Generalitat de Catalunya

Departament d’educació Biology and Geology 1st First term

Institut Eduard Fontseré

First and last name:

Class group: Date: Qualification

Minerals and rocks

This workbook is yours.

● Underline the sections in the same dossier and do the exercises on it
whenever possible or on additional sheets (if not).
● Make an outline-summary of each of them on additional sheets.

Your grade will be the average of the dossier and the exam.

● The Geosphere. ​Underline the section, make an outline-summary of it and do

exercise 1 on page 31.
● What is a mineral? ​Underline the section, make an outline-summary of it and
do exercise 2 on page 31.
● The properties of minerals. ​Underline the section, make an outline-summary
of it and do exercise 3 on page 31, exercises 4, 5a and 6 on page 32 and
exercise 8 on page 33.
● Classifying minerals. ​Underline the section, make an outline-summary of it
and do exercise 10 on page 33 and exercise 13 on page 34.
● What are rocks? ​Underline the section, make an outline-summary of it and
do exercises 14 and 15 on page 35.
● Igneous rocks. ​Underline the section, make an outline-summary of it and do
exercises 16, 17 and 18 on page 36.
● Sedimentary rocks. ​Underline the section, make an outline-summary of it
and do exercises 20, 21 and 22 on page 37 and exercises 23 and 24 on page
38.
● Metamorphic rocks. ​Underline the section, make an outline-summary of it
and do exercises 26 and 27 on page 39 and exercise 28 on page 40.
● Rocks change over time ​and the Rock cycle. ​Underline the section, make
an outline-summary of it and do exercises 32 and 33 on page 41.
 Explain

The Geosphere
When the Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago, it was a sphere of very Animation
bright, melted rock.
Earth’s formation and layers of the
The densest substances ended up in the deepest parts of the planet, and geosphere.
the lightest substances settled in the outermost layers.

The surface of the planet cooled down and a thin, solid crust formed.

The geosphere contains the entire rocky structure of Earth, and

is divided into three layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core.

These layers interact with one another in such a way that the Earth is a
dynamic system.

The Layers of the Geosphere Interactivity

The crust is the Earth’s outermost and thinnest
layer. It is made up of rocks and minerals and is crust
thus solid. On the sea and ocean floors, it is called
the ocean crust and is about 6 km thick. On the
other hand, the continental crust is thicker—at
about 70 km below the largest mountain chains. mantle

The mantle is the largest of the Earth’s layers: it

makes up 82 % of its volume. Magma, a fluid ma-
terial composed of molten rocks, forms in a tiny core
section of the upper part of the mantle. The rest of
the mantle is solid. The temperature of the mantle
increases with depth from 400 °C to 4,000 °C.

6,378 km
The core is the innermost layer of the Earth, and
The study of the way in which the
is made of dense materials—mostly nickel and iron. Its outer layer vibrations of earthquakes propagate
(the outer core) is liquid, whereas the inner layer (the inner core) through the Earth and the knowl-
is solid. edge of the rocks in the Earth’s sur-
face have helped us to discover the
three layers of the geosphere.

[Link] 15
 What Is a Mineral?
Image Gallery
A mineral is a solid, homogeneous substance that arises natu-
rally through abiotic processes. It has a clearly defined chemi-
cal composition and its structure is crystalline.

Homogeneous: minerals are homogeneous: that is, all parts of the

same mineral have the same properties.

Solid: minerals are in the solid state at ambient temperture: they

Sodium and chlorine atoms are pre- preserve their shape and cannot be compressed.
cisely arranged in space, giving the
crystalline appearance of halite. Natural: materials made by humans, such as plastics or glass, are not
considered minerals.

Abiotic origin: substances produced by humans are not treated as

minerals, even if they satisfy all the other condition.

Chemical composition: each mineral is formed from specific chem-

ical elements, present in specific proportions.

Crystalline structure: the chemical components of minerals are ar-

Although tooth enamel is chemically
identical to hydroxylapatite, it is not ranged into many-sided structures that repeat in space. These are
considered a mineral. called crystals. The crystals of many minerals can be seen with the
naked eye.

The Properties of Minerals

Optical Properties
Videos
Optical properties are related to the behavior of minerals in the presence
of light.

