bore (called capillary) is dipped in a liquid, it is found that the liquid in the
capillary either ascends or descends relative to the surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called
capillarily.
In order to calculate the height to which a liquid will rise in a capaillary, consider a glass capillary of
radius R dipped in water as shown in Fig. shown. As the meniscus is concave and nearly spherical,
the pressure below the meniscus will be [p0 – (2T/r)] with p0 as atmospheric pressure and r as radius
of meniscus. Now as liquid flows from higher to lower pressure and at same level in a liquid pressure
must be same (this is because a liquid cannot sustain tangential stress), so the liquid will ascends in
the capillary till hydrostatic pressure of the liquid compensates for the decrease in pressure. i.e.,

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r

R
h
p0 p0 p0
p0

2T
p0 
t

 2T  2T
p0  p0 –  hg or h ...(1)
 r  rg
But from figure shown it is clear that radius of meniscus r is related to the radius of capillary through
the relation
(R/r) = cos , i.e., r = R/cos  ...(2)
where  is the anlge of contact. *So substituting the value of from Eqn. (2) in (1), we get

2T 2T cos 
h  ...(3)
rg Rg

• Alternate Method
T
As it can be seen from figure that T sin  cancels out : T
The force due to T cos  balances the weight of liquid (mg =  vg)
vol. of the curve is negligible 
 vol. of liquid in r2h h

2T cos 
T cos  = 2r = r2hg  h =
rg

This is the desired result and from this it is clear that :

(1) The capillarity depends on the nature of liquid and solid both, i.e., on T, ,  and R. If  > 90°, i.e.,
meniscus is convex, h will be negative, i.e., the liquid will descends in the capillary as actually
happens in case of mercury in a

Hg

(A) (B) (C)

 90;h   ve   90;h  0   90;h  – ve

glass tube. However, if  = 90°, i.e., meniscus is plane, h = 0 and so no capillarity.

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(2) For a given liquid and solid at a given place as , T,  and g are constant, (figure shown)
hr = constant
 lesser the radius of capillary greater will be the rise and vice-versa. (figure shown)
(3) Here it is important to note that in equilibrium the height h is independent of the shape of capillary
if the radius of meniscus remains the same. This is why the vertical height h of a liquid column in
capillaries of different shapes and sizes will be same if the radius of meniscus remains the same and
also the vertical height of the liquid in a capillary does not change, when it is inclined to the vertical.
(figure shown)


h

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

4. Capillarity has large number of applications in our daily life, e.g.,

(a) The oil in the wick of a lamp rise due to capillary action of threads in the wick.
(b) Action of towel in soaking up moisture from the body is due to capillary action of cotton in the
towel.
(c) Water is retained in a piece of sponge on account of capillarity.
(d) A blotting paper soaks ink by capillary action of the pores in the blotting paper.
(e) The root-hairs of plants drawn water from the soil through capillary action.

5. In Case of glass and water  = 0 T T

here force due to surface tension balances the weight r
of the liquid ( × v × g)
r
2 3
volume of the liquid = r2h + r3 – r
3
2 h
where r3 – r3 is the volume of the curve which is
3
not negligible in this case
2 3
 T.2r =  (r2h + r3 –  r )g
3
T 
1
2T = rh g + r2 g
3

6. If two parallel plates with the spacing 'd' are

placed in water reservoir, then height or rise. h

2T
2T = hdg  h d
dg

7. If two concentric tubes of radius 'r1' and 'r2' (inner one is solid) are placed in water reservoir, then
height of rise?
 T[2r1  2r2 ]  [r22h – r12h] g

