Types of Static Error:

 The static error of a measuring instrument is the

numerical difference between the true value of a quantity
and its value as obtained by measurement,

 i.e. repeated measurement of the same quantity gives

different indications. Types of Static error are categorized
as

GROSS ERRORS OR HUMAN ERRORS,

 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS, AND
 RANDOM ERRORS.
Gross Errors:
 These errors are mainly due to human mistakes like
 In reading or in using instruments
 Errors in recording observations
 Errors may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of
instruments
 Computational mistakes.
 These errors cannot be treated mathematically.

 The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible, but one can
minimize them.
One of the basic gross errors that occurs frequently is the improper use
of an instrument.
 The error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading and
recording the measurement parameter.

In general, indicating instruments change ambient conditions to some

extent when connected into a complete circuit.
 One should therefore not be completely dependent on one reading only;
at least three separate readings should be taken, preferably under
conditions in which instruments are switched off and on.)
Systematic Error:
 These errors occur due to shortcomings of the instrument,
such as defective or worn parts, or ageing or effects of the
environment on the instrument.

 These errors are sometimes referred to as bias, and they

influence all measurements of a quantity alike.

 A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument

is known as a systematic error.

There are basically three types of systematic errors

(i) Instrumental,
(ii) Environmental, and
(iii) Observational.
(I) Instrumental Errors
Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments,
because of their mechanical structure.

 For example, in the D’Arsonval movement, friction in the

bearings of various moving components, irregular spring
tensions, stretching of the spring, or reduction in tension due to
improper handling or overloading of the instrument.

Instrumental errors can be avoided by

(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement applications
(b) applying correction factors after determining the amount of
instrumental error.
(c) calibrating the instrument against a standard.
(II) Environmental Errors

Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the

measuring device, including conditions in the area
surrounding the instrument, such as the effects of change
in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure or of
magnetic or electrostatic fields.

These errors can also be avoided by

(i) air conditioning,
(ii) hermetically sealing certain components in the
instruments, and
(iii) using magnetic shields.
in a way that is insulated or protected from outside influences.
"hermetically sealed lives cut off from society"
(III)Observational Errors
 Observational errors are errors introduced by the observer.
 The most common error is the parallax error introduced in
reading a meter scale, and the error of estimation when
obtaining a reading from a meter scale.
 These errors are caused by the habits of individual observers.
For example, an observer may always introduce an error
by consistently holding his head too far to the left while reading
a needle and scale reading.

 In general,. systematic errors can also be subdivided into

static and dynamic errors.
 Static errors are caused by limitations of the measuring device
or the physical laws governing its behavior.
 Dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not responding
fast enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.
Random Errors:

 These are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been
substantially reduced or at least accounted for.

 Random errors are generally an accumulation of a large number of small

effects and may be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high
degree of accuracy. Such errors can be analyzed statistically.

 These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary
process of making measurements.

Such errors are normally small and follow the laws of probability.

 Random errors can thus be treated mathematically.

SOURCES OF ERROR
The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of
hardware to provide a true measurement, are as follows:

1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design

conditions

2. Poor design

3. Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.

4. Poor maintenance

5. Errors caused by person operating the instrument or

equipment

6. Certain design limitations

 Unit-1 : EMI
Dynamic
Characteristics
and
Standards
Standards:

A standard is physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known

accurate measurement of physical quantity is termed as standard. These
standards are used to determine the values of other physical quantities by the
comparison method.

All these standards are preserved at the

International Bureau of Weights and Measures at
Sevres, Paris.
Depending on the functions and applications , different types of “standards of
measurements” are classified as categories
i) International
ii) Primary
iii) Secondary
iv) working standards
 International standards are defined by international agreement. They are
periodically evaluated and checked absolute measurements in terms of fundamental
units of physics.

 These international standards are not available to ordinary users for

measurements and calibrations

International ohms: It s defined as the resistance offered by a column of mercury

having a mass of 14,4521 gms, uniform cross sectional area and length of 106.300 cm,
to the flow of constant current at the melting point of ice.