Color can vary across the same type of mineral, on account of impu-
rities. This is why color alone is not a very useful property for distin-
guishing minerals. In contrast, the streak—the powder left behind
on a streak plate—is a much more consistent property.

Luster indicates how much the surface of a mineral can reflect light.
A mineral’s streak is a consistent prop-
erty.
The names of the different luster types refer to materials that reflect
light in a similar manner.

Transparency (or diaphaneity) is the ability of a mineral to let light

through it. Only transparent minerals allow us to distinguish the
shape of objects behind them. Opaque minerals do not let light
through. Translucid minerals allow light through, but the shapes of
objects behind them appear distorted.

Birefringence is the property of a material of splitting a ray of light

When you look through Iceland into two rays as it passes through. Thus, a double image is created
spar, you can see a double image. when we look through a birefringent mineral.

Fluorescence is a property of a mineral in which light is given off

upon exposure to ultraviolet light. The color of the glow will depend
on the nature of each particular mineral.

16 [Link]
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of minerals refer to the responses of the min-
Videos
erals when certain forces are exerted on them. The study of these prop-
erties is especially useful in the field of jewelry.
Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching. This property is
measured according to the Mohs scale, which is made up of a set of
10 minerals listed in increasing order of hardness.
Brittleness is the ability of a mineral to break without deforming
significantly. Mica exhibits cleavage.

Plasticity is the ability of a material to be molded into other shapes

without breaking when a force is exerted on it. When the force is no
longer applied, this mineral retains the new shape.
Elasticity  is the ability of a mineral to deform without breaking
when a force is exerted on it, but to recover its original shape when
the force is no longer exerted.
Cleavage is the property of a mineral to break into regularly-shaped Flint exhibits conchoidal fracture.
fragments with flat surfaces.
In minerals lacking cleavage, fracture describes the quality of the
surface of the mineral when it breaks.

Physical Properties
Physical properties refer to both the relationship between the mineral’s
mass and the volume it occupies, and to its electromagnetic qualities.
Magnetism is the ability of certain minerals to behave like a magnet. Videos
Magnetic minerals are attracted by other magnets, but they also at-
tract metals such as iron and nickel.
Electrical conductivity is the ability of a mineral to conduct electric
current. Some minerals are better conductors than others, whereas
some insulating minerals do not conduct electrical current at all.
The density of a specific mineral is the amount of mass in each unit
volume of that mineral.
Copper conducts electric current.

Chemical Properties
Chemical properties refer to the way that different minerals respond
when they come in contact with other substances. Videos
Reactivity with acids: some minerals react chemically with acidic
substances producing, among other products, carbon dioxide (CO2).
The minerals that show acid reactivity can be identified because a
gas (carbon dioxide) forms bubbles on the surface of the mineral af-
ter it has been wetted with the acid.
Solubility is the ability of a mineral to dissolve in water and produce
a homogeneous mixture or solution. No part of the mineral is visible
when this occurs. Calcite reacts with acidic substances
and produces CO2.

[Link] 17
 How Do Minerals Form?
For a mineral to form, the chemical elements it is composed of must be
Outline present in the appropriate ratios. To allow the formation of the crystal-
line structure, the pressure and temperature also have to be suitable.

Crystallization process.

Crystallization is the process by which the par-

ticles of a mineral arrange themselves three-di-
mensionally into crystalline structures.

Generally, the slower the process of crystallization of

a mineral, the more stable its internal structure—and,
therefore, the larger the crystals formed.

Minerals are classified according to their origin, that is, ac-

cording to the way their crystals were formed:

Igneous. Many minerals form from the magma in the

upper layers of the Earth’s mantle. As the magma rises
through the crust, it cools and solidifies, and under-
goes the crystallization process..

Sedimentary. Some minerals form on the Earth’s surface—on lake

and sea floors or in caves—from substances dissolved in water.
Image Gallery When these substances precipitate (when they leave the solution),
they do so in an orderly manner, giving rise to crystalline structures.

Metamorphic. Some minerals form inside the Earth’s crust due to

the transformation of other minerals. This occurs when these miner-
als are subjected to conditions of high pressure and high tempera-
ture. The particles of the original minerals recombine and rearrange,
giving rise to new crystals.
Examples of minerals according
to their origin. Image: olivine, a
mineral of igneous origin.
Classifying Minerals
Minerals are the components of all the rocks we see around us. About
Outline five thousand different types of minerals are known, and their many
combinations give rise to the wide diversity of rocks that form the Earth’s
crust.
nonsilicates

5% Minerals are classified according to their chemical composition.

