PART C

UNIT 1

1. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives
an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam
is condensed in a condenser and recycled to boiler.
Layout of Thermal Powerplant

Components of boiler

Coal

Generally, bituminous coal or brown coal is used as fuel. The coal is cleaned in a
magnetic cleaner to filter out if any iron particles are present which may cause wear and
tear in the equipment. The coal from live storage is first crushed in small particles and
then taken into pulverizer to make it in powdered form.
Boiler: The mixture of pulverized coal and air (usually preheated air) is taken into boiler
and then burnt in the combustion zone.
. The heat energy is utilized to convert the water into steam at high temperature and
pressure
The flue gases from the boiler make their way through superheater, economizer, air
preheater and finally get exhausted to the atmosphere from the chimney.
Superheater: The superheater tubes are hanged at the hottest part of the boiler. The
saturated steam produced in the boiler tubes is superheated to about 540 °C in
the superheater
  Economizer: An economizer is essentially a feed water heater which heats the
water before supplying to the boiler. 
Air pre-heater: The primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and it is then warmed
in the air pre-heater.
Steam turbine: High pressure super heated steam is fed to the steam turbine which
causes turbine blades to rotate. Energy in the steam is converted into mechanical
energy in the steam turbine which acts as the prime mover.
Condenser: The exhausted steam is condensed in the condenser by means of cold
water circulation. Here, the steam loses it's pressure as
well as temperature and it is converted back into water.
Alternator: The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the
alternator, electrical energy is generated. This generated electrical voltage is then
stepped up with the help of a transformer and then transmitted where it is to be utilized.
Feed water pump: The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feed water
pump.

2
Hydroelectric power plants convert the hydraulic potential energy from water
into electrical energy
(1)Dam
Dams are structures built over rivers to stop the water flow and form a reservoir. The
reservoir stores the water flowing down the river. This water is diverted to turbines in power
stations.
The dams should be water-tight and should be able to withstand the pressure exerted by the
water on it. There are different types of dams such as arch dams, gravity dams and buttress
dams.
2)Spillway
It is  used to provide for the release of flood water from a dam.
Spillways could be controlled type or uncontrolled type. The uncontrolled types start
releasing water upon water rising above a particular level
But in case of the controlled type, regulation of flow is possible.
(3)Penstock and Tunnel
Penstocks are pipes which carry water from the reservoir to the turbines inside power
station. They are usually made of  steel
Water under high pressure flows through the penstock.
(4) Surge Tank
. It serves the purpose of reducing water hammering in pipes which can cause damage to
 pipes. The sudden surges of water in penstock is taken by the surge tank, and when the water
requirements increase, it supplies the collected water thereby regulating water flow and
pressure inside the penstock.

(5) Power Station

Power station contains a turbine coupled to a generator
). The water brought to the power station rotates the vanes of the turbine producing  torque
and rotation of turbine shaft. This rotational torque is transferred to the generator and is
converted into electricity.

2. NUCLEAR POWER PLANTCONSTRUCTION

CONSTRUCTION

Main Parts of a Nuclear Power Station

 Containment structure
 Reactor pressure vassal
 Steam generator
 Pressurizer
 Reactor Coolant pump RCP
 Feed water pump
 Steam turbine
 Control room
Water coolant at high pressure is passed through the reactor core to get the heat energy from there
to goes to the steam generator in close cycle to transfer its heat to the boiler feed water in a closed
loop due to this feed water is converted to steam.therefore there are two loops to prevent
conatamination during construction these two loops must be maintained respectively.

Main components are

Moderators

To reduce speed of neutrons to increase their effectiveness in fission by colliding with lighter
nuclei . . Each collision causes loss of energy and thus the speed of neutrons is reduced. Such
a material is called a ‘Moderator’
Reflectors

Prevention of neutrons to escape from the reactor . Such losses are minimized by surrounding
(lining) the reactor core with a material called a reflector which will reflect the neutrons back
to the core. They improve the neutron economy. Example: Graphite, Beryllium.

Shielding

Shielding
 During Nuclear fission ,particles and neutrons are also produced. They are harmful to human
life. Therefore it is necessary to shield the reactor with thick layers of lead, or concrete
Cladding
 In order to prevent the contamination of the coolant by fission products, the fuel element is
covered with a protective coating. This is known as cladding.
 Control rods are used to control the reaction to prevent it from becoming violent
Coolant
The main purpose of the coolant in the reactor is to transfer the heat produced inside the
reactor.