 International amperes : It is an unvarying current , which when passed through a

solution of silver nitrace in water (prepared in accordance with stipulated
specifications) deposits silver at the rate of 0.00111800 gm/s.

Absolute units: international units were replaced in 1948 by absolute units , these
units are more accurate than international units and differ slightly from them .

For example : 1 international ohm=1.00049 Absolute ohm

I international ampere=0.99985 Absolute ampere
Primary standards : The principal of primary standards is the calibration
and verification of secondary standards .

Primary standards are maintained at the national standards laboratories

in different countries

Primary standards are not available for use outside the national
laboratory. These primary standards are absolute standards of high
accuracy that can be used as ultimate reference standards

Secondary standards: Secondary standards are basic reference standards

used by measurement and calibration in industries.

These secondary standards are maintained by the particular industry to

which they belong. Each industry has its own secondary standard.

Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard to the national

standards laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary
standard.
Working standards: Working standards are the principal tools of a
measurement laboratory. These standards are used to check and calibrate
instrument for accuracy and performance.

For example , manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors,

resistors..etc. use a standard called working standard for checking component
values being manufactured eg. A standard resistor for checking of resistance
value manufactured.
 Physical Quantities and Their Units
symbol SI measurement units symbo unit
l dimensions
distance d meter m m

mass m kilogram kg kg

time t second s s

electric charge* Q coulomb C C

temperature T Kelvin K K

amount of substance n mole mol mol

luminous intensity I candela cd cd

acceleration a meter per second squared m/s2 m/s2

area A square meter m2 m2

capacitance C farad F C2.s2/kg.m2

concentration [C] molar M mol/m3

density D kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3 kg/m3

electric current I ampere A C/s

electric field intensity E newton per coulomb N/C kg.m/C.s2

electric resistance R ohm  kg.m2/C2.s

emf  volt V kg.m2/C.s2
energy E joule J kg.m2/s2
force F newton N kg.m/s2
frequency f hertz Hz s-1
heat Q joule J kg.m2/s2
illumination E lux (lumen per square meter) lx cd/m2

inductance L henry H kg.m2/C2

magnetic flux
 weber Wb kg.m2/C.s

potential difference V volt V kg.m2/C.s2

power P watt W kg.m2/s3
pressure p pascal (newton per square Pa kg/m.s2
meter)
velocity v meter per second m/s m/s
volume V cubic meter m3 m3
 Measurement
• Measurement is used to measure quantities.
• Quantity is something that has magnitude,
size, or amount (volume).
• In the late 18th century, scientists used the
metric system. The metric system is a
precursor to the SI System.
• Scientists all over the world use a single
measurement system called Le Systeme
International d’Units, abbreviated SI.
 SI Base units
• The most common base units that we will
study include:
Quantity Unit
Quantity Unit name
Symbol abbreviation

Length l meter m

Mass m kilogram kg

Time t second s

Temperature T Kelvin K
 SI Base units
• To enable the measurement of quantities
larger or smaller than the base units or
derived units, the SI Units system also includes
a set of prefixes. The use of a prefix makes a
unit larger or smaller. The ranges of SI unit
prefixes are listed in the tables 1 and 2
 Table 1
Prefix Symbol Function Divided by
deci d 10-1 10
centi c 10-2 100
milli m 10-3 1000
micro µ 10-6 1000000
nano n 10-9 1000000000
pico p 10-12 1000000000000
femto f 10-15 1000000000000000
 Table 2
Prefix Symbol Function Multiply by