We can divide minerals into two broad groups: silicates, and nonsilicates:

95%
Silicate minerals comprise of 95 % of Earth’s crust.
silicates

18 [Link]
 Silicates. The vast majority of minerals contain oxygen (O) and sili-
con (Si), the two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust. These
minerals are called silicates. Quartz and feldspar are silicates that are
among the most abundant of minerals.

Nonsilicates. All the minerals that do not contain silicon are called
nonsilicates. Depending on their chemical composition, they may be
further divided into groups such as carbonates (the most commonly
found), oxides, sulfides, and native elements.
Image Gallery

Quartz Orthoclase (feldspar) Gold (native element) Aragonite (carbonate)

Muscovite (mica) Olivine Galena (sulfur) Hematite (oxide)

Examples of silicates. Examples of nonsilicates.

What Are Rocks?

Images

A rock is a natural aggregate of one or many types of min-

erals.

A wide variety of types of rock exist, each of which has its own distinc-
tive properties. The properties of a rock depend on two factors:
The mineral components of the rock.
The process of formation of the rock.
The processes by which rocks form can be broken down into two major
categories: The planet’s internal energy drives
phenomena such as volcanism.
Internal geological processes. Some rocks are formed from pro-
cesses that are driven by energy from the Earth’s interior. These
processes occur deep in the crust and are called internal geological
processes. The rocks formed by these processes are igneous rocks
and metamorphic rocks.

External geological processes. Some rocks are formed on the sur-

face of the Earth’s crust through the effects of external geological
agents, such as wind, water, and glaciers. The rocks formed by these
processes are sedimentary rocks.
The landscape of the Grand Canyon
in Colorado has been shaped by ex-
ternal geological agents.

[Link] 19
 Rocks and Their Characteristics
The characteristics of rocks tell us about their composition and origin.
Image Gallery The most important characteristics are:

Color.  A rock can be made of a single mineral or of a combination of

different minerals. The color is indicative of the minerals that the rock is
composed of, but is not sufficient to fully identify a rock.

Texture. Rocks are formed of mineral particles or of fragments of other

rocks called grains. The size, shape, and pattern of these determine the
texture of the rock and are a rich source of information about the rock’s
origin:

Size. Grain size refers to the size of the mineral crystals or fragments
of other rocks that make up the rock. In some rocks, the grains can
only be seen under the microscope.

Shape. In some rocks, the shape of the grain is related to the shape
of the mineral crystals that make it up. In others, the grains are frag-
ments of other rocks, and may be fine and rounded, or angular.
Examples of rounded grain (above) Pattern. The grains can be in various arrangements in space. In some
and angular grain (below). rocks, the grains are aligned into layers or bands. In others, their ar-
rangement follows no clear pattern.

Thus, color and texture together help us to classify rocks by origin, as

igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.

Igneous Rocks
Formation
Igneous rocks result from the cooling and solidification of magma. Mag-
Animation ma originates from the upper layers of the mantle and the lower layers
of the Earth’s crust.

Magma is a liquid mixture of molten rock, solid fragments, and

gases at extremely high temperatures.

When the magma rises towards the Earth’s surface through the crust, it
cools gradually as the temperature surrounding it decreases. As a result, it
passes from the liquid state to the solid state, leading minerals to crystal-
lize.

Formation of plutonic or intrusive Depending on the rate of cooling—that is, on the speed at which the mag-
rocks. ma solidifies—the resulting igneous rocks are divided into two groups:

Plutonic rocks. Plutonic or intrusive rocks form when the magma is

trapped deep inside the Earth and cools slowly over a period of thou-
sands or millions of years. The mineral crystals that form in these rocks
crystallize over a long period of time, and are therefore large in size
and easily observable with the naked eye.

20 [Link]
 Volcanic rocks. Volcanic or effusive rocks originate when the magma
erupts on the surface in the form of lava, and then quickly cools. The Animation
crystals of these rocks are very small, as they have very little time to
grow, and they can only be seen under the microscope.