2T
h
(r2 – r1 ) g

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r1 r2

h
r2

T cos  T cos 
 

T sin  T sin 
r
8. If weight of the liquid in the meniscus is to be consider :
1
T cos  × 2r = [r2h + r2 × r]  g
3 h

 r  2T cos 
h  3   rg
 

9. When capillary tube (radius, 'r') is in vertical position, the upper meniscus is concave and pressure
2T
due to surface tension is directed vertically upward and is given by p1 = R
1
where R1 = radius of curvature of upper meniscus.
The hydrostatic pressure p2 = h  g is always directed downwards.
If p1 > p2 i.e. resulting pressure is directed upward. For equilibrium, the
pressure due to lower meniscus should be downward. This makes lower
meniscus concave downward (fig a). The radius of
2T
lower meniscus R2 can be given by R  (p1 – p 2 )
2
(a) (b) (c)
If p1 < p2 i.e. resulting pressure is directed downward for equilibrium, the pressure due to lower
meniscus should be upward. This makes lower meniscus convex upward (fig. b)
2T
The radius of lower meniscus can be given by R  p 2 – p1
2

2T
If p1 = p2, then is no resulting pressure. then, p1 – p2 = R = 0 or, R2 =  i.e. lower surface will be FLAT
T
2
(fig c)
Ex.5 A drop of water volume 0.05 cm3 is pressed between two glass-plates, as a consequence of
which, it spreads and occupies an area of 40 cm2. If the surface tension of water is 70 dyne/
cm, find the normal force required to seperate out the two glass plates in newton.
Sol. Pressure inside the film is less than outside by an amount,
1 1 
P  T    , where r and r are the radii of curvature of
 r1 r2  1 2

t
the meniscus. Here r1 =
2
and r2 = , then the force required r1= t/2
to separate the two glass plates, between which a liquid film t

2AT
is enclosed (figure) is, F = P × A = , where t is the thickness
t
of the film, A = area of film.
2A2 T 2A2 T 2  (40  10–4 )2  (70  10–3 )
F   = 45 N
At V 0.05  10–6

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4.1 CAPILLARY RISE IN A TUBE OF INSUFFICIENT HEIGHT

O
 C
R'
'
 
h
h

We know, the height through which a liquid rises in the capillary tube of radius r is given by
2T 2T
 h or h R = = constant
R g g
When the capillary tube is cut an its length is less then h (i.e. h'), then the liquid rises upto the top
of the tube and spreads in such a way that the radius (R') of the liquid meniscus increases and it
becomes more flat so that hR = h' R' = Constant. Hence the liquid does not overflow.
r r
If h' < h then R' > R or 
cos  ' cos 
 cos  < cos   ' > 

5. VISCOSITY AND NEWTON'S LAW OF VISCOUS FORCE

In case of steady flow of a fluid when a layer of fluid
slips or tends to slip on adjacent layer in contact, the
two layers exert tangential force on each other which
tries to destroy the relative motion between them. The
Y
property of a fluid due to which it opposes the relative
motion between its different layers is called viscosity v
(or fluid friction or internal friction) and the force between
the layers opposing the relative motion viscous force. A F
briskly strirred fluid comes to rest after a short while A v
because of viscosity.
As a result of large number of experiments Newton found
that viscous force F acting on any layer of a fluid is dy
directly proportional to its area A and to the velocity
gradient (dv/dy)* at the layer i.e., X

dv dv
FA or F  – A ...(1)
dy dy
when  is a constant called coefficient of viscosity or simply viscosity of the fluid. The negative sign
shows that viscous force on a liquid layer acts in a direction opposite to the relative velocity of flow
of fluid. The Eq. (1) is known as Newton's law of viscous force. Here y is taken from the layer of
which velocity is zero.
Regarding viscosity of fluid it is worth noting that :
(1) It depends only on the nature of fluid and is independent of area considered or velocity
gradient.
(2) Its dimensions are [ML–1 T–1] and SI unit poiseuille (PI) while CGS unit dyne-s/cm2 called
poise (P) with
1 Pl = 10 poise
(3) Viscosity of liquids is much greater (say about 100 times more) than that of gases
i.e., L > G