deca da 101 10

hector h 102 100

kilo k 103 1000

mega M 106 1000000

Giga G 109 1000000000

tera T 1012 1000000000000

peta P 1015 1000000000000000

 Length
The SI standard unit for length is the meter.
A distance of 1m is about the width of an average
doorway.
To express longer distances, the kilometer (km) is
used. One kilometer is equal to 1000 m.
To express shorter distances, the centimeter (cm)
is used. One centimeter is equal to 1/100 of a
meter.
Length can be measured using a meter stick or
rulers.
 Mass
• Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. The
standard unit for mass is the kilogram (kg).
• The gram (g), which is 1/1000 of a kg is used for
measuring masses of small objects. Mass is
typically measured using a balance.
• Mass is different from weight. Weight is a
measure of the gravitational pull on matter
(Newton). The weight of an object increases as
gravity acts on it.
 Time
The standard unit of measurement for time is the
second (s).
Time can be measured using stop watches,
clocks, count down timers, and other time pieces.
Larger amounts of time are measured in minutes
and hours.
There are 60 seconds in one minute. There are 60
minutes in one hour. Given that there are 24
hours in one day, how many seconds are there in
one day?
 Temperature
The standard unit of measurement for
temperature is degrees Kelvin (K).
Temperature can also be measured in degrees
Celsius (°C) and degrees Fahrenheit (°F).
To convert degrees Celsius (°C) to degrees
Fahrenheit (°F) multiply by 1.8 and then add 32.
To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius,
subtract 32 and then divide by 1.8
° K= °C + 273
Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
(measures the degree of heat or coolness)
 Derived units
• Derived units are combinations of base units.
They are produced by multiplying or dividing
standard units. The derived units we will study
include:
Quantity Unit
Quantity Unit
symbol abbreviation

Area A square meter m2

Volume V cubic meter m3

kilograms per
Density D kg/m3
cubic meter
 Area
Area is length times the width. It is expressed as
square meters.
Area can also be expressed as cubic centimeters.
What is the area of a rectangle that has an a
length of 6 cm and a width of 16 cm?
16 cm

• 1 6 cm
• 11111cmam
 Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an
object. The derived SI unit for volume is cubic
meters. The cubic meter is rather large, so a more
common unit of cubic centimeters is more
commonly used.
Non-SI units are also used to measure volume
such as the milliliter (mL) and the liter (L), which
is 1000 cm3. There are 1000 mL in 1 L.
Beakers, flasks, and graduated cylinders are often
used to determine the volume of liquids.
 density
• Density is the ratio of mass to volume, or mass
divided by volume. It can be written:
density=mass/volume or D=m/V
Density is a characteristic physical property of
a substance that does not depend on the size
of the sample. As the mass of an object
increases, its volume increases.
Types of Measuring
Instrument
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
“The device used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of
measurement or standard quantity is called a Measuring Instrument.”
OR
“An instrument may be defined as a machine or system which is designed to
maintain functional relationship between prescribed properties of physical
variables & could include means of communication to human observer.”
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical instruments may be divided into two categories, that are;
1. Absolute instruments,
2. Secondary instruments.
- Absolute instruments gives the quantity to be measured in term of instrument
constant & its deflection.
- In Secondary instruments the deflection gives the magnitude of electrical
quantity to be measured directly. These instruments are required to be calibrated
by comparing with another standard instrument before putting into use.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical measuring instruments may also be classified according to the kind of
quantity, kind of current, principle of operation of moving system.

CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

• Secondary instruments can be classified into three types;
i. Indicating instruments;
ii. Recording instruments;
iii. Integrating instruments.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

- Indicating Instruments:
It indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time
when it is being measured. The indications are given by a pointer moving over a
graduated dial.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

- Recording Instruments:
The instruments which keep a continuous record of the
variations of the magnitude of an electrical quantity to be observed over a
defined period of time.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

- Integrating Instruments:
The instruments which measure the total amount of either
quantity of electricity or electrical energy supplied over a period of time. For
example energy meters.
The essential requirements of a measuring instruments are introduction in to the circuit where
measurements are to be made , should not alter the conditions and power consumed by it be small. DC
measurement only with PMMC, AC measurement only with Induction type. Remaining all are for both
AC and DC measurements. Moving coil and moving iron types depend upon the magnitude effect of
current.
 PMMC: More accurate measurement for DC

 Moving Iron: most commonly used form for indicating instrument as well as cheapest

 Electro dynamometer

 Hot wire

 Thermo couple: based on heating effects

 Induction type: is most generally used for watt –hour meters.