Different Magma, Different Rocks

Apart from distinguishing igneous rocks by their rate of cooling, they
can also be classified according to the chemical composition of the mag-
ma they come from. Formation of volcanic or effusive
rocks.
Depending on the amount of silica in magma, two types of igneous
rocks arise:

Basic rocks. These rocks are dark in color

and have high densities. They are formed
from magma that is low in silica and high in TYPE OF FORMATION
iron and magnesium. Iron and magnesium IGNEOUS
are very dense and give the magma its dark ROCKS Volcanic Plutonic
color. When cooling, such magma can give
rise to minerals such as olivine.

Acid rocks. These rocks are lighter in color

Basic
TYPE OF MAGMA

and have lower densities than basic igne-

ous rocks. They are formed from magma Basalt Gabbro
which is rich in silica and poor in iron and
magnesium. When such magma crystalliz-
es, it primarily produces minerals such as Acid
quartz and feldspar.
Rhyolite Granite
The same type of magma can produce either a
volcanic rock or a plutonic rock.

Sedimentary Rocks
Image
Formation
Sedimentary rocks originate on the Earth’s surface by means of exter-
nal geological processes. They are formed through the accumulation and
compaction of fragments of other rocks and of the remains of living organ-
isms, and by the precipitation of substances dissolved in the water. These
accumulated fragments are called sediment.

Sediment is transported by water, wind, or glaciers to places where it

is deposited—sedimentation basins.

In these basins, the sediment piles up over long periods of time, giving
rise to a structure of layers or strata.

The pressure of the accumulated mass causes the sediment in lower

layers to compact, forming a cement and a sedimentary rock. This pro-
cess is called diagenesis.

Sedimentary rocks are classified into two large groups: detrital and non- Lower strata tend to be older than
upper strata.
detrital.

[Link] 21
 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
Animations
Clastic rocks are formed from sediment that comes from the
decomposition and fragmentation of preexisting rocks.

The formation of clastic rocks is preceded by the erosion of already existing

rocks, the transport of the eroded fragments, and their accumulation.

Erosion, transport, and accumulation. Erosion is the process by

Processes involved in the formation which wind, rain, ice, or water currents break rocks into fragments,
of detrital rocks. wear them down, and transport them from one place to another,
where they accumulate. Sediment deposits form into into orderly lay-
ers. The lower layers contain the oldest sediment, whereas the upper
layers contain the more recent sediment.
Table
Once the sediment has accumulated, diagenesis or lithification
Grain diameter (becoming a rock) begins. This includes the processes of com-
Rock
(mm)
paction and cementation.

Diagenesis or lithification. The weight of the deposited

greater than 2
sediment causes the lower sediments to undergo com-
Conglomerate and breccia paction: the spaces between the grains are reduced and
filled with water and dissolved substances. When the wa-
ter evaporates, these substances crystallize into minerals
between 0.06 and 2
and act as natural cement.
Sandstone
Depending on the size and shape of the fragments of sedi-
ment, the resulting clastic rocks can be classified as conglom-
less than 0.06 erate and breccia, or sandstone, and mudstone.
Siltstone and shale

Nonclastic Sedimentary Rocks

Animations
Some sedimentary rocks are not made of fragments of other rocks. De-
pending on their origin, they can be divided into:
Formation processes of nonclastic
sedimentary rocks. Rocks of biological origin. These rocks are formed by the accumula-
tion of the remains of living organisms and their compaction.
Bioclastic limestones. These rocks form at the bottom of the oceans
as a result of the accumulation of large amounts of the hard remains
of marine organisms: skeleton fragments and shells.
Organic rocks. These rocks, like coals and oil, are formed by the ac-
cumulation and compaction of remains of organic matter.

Rocks of chemical origin. The sediment that forms these rocks origi-
nates from the precipitation of mineral salts dissolved in water.
Evaporite rocks or evaporites. These rocks are formed by the evap-
oration of waters that have high dissolved salt concentrations. The
salts precipitate when the water evaporates and accumulate at the
bottom on the floor of the watershed.

22 [Link]
Metamorphic Rocks
Formation Animations
Metamorphic rocks originate from internal geological processes. They Formation processes of metamor-
form when other rocks are subjected to conditions of high pressure and phic rocks by regional metamor-
temperature and consequently change their structure, while remaining in phism and contact metamorphism.
the solid state.