Principle

The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei is termed nuclear fission.
The process of fission is always accompanied by the ejection of two or more neutrons in
liberation of vast energy.
4. Solar Power Generation: Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam The concentrated heat is then
used as a heat source for a conventional power plant.Thermal storage efficiently allows up to 24
hour electricity generation the Stirling dish and the solar power tower are the concentration
technologies.

• Solar power plants use the sun's rays to produce electricity.

• A photovoltaic system (PV system) converts sunlight into electrical
current with the help of solar cells.
• PV systems consist of solar cells, inverters
PV modules use semiconductor materials (usually silicon) to generate dc
electricity from sunlight.
the semiconductor is either made into thin, flat, crystalline cells
• The cells are wired together and sealed into a weatherproof module,
with electrical connectors added

UNIT 2

2.

Tariff

Tariff means the schedule of rates framed for supply of electrical energy to the various categories of
consumers. All types of tariffs must cover the recovery of costs of

(i) Capital investment in generating, transmitting and distributing equipment

(ii) Operation, supplies and maintenance of equipment and

(ii) Metering equipment, billing, collection and miscall aneous services

(iv) A satisfactory return on the total capital investment.

Flat Demand Tariff: This is one of the earliest forms of tariffs used for charging the consumers for
electrical energy consumption. This tariff is expressed as energy charges, y = Rs. Ax. In these types
of tariff the metering equipment, meter reading, billing, and accounting costs are eliminated

ii) Simple Tariff: This is the simplest type of tariff according to which the cost o energy is charged on
the basis of units consumed. y = Rs ax where a is charges in rupees per unit and x is the total
electrical energy consumed in units or kwh.

(ii ) Flat Rate Tariff: This types of tariff differs from the former one in the sense that the different
types of consumers are charged at different rates The rate for each category of consumers is arrived
at by taking into account its load factor and diversity factor.

(x) Off Peak Tariff: The load on the power station usual y has pronounced peak loads in the morning
and early evening and a very low load during the night. In case the consumers are encouraged to use
electricity during off peak hours by giving a special discount, the energy can be supplied without
incurring an additional capital cost and should therefore prove very profitable. This type of tariff is
very advantageous for certain processes such as water heating by thermal storage, pumping,
refrigeration.

3. Improving power factor:

Adding capacitors is generally the most economical way to improve a facility’s power factor. While
the current through an inductive load lags the voltage, current to a capacitor leads the voltage.
Thus, capacitors serve as a leading reactive current generator to counter the lagging reactive
current in a system.

total current flow will be reduced due to this permits additional loads to be added in the system.
improving power factor may be the most economical way to reduce current and eliminate the
overload condition, the cost-effectiveness of power factor correction depends on a utility’s power
factor penalties Maintaining a high power factor in a facility will yield direct savings Other savings,
such as decreased distribution losses, improved voltage reduction, and increased facility current
carrying capacity, are less obvious

POWER QUALITY AND TERMS

Power quality is simply the interaction of electrical power with electrical equipment. IF electrical
equipments operate good its is said good quality but if bad its said poor power quality. deviation
from normal of a voltage source (either DC or AC) can be classified as a power quality issuePower
quality issues can be very high-speed events such as voltage impulses / transients, high frequency
noise, waveshape faults, voltage swells and sags and total power loss

We can verify the power quality by installing a special type of high-speed recording test equipment
to monitor the electrical power. This type of test equipment will provide information used in
evaluating if the electrical power is of sufficient quality to reliably operate the equipment.

Terms

Transients:  Impulsive Transients  Oscillatory Transients Short Duration Variation:  Voltage Sags
or Dips  Voltage Swells  Interruptions  Voltage Magnitude Step Long Duration Variation: 
Undervoltages  Overvoltages interruptions

3. Energy audit methodology

 The methodology adopted for this audit was

 Formation of audit groups for specific areas and end use

 Visual inspection and data collection

 Observations on the general condition of the facility and equipment and quantification

 Identification / verification of energy consumption and other parameters by measurements

 Detailed calculations, analyses and assumptions

 Validation

 Potential energy saving opportunities

`  Implementation