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Ex.6 A boat of area 10 m2 floating on the surface of a river is made to move horizontally with a speed
of 2 m/s by applying a tangential force. If the river is 1 m deep and the water in contact with
the bed is stationary, find the tangential water in contact with the bed is stationary, find the
tangential force needed to keep the boat moving with same velocity. Viscosity of water is 0.01
poise.
Sol. As velocity changes from 2 m/s at the surface to zero at the bed which is at a depth of 1 m.

dv 2–0
Velocity gradient = = = 2 s–1
dy 1
Now from Newton's law of viscous force,

dv
|F| =  A = (10–2 × 10–1) × 10 × 2 = 0.02 N
dy

Ex.7 The velocity of water in a river is 18 km/hr at the surface. If the river is 5 m deep, find the
shearing stress between the horizontal layers of water. The viscosity of water is 10–3 poiseuuille.
Sol. As velocity at the bottom of the river will be zero, velocity gradient
dv 18  10 3
  1s –1
dy 60  60  5
Now as the viscous force F  A(dv / dy ) is tangential to the area,

F11 dv
Shear stress =  = 10–3 × 1 = 1 × 10–3 N/m2
A dy

Ex.8 A cylinder of mass radius r1 and length  is kept inside another cylinder of radius r2 and length .
The space between them is filled with a liquid of viscosity . The inner cylinder starts rotating
with angular velocity  while the other cyclinder is at rest. Find time when inner cylinder stops.

dv
Sol. Viscous force F = –  A 
dy

r12 r12
= –  2 r1  = – 2  
r2 – r1 r2 – r1

   r13
 | F  r1 | Fr1 sin 90  Fr1  –2 ...(1) R1
r2 – r1

Mr12 d r13
  I   –2
2 dt r2 – r1

from eq. (1)

a4r1 t 0
d
 dt  –
M(r2 – r1 ) 0 


a4r1
t   n
M(r2 – r1 )

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Page # 12 SURFACE TENSION & VICOSITY

Ex.6 A boat of area 10 m2 floating on the surface of a river is made to move horizontally with a speed
of 2 m/s by applying a tangential force. If the river is 1 m deep and the water in contact with
the bed is stationary, find the tangential water in contact with the bed is stationary, find the
tangential force needed to keep the boat moving with same velocity. Viscosity of water is 0.01
poise.
Sol. As velocity changes from 2 m/s at the surface to zero at the bed which is at a depth of 1 m.

dv 2–0
Velocity gradient = = = 2 s–1
dy 1
Now from Newton's law of viscous force,

dv
|F| =  A = (10–2 × 10–1) × 10 × 2 = 0.02 N
dy

Ex.7 The velocity of water in a river is 18 km/hr at the surface. If the river is 5 m deep, find the
shearing stress between the horizontal layers of water. The viscosity of water is 10–3 poiseuuille.
Sol. As velocity at the bottom of the river will be zero, velocity gradient
dv 18  10 3
  1s –1
dy 60  60  5
Now as the viscous force F  A(dv / dy ) is tangential to the area,

F11 dv
Shear stress =  = 10–3 × 1 = 1 × 10–3 N/m2
A dy

Ex.8 A cylinder of mass radius r1 and length  is kept inside another cylinder of radius r2 and length .
The space between them is filled with a liquid of viscosity . The inner cylinder starts rotating
with angular velocity  while the other cyclinder is at rest. Find time when inner cylinder stops.

dv
Sol. Viscous force F = –  A 
dy

r12 r12
= –  2 r1  = – 2  
r2 – r1 r2 – r1

   r13
 | F  r1 | Fr1 sin 90  Fr1  –2 ...(1) R1
r2 – r1

Mr12 d r13
  I   –2
2 dt r2 – r1

from eq. (1)

a4r1 t 0
d
 dt  –
M(r2 – r1 ) 0 


a4r1
t   n
M(r2 – r1 )

394,50 - Rajeev Gandhi Nagar Kota, Ph. No. : 93141-87482, 0744-2209671

IVRS No : 0744-2439051, 52, 53, www.motioniitjee.com, [email protected]