Under such conditions, the chemical composition of the rocks is preserved,

but their physical structure changes: the minerals rearrange, their crystals
change in shape and size, and they can even recombine to produce new
minerals.

This series of transformations is called metamorphism.

Various processes give rise to the formation of metamorphic rocks. The

most prominent types are:

Regional metamorphism. The Earth’s internal geological processes

can cause large masses of rock to come under extreme conditions of
pressure and temperature. These conditions cause them to change.
This metamorphism affects rocks on a large scale.

Contact metamorphism. In some situations, a mass of magma rises

up between the rocks of the Earth’s crust. The part of the rock that is
in contact with the magma—the contact metamorphism aureole—
undergoes an increase in temperature. This causes the rock and the
minerals it contains to change.

Types of Metamorphic Rocks

Table
Depending on the way that the crystals are arranged in the minerals,
metamorphic rocks can be classified into two broad groups: Classification of metamorphic
rocks and examples.
Foliated rocks. In most of these
metamorphic rocks, the minerals
show layers of parallel, sheet-like
planar structures, due to the high Foliated rocks Nonfoliated rocks
pressure they experience during
formation. When these rocks break,
the fractures display the same
banding or foliation throughout.

Nonfoliated rocks. In some rocks, Slate Marble

high pressure conditions do not
result in minerals with banding
or layers. Instead, these minerals
are organized into new crystalline
structures. Such rocks are homo-
Gneiss Quartzite
geneous in appearance and their
fracture is irregular.

[Link] 23
 Outline Rocks Change over Time

Processes of erosion (above) and New rocks are formed in an extremely slow but steady manner, either
melting (below).
from magma or through the accumulation of sediment.

Rocks also transform slowly into other rocks in the Earth’s crust, due to
IGNEOUS
the effects of high temperature and pressure.

There are also geological processes in which rocks are destroyed. These
SEDIMENTARY
SEDIMENT are called erosion and melting; they also work slowly but steadily.

METAMORPHIC Erosion. When a rock rises to the surface, it is subject to the effect of
rain, wind, extreme temperatures, water flow, living organisms, and
others. These agents break down the rocks into tiny fragments. In
IGNEOUS time, these fragments will become sediment.

Melting. Due to the internal dynamics of the geosphere, large masses

SEDIMENTARY MAGMA of rocks are slowly pushed towards the upper layers of the mantle,
which reaches temperatures of over 700 ºC. At such temperatures,
METAMORPHIC rocks melt and become part of the magma.

Thus, rocks are not static entities.

Rocks are continuously forming, transforming, and being de-

stroyed through a cycle that takes millions of years: the rock
cycle.

The Rock Cycle

Interactivity The rock cycle includes all the processes involved in the formation,
transformation, and breakdown of every different type of rock.
Interact with the rock cycle in the
EROSION AND
digital version to know in full detail IGNEOUS TRANSPORT
each one of its processes.
SEDIMENT

ACCUMULATION
AND DIAGENESIS
MELTING

HEAT AND EROSION AND

PRESSURE TRANSPORT

SOLIDIFICATION MELTING

SEDIMENTARY
MELTING MAGMA HEAT AND
PRESSURE

ACCUMULATION
AND DIAGENESIS

METAMORPHIC SEDIMENT
EROSION AND
TRANSPORT

24 [Link]
 EXERCISES
The Geosphere

1. About the Formation of the Geosphere

For each of the following statements about the for-
mation of Earth and of the layers of the geosphere,
indicate whether it is true or false.
Accretion is the process through which mete-
orites crashed into the surface of the primitive
Earth.
The crust is the thinnest layer of the geosphere.
The mantle is the innermost layer of the geo-
sphere.
The top layer is the layer that cooled and solidi-
fied.
Earth is 4.5 · 106 years old.
During the formation of the planet, the densest
substances rose to the surface.

What Is a Mineral?

2. The Definition of a Mineral

Complete the following definition of a mineral by
selecting the correct options:
A mineral is a [homogeneous / heterogeneous]
substance in the [solid / liquid / gaseous] state. It
occurs [naturally / artificially] and is formed through
[abiotic / biological] processes. A mineral has a
clearly defined [geological / chemical / physical]
structure and also possesses a characteristic [amor-
phous / corpuscular / crystalline] structure.