 Electro static: used as voltmeters have the advantage that their power consumption is exceedingly
small.

Rectifier
 The D’Arsonval Meter Movement
• D’Arsonval Meter Movement: Also called Permanent-Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC).
• Based on the moving-coil galvanometer constructed by Jacques d’ Arsonval in 1881.
• Its accuracy is about 2% -5% of full scale deflection

• The permanent magnet moving coil

instruments are most accurate type
for direct current measurements.
• The action of these instruments is
based on the motoring principle.
When a current carrying coil is
placed in the magnetic field
produced by permanent magnet,
the coil experiences a force and
moves.
• As the coil is moving and the
magnet is permanent, the
instrument is called permanent
magnet moving coil instrument. This
basic principle is called D’Arsonval
principle.
• The amount of force experienced by
the coil is proportional to the
current passing through the coil. 9
 Permanent-Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
• Coil is suspended in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet in the shape of a horse shoe.
• Coil is suspended so that it can rotate freely in the magnetic field.
• When current flows in the coil, the developed (electromagnetic) torque causes the coil to rotate.
• Electromagnetic torque is counter balanced by a mechanical torque of control springs attached to the movable coil.
• The balance of torques and therefore the angular position of the movable coil is indicated by a pointer against a fixed
reference called a scale.

The deflecting torque produced is

described below
Torque, τ = BINA
Where B = flux density in Wb/m2 (Tesla)
I = current in the coil (A).
N = number of turns of the coil.
A = effective coil area
( length X wide), (m2).
• The pointer is carried by the spindle and it moves over a graduated scale.
• The pointer has light weight so that it deflects rapidly.
• The mirror is placed below the pointer to get the accurate reading by removing the parallax.
• The weight of the instrument is normally counter balanced by the weights situated
diametrically opposite and rapidly connected to it.
• The scale markings of the basic d.c PMMC instruments are usually linearly spaced as the
deflecting torque and hence the pointer deflections are directly proportional to the current
passing through the coil.
PMMC Specifications:
• Flux density - 1500-5000 Wb/Cm2
• Power 25-200µW
• Accuracy 2-5% of full scale deflection
• Permanent magnet is made up of Alnico material.

Advantages:
1) Used over wide range of currents and voltages
2) They display no hysteresis
3) Instruments are not effected by stray magnetic fields

Disadvantages:
1) Errors may set due to ageing of control springs and permanent magnet
2) Friction due to jewel-pivot suspension
 DC Ammeter
• The basic movement of dc ammeter is a PMMC galvanometer. Since the coil winding of a
basic movement is small and light, it can carry only very small currents. When large currents
are to be measured, it is necessary to bypass the major part of the current through a
resistance, called a shunt.
• The PMMC can use to build an ammeter with connected shunt resistor and meter in parallel.
A low value resistor (shunt resistor) is used in DC ammeter to measure large current. Rm =
internal resistance of the movement ; Rsh = shunt resistance ; Ish =shunt current ; Im = full
scale deflection current of the movement ; I = full scale current of the ammeter + shunt (i.e.
total current)
• Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement ,the voltage drops across
the shunt and movement must be the same
Alternative analysis
• The shunt can also be determined by considering current I to be ‘n’ times larger
than Im .
• This ‘n’ is called a multiplying factor and relates the total current and meter
current. Therefore, the total current
The general requirements of a shunt are as follows.
• 1. The temperature coefficients of the shunt and instrument should
be low and nearly identical.
• 2. The resistance of the shunt should not vary with time.
• 3. It should carry the current without excessive temperature rise.
• 4. It should have a low thermal emf.

• Manganin is usually used as a shunt for de instruments, since it gives

a low value of-thermal emf with copper.
• Constantan is a useful material for ac circuits, since it's comparatively
high thermal emf, being unidirectional, is ineffective on the circuits.
Discuss about multi range ammeters, aryton or
universal shunt ammeters, DC voltmeters, multi
range voltmeter and practical meter .