Optical Properties

3. Optical Properties
Indicate the optical property that matches the mineral in each of the following statements:

The ........... of a mineral displays its true color, with Impurities can cause variations in the ........... of vari-
no impurities. ous samples of the same type of mineral.
Minerals with ........... give off light under certain When we say a mineral is opaque, translucent, or
conditions. transparent, we are describing its ........... .
Due to ........... , light can travel through a mineral, The way the surface of a mineral reflects light is
but the image seen through it is doubled. called the mineral’s ........... .

[Link] 31
 EXERCISES

Mechanical, Physical, and Chemical Properties

4. Building the Mohs Scale

Use the simulator in the digital version to put these ten minerals in order of hardness, from
least hard (1) to hardest (10).

a. Calcite b. Topaz c. Corundum d. Gypsum e. Apatite

f. Quartz g. Fluorite h. Talc i. Diamond j. Orthoclase

5. Putting the Mohs Scale to Use

a. Using the Mohs scale, indicate the hardness of b. Watch the video in the digital version on the ex-
each mineral below. perimental determination of hardness.
Between what values of hardness on the Mohs
Shalerite is scratched by fluorite, but not by cal-
scale do fingernails, copper on a coin, and the steel
cite: sphalerite scratches calcite. Its hardness
of a knife fall?
falls between ........... .
Pyrite is scratched by quartz, but not by ortho-
clase: pyrite scratches orthoclase. Its hardness
falls between ........... .
Galena is scratched by calcite, but not by gyp-
sum: galena scratches gypsum. Its hardness falls
between ........... .
Beryl is scratched by topaz, but not by quartz:
beryl scratches quartz. Its hardness falls be-
tween ........... .

6. Brittleness, Elasticity, and Plasticity 7. By Their Densities Ye Shall Know Them

Complete the following statements with the name a. Measure the mass and volume of each of the fol-
of the appropriate mechanical property. lowing mineral samples. Then calculate their den-
sity.
Some minerals (like silver) have high ........... and
deform without breaking. Such deformation re-
mains once the force is removed.
Some minerals (like muscovite mica) have high
........... . They also deform without breaking, but
they recover their original shape once the force
has been removed.
Some minerals (like calcite) have a high ...........
and break very easily.

32 [Link]
 EXERCISES
b. Can we say that the three samples correspond 8. Calcite or Quartz?
to three different minerals? Calcite and quartz are very abundant minerals in the
q Yes, since the three volumes calculated are Earth’s crust. They have a similar appearance and are
different. difficult to distinguish. To tell them apart, geologists
employ a flask of hydrochloric acid.
q Yes, since the three masses are different.
a. How do they go about distinguishing these min-
q No, since two of the densities calculated are erals?
the same.
b. What chemical property distinguishes these two
c. Look up and state the name of the mineral in each minerals?
of the three samples.

How Do Minerals Form?

9. Classfication of Minerals According to Their Origin

Look up information about these minerals and group them according to their origin.

a. Calcite b. Olivine c. Orthoclase d. Gypsum e. Barite

f. Quartz g. Cordierite h. Andalusite i. Talc

Classifying Minerals

10. Silicates and Nonsilicates

Look up information about the chemical composition of the minerals shown here.
Classify each of them as a silicate or a nonsilicate.

a. Talc b. Magnetite c. Muscovite d. Galena e. Asbestos

f. Quartz g. Orthoclase h. Pyrite i. Red calcite j. Halite

[Link] 33
 EXERCISES
11. Some Common Uses of Minerals
a. List the uses of minerals mentioned in the video
in the digital version.
b. For each of the uses shown in the video, name
the mineral that you associate with this use.
c. Are you familiar with any other uses that can be
made of minerals?
Write down a list of these uses.

12. Mineral Ore

a. Look up information about the chemical element
that is obtained from each of the ores below (sulfur,
zinc, iron, mercury, and lead).
Cinnabar (HgS)
Sphalerite (ZnS)
Galena (PbS)

b. Name the following ores (cassiterite, pyrite, fluo-

rite, mica, or calcite):
Tin (Sn)
Sulfur (S)
Fluorine (F)

13. Classifying Nonsilicate Minerals

Look up information on the chemical composition of these nonsilicate minerals. Classify them as carbonates,
oxides, sulfides, or native elements.

a. Corundum b. Graphite c. Sulfur d. Iceland spar

e. Galena f. Pyrite g. Magnetite h. Aragonite

34 [Link]
 EXERCISES
What Are Rocks?

14. About Rocks

Indicate whether each of the following statements is true
or false:
All rocks are formed in processes that take place in the
depths of the Earth’s crust.
Two different rocks can be formed of the same combi-
nation of minerals.
Rocks are always composed of more than one type of
mineral.
If two rocks have the same origin, they must be the
same rock.
The characteristics of a rock are determined by the
types of minerals it contains and the process by which
the rock was formed.
If two rocks have the same mineral composition, they
must be the same rock.

Rocks and their Characteristics

15. The Texture of Rocks

a. Carefully examine these images and place the rocks in decreasing order of grain size.

a. Conglomerate b. Lutite c. Sandstone

b. Classify these rocks according to whether their grains are angular or rounded.

a. Conglomerate b. Breccia c. Conglomerate d. Breccia e. Conglomerate f. Breccia

c. Classify these rocks according to whether their grains are arranged in band pattern or not.

a. Rock with traces b. Gneiss c. Gneissic rocky d. Greywacke e. Ecoglite f. Granitic rock
of iron structure

[Link] 35
 EXERCISES
Igneous Rocks

16. About the Formation of Igneous Rocks

Indicate whether each of the following statements is
true or false:
Lava results when magma cools at a slow rate.
The growth of crystals in different minerals is di-
rectly related to the magma’s cooling rate.
Plutonic rocks contain large crystals because, dur-
ing their formation, the magma cools at a high
rate.
The solidification of magma is faster in volcanic
rocks than in plutonic rocks.
Volcanic rocks do not contain minerals, because
the magma cools at a very high rate.

17. Plutonic or Volcanic?

Classify these rocks according to their origin. Recall that, as a rule of thumb, the crystals in plutonic rocks are
visible, whereas volcanic rocks have much smaller crystals, or simply do not have them.

a. Granodiorite b. Obsidian c. Diorite d. Basalt

e. Lava f. Granite g. Pumice

18. Basically Acid Rocks, or Else

a. Indicate which of the following properties are b. Indicate which of the following properties are
commonly found in basic igneous rocks. commonly found in acid igneous rocks.
q They come from silica-rich magma. q They are light in color.
q They are dark in color. q They are rich in iron and magnesium.
q Their density is low. q They come from silica-rich magma.
q They are rich in iron and magnesium. q Their density is low.

36 [Link]
 EXERCISES
19. Some Uses of Igneous Rocks
The video in the digital version demonstrates some
of the uses that humans make of igneous rocks.
a. List the uses of igneous rocks described in the
video.
b. What type of igneous rock can you identify in
each of the uses in the video?
c. Are you familiar with any other uses of igneous
rock?

Sedimentary Rocks

20. Formation of Clastic Rocks

Put the processes involved in the formation of sedi-
mentary clastic rock in the right order.
Compaction
Erosion
Accumulation
Cementation
Transport

21. Sediment Size

Classify the following rocks according to the size of the pieces of sediment that form it.
q Visible, more than 2 mm q Visible, less than 2 mm q Not visible to the naked eye

a. Sandstone 1 b. Breccia c. Conglomerate d. Sandstone 2 e. Shale

22. Conglomerate and Breccia

Examine these two sedimentary rocks and answer
the questions below. ROCK A
a. What is the main difference between the large
pieces of sediment that these rocks are made of?
q Their size
q Their angularity
q Their color ROCK B
b. What are these rocks called?

[Link] 37
 EXERCISES
c. What do you think causes the difference between d. Which of these two rocks was subjected to great-
the grains of these rocks? er transport and wear of the sediment pieces?
q The weight of the sediment deposited over q Rock A
each of them.
q Rock B
q The different erosion processes that the sedi-
ment was subject to during its transport. q Both rocks were exposed to the same transport
q The original shape of the sediment pieces. and wear.

e. Explain your answer to the previous question.