Voltmeter Sensitivity problems

 Multi Range Ammeter
• The current range of the dc ammeter may be further extended by a number of shunts,
selected by arranging a switch. such a meter is called a multi range ammeter.
• The circuit has four shunts R1, R2, R3 and R4 which can be placed in parallel with the
movement to give four different current ranges.
• Switch S is a multiposition switch, (having low contact resistance and high current carrying
capacity, since its contacts are in series with low resistance shunts).
• Make before break type switch is used for range changing. This switch protects the meter
movement from being damaged without a shunt during range changing
• If we use an ordinary switch for range changing, the meter does not have any shunt
in parallel while the range is being changed, and hence full current passes through
the meter movement, damaging the movement.

• Hence a make before break type switch is used.

• The switch is so designed that when the switch position is changed, it makes contact
with the next terminal (range) before breaking contact with the previous terminal.

• Therefore the meter movement is never left unprotected.

• Multirange ammeters are used for ranges up to 50A.

 DC voltmeter
• A basic D' Arsonval movement can be converted into a dc voltmeter by adding a series resistor known as
multiplier
• The function of the multiplier is to limit the current through the movement so that the current does not exceed
the full scale deflection value.
• To measure the potential difference between two points in a dc circuit or a circuit component, a dc voltmeter is
always connected across them with the proper polarity.
• The value of the multiplier required is calculated as follows.
• = full scale deflection current of the movement
• Rm = internal resistance of movement; Rs = multiplier resistance; V = full range voltage of the instrument
• The multiplier limits the current through the movement, so as to not exceed
the value of the full scale deflection Ifsd .
• The above equation is also used to further extend the range in DC voltmeter.
The multiplier is usually mounted inside the case of the voltmeter for
moderate range up to 500V .
• For higher voltages, the multiplier may be mounted separately outside the
case on pair of binding posts to avoid excessive heating inside the case
Multi Range Voltmeter
• The addition of number of multipliers together with range switch provides the instrument with
a workable number of voltage ranges. The figure shows a multi range voltmeter using a four
position switch and four multipliers R1,R2,R3 and R4, for the voltage range V1,V2,V3 and
V4
Potential Divider Arrangement for Mutli range Voltmeter
• The connections are made at the junction of resistance R1,R2,R3 and R4,for the voltage range V1,V2,V3 and
V4. These connection are brought out to binding posts on the Instrument and the instrument is connected to the
proper Binding post for the desired voltage range. The Series resistances for the voltage ranges V1,V2,V3 and
V4 Can computed as follow
 Voltmeter Sensitivity
• The sensitivity or Ohms per Volt rating of a voltmeter is the ratio of the total circuit resistance RT to the voltage
range. Sensitivity is essentially the reciprocal of the full scale deflection current of the basic movement.
Therefore,
Electro Dynamometer Type instruments
Electrodynamometer type instrument is a transfer instrument. A transfer instrument is one in which is
calibrated with a DC source and used without any modifications for AC measurements. Same accuracy for
both AC and DC. With little some modifications can be used as wattmeter for power measurements
 In PMMC , If AC supply is given to these instruments , an alternating torque will be
developed. Due to the movement of inertia of the moving system, the pointer will not allow the
rapidly changing alternating torue and will fail to show any reading.

In order that the instrument should be able to read the ac quantities , the magnetic field in
the air gap must change along with change in current.

This principle is used in the electro dynamometer type instrument, instead of permanent
magnet, the electro dynamometer type instrument uses the current under measurement to produce
the necessary field flux

The fixed coils or “field coils” arc connected in series with the load and so carry the current in
the circuit.

The moving coil is connected across the voltage and, therefore, carries a current proportional
to the voltage.

A high non-inductive resistance is connected in series with the moving coil to limit the
current to a small value.

Since the moving coil carries a current proportional to the voltage, it is called the „„pressure
coil‟‟ or “voltage coil” or simply called P.C. of the wattmeter.
Fixed Coils • The fixed coils carry the current of the circuit.
• They are divided into two halves.
• The reason for using fixed coils as current coils is that they can be made more massive and can be easily
constructed to carry considerable current since they present no problem of leading the current in or out.
•The fixed coils are wound with heavy wire. This wire is stranded or laminated especially when carrying
heavy currents in order to avoid eddy current losses in conductors.
• The fixed coils of earlier wattmeters were designed to carry a current of 100 A but modem designs usually
limit the maximum current ranges of wattmeters to about 20 A.
• For power measurements involving large load currents, it is usually better to use a 5 A wattmeter in
conjunction with a current transformer of suitable range.
Moving Coil • The moving coil is mounted on a pivoted spindle and is entirely embraced by the fixed spindle & is
entirely embraced b the fixed current coils.
• Spring control is used for the movement.
• The use of moving coil as pressure coil is a natural consequence of design requirements.
• Since the current of the moving coil is carried by the instrument springs, it is limited to values, which can
be carried safely by springs.
Control • Spring control is used for the instrument.
Damping • Air friction damping is used.
• The moving system carries a light aluminium vane which moves in a sector shaped box.
• Electromagnetic or eddy current damping is not used as introduction of a permanent magnet (for damping
purposes) will greatly distort the weak operating magnetic field. Scales and Pointers
• They are equipped with mirror type scales and knife edge pointers to remove reading errors due to parallax
DYNAMOMETER
• This instrument is suitable for the measurement of direct and alternating current,
voltage and power.
• The deflecting torque in dynamometer is relies by the interaction of magnetic field
produced by a pair of fixed air cored coils and a third air cored coil capable of
angular movement and suspended within the fixed coil.
DYNAMOMETER
 Series Ohmmeter
• It is normally part of a volt-ohm-milli-ammeter (VOM) or
multifunction meter.

• Instead of measuring both voltage and current many instruments

keep one of the two quantities const.

• If the current is kept const. a voltmeter reading across the

resistance is directly proportional to the value of the resistance.
This is the principle of Ohmmeter

• The simplest circuit consists of a voltage source connected in

series with a pair of terminals, a standard resistance, and a low-
current PMMC instrument.

• Current flowing through the meter depends on the magnitude of

the unknown resistance. Thus the meter deflection is proportional
to the value of the resistance
 Series Ohmmeter
• The resistance to be measured (Rx) is connected across
terminal A and B.
 Shunt Ohmmeter
• In shunt ohmmeter a battery is in series with an adjustable resistor
R1 and a PMMC instrument.
• Unknown resistor is connected in parallel with the meter, across
the terminals A and B, hence the name shunt type ohmmeter.
• Scale of shunt ohmmeter is opposite to the scale of series
ohmmeter when connecting with Rx. –
• When Rx = 0, short circuit between A and B, there will be no
current flow in the coil branch and the scale point at zero on the
left hand side. –
• When Rx = ∞ , the full scale meter reading is

• With any resistance Rx to be measured, the meter current Im is

 AC voltmeter using rectifier
• In some instances rectification takes place before
amplification, in which a simple diode rectifier
precedes the amplifier and meter
• This approach requires a dc amplifier with zero
drift characteristics and unity voltage gain and a
dc mete with adequate sensitivity

• In this approach ac signal is rectified after

amplification, where full wave rectification takes
place in the meter circuit connected to the o/p
terminals of the ac amplifier.
• This approach requires an ac amplifier with high
open loop gain and large amount of negative
feedback to overcome the nonlinearity of the
rectifier diodes.
• Series connected diode provides half
wave rectification and the average value
of the half wave voltage is developed
across the resistor and applied to dc
amplifier

• Full wave rectification can be obtained

from the bridge ckt. Where average value
of sine wave is applied to dc amplifier and
meter ckt.

• Shunt connected diode is used to

measure the peak value of a waveform
instead of the average value.
• In this ckt. rectifier diode charges the
small capacitor to the peak of the applied
i/p and the meter will therefore indicate
the peak voltage.
 True RMS responding voltmeter
• This instrument produces a meter indication by sensing waveform heating power, which is proportional to the
square of the rms value of the voltage.
• This heating power can be measured by feeding an amplified version of the i/p waveform to the heater
element of a thermocouple whose o/p is proportional to E2rms
• One difficulty with this technique is that the thermocouple is often nonlinear in its behavior. This difficulty is
overcome by placing two thermocouples in the same environment.
• The effect of nonlinear behavior of the couple in the i/p ckt. is cancelled by the similar non linear
characteristics of the couple in the feedback circuit.
• The two couples form a part of bridge in the i/p ckt. of a dc amplifier
• The unknown ac i/p voltage is amplified and applied to the heating element of the measuring thermocouple.
• The application of heat produces an o/p voltage that upsets the balance of the bridge
• The unbalance voltage is amplified by the dc amplifier and fed back to the heating element of balancing
thermocouple.
• Bridge balance will be reestablished when the feedback current delivers sufficient heat to the balancing
thermocouple, so that the voltage o/ps of both couples are the same.
• At this point the dc current is directly proportional to the effective or rms value of the i/p voltage and is
indicated on the meter.
 P. Devi Pradeep
ANITS-ECE Department
DMM ------Digital Voltmeters
Digital multimeters
Digital Voltm eters:

The digital voltmeters generally referred as DVM , convert analog signal into
digital and displays the voltage to be measured as discrete numericals instead of
pointer deflection, on the digital displays .
such voltmeters can be used to measure ac and dc voltages and also to
measure quantities like pressure, temperature , stress …etc using proper transducer
and signal conditioning circuit.
The output voltage is displayed on the digital display on the front panel. such
a digital output reduces the human reading and interpolation errors and parallax
errors.
Advantages:
1. Errors on account of parallax and approximations are entirely eliminated
2. Operating speed is increased
3. Data can be fed to memory devices for storage and future computation.
4. Size reduced after the advent of ICs and easily portable.
5.The reading speed is very high due to digital display
6. They can be programmed and well suited for computerized control
7. The internal calibration does not depend on the measuring instrument
8.The BCD output can be printed or used in digital processing
9.The inclusion of additional circuitry make them suitable for the measurement of
quantities like current, impedance, capacitance, temperature , pressure …etc
Varieties of digital voltmeters:

The several varieties of digital voltmeters differ in the following ways

 Number of measurement ranges

 Number of digits readout

 Accuracy: more number of digits , more is the accuracy , accuracy

depends on resolution

 Speed of reading

 Normal mode noise rejection

Common mode noise rejection: obtained by metal guard

Digital output of several types

Classification of Digital voltmeters:

Classification based on the technique used for the ADC

Non-Integrating type Integrating type
Potentiometric type: 1. V to F converter type
1. Servo Potentiometric type 2. Potentiometric type
2. Successive approximation 3. Dual slope integrating type
type
3. Null balance type
Ramp type:
1. Linear type
2. Staircase type

Based on our syllabus :Digital voltmeters and its different

types-ramp, stair case ramp, Integrating, continuous balance,
successive approximation
Thus the unknown voltage measurement is not dependent on the clock
frequency, but dependent on the counts measured by the counter.

The advantages of this technique are:

i) Excellent noise rejection as noise and superimposed a.c. are averaged

out during the process of integration.

ii) The RC time constant does not affect the input voltage measurement.

iii)The capacitor is connected via an electronic switch. This capacitor is an

auto zero capacitor and avoids the effects of offset voltage.

iv)The integrator responds to the average value of the input hence

sample and hold circuit is not necessary.

v) The accuracy is high and can be readily varied according to the specific
requirements.
The only Disadvantage of this type is only
Slow speed
Integrating Type DVM (Voltage to Frequency Conversion):
Integrating Type DVM (Voltage to Frequency Conversion) contd..:

 A constant input voltage is integrated and the slope of the