23. Different Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Look up information and classify these rocks according to whether the sediments from which they formed
were fragments of other rocks, the remains of living organisms, or precipitated salts.

a. Sandstone b. Limestone with c. Desert rose d. Travertine

fossils

e. Conglomerate f. Coal g. Petroleum h. Halite

24. Coal Varieties

The degree of transformation that coal has under-
gone depends on how long the plant remains that
form it have been buried.
PEAT
The longer the time, the greater the amount of sedi- burial
ment that has accumulated on top of the coal. There-
fore, older coal is located at greater depths.

a. Put the following types of coal in order, from the LIGNITE

oldest to the youngest. greater depth

Anthracitea Peat Lignite Bituminous coal

b. Coal is used as fuel because it is an excellent BITUMINOUS

source of energy when combustion takes place. pressure
The amount of energy released per gram of coal is
called its “heat of combustion,” and is measured in
kcal/g.
ANTHRACITE
What varieties of coal generate the most and the
least energy when burned?

38 [Link]
 EXERCISES
c. What relationship is there between the heat of Heat of combustion
combustion and the percentage of carbon in coal? (kcal/g) % carbon

q The amount of carbon and energy are not re- Peat 4 50

lated to one another. Lignite 5 70
q The more carbon, the more energy. 7 80
Bituminous coal
q The less carbon, the more energy.
Anthracite 8 95

25. Some Uses of Sedimentary Rocks

The video in the digital version shows some of the
uses that humans make of sedimentary rocks.
a. Write down a list of the uses that sedimentary
rocks are put to in the video.
b. What types of sedimentary rock can you identify
in each of the uses in the video?
c. Are you familiar with any other uses of sedimen-
tary rocks? Write down a list of any other such uses.

Metamorphic Rocks

26. About Metamorphism 27. Two Types of Metamorphism

Indicate whether each of the following statements Indicate whether the following characteristics are
about metamorphism is true or false. typical of regional metamorphism or of contact
metamorphism.
Metamorphism does not change the minerals
that a rock is composed of. It occurs near magma flows.
The formation of metamorphic rocks occurs un- Rocks change due to the effect of the high tem-
der conditions of high pressure and high tem- perature.
perature.
The transformed rocks are subject to high pres-
Only sedimentary rocks can be transformed into sure.
metamorphic rock. Internal geological process-
es cause the formation of metamorphic rocks. It gives rise to large expanses of metamorphic
The term metamorphism refers to the transfor- rock.
mation of one rock into a different rock. It gives rise to an aureole of metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks form in the cooling and so- around a mass of plutonic rocks.
lidification of magma.

[Link] 39
 EXERCISES
28. Foliated and Nonfoliated Rocks
Look at each of these metamorphic rocks and classify it as foliated or nonfoliated.

a. Gneiss b. Slate c. Marble rock d. Gneiss e. Marble f. Quartzite

pebble

29. Some Uses of Metamorphic Rocks

The video in the digital version shows some of the
uses that humans make of metamorphic rocks.
a. Write a list of the uses metamorphic rocks are put
to in the video.
b. What types of metamorphic rock can you iden-
tify in each of the uses in the video?
c. Are you familiar with any other uses of metamor-
phic rocks?

Rocks Change Over Time

30. Formation, Transformation, and Destruction of Rocks

Indicate whether the following processes are associated with the formation of rocks, their transformation, or
their breakup.
Magma solidification Accumulation, compaction, and diagen-
esis of sediments
Erosion
Metamorphism
Melting

31. The Three Major Types of Rocks

Classify each of the samples in the images as an igneous rock, a sedimentary rock, or a metamorphic rock.

a. Slate b. Coal c. Granite d. Marble e. Conglomerate

f. Gneiss g. Gypsum h. Basaltic lava i. Limestone

with fossil

40 [Link]
 EXERCISES
The Rock Cycle

32. Different Types of Rock in the Same Rock 33. The Processes of the Rock Cycle
Cycle Read each of the following definitions and enter the
Read the following incomplete descriptions of the name of the process in the rock cycle to which it re-
processes in the rock cycle. fers:
The erosion of ........... gives rise to sediment. ........... : the process by which a rock melts into
magma.
The cooling of magma gives rise to ........... .
........... : the process that leads to the formation of
The accumulation and diagenesis of sediment
igneous rock from magma.
give rise to ........... .
........... : the process by which rock transforms into
High pressure and temperature cause the trans-
metamorphic rock.
formation of ........... into ........... .
........... : the process that leads to the formation of
Magma forms in the upper layers of the mantle
sediment from rock.
in the melting of ........... .
........... : the process that leads to the formation of
sedimentary rock from sediment.

[Link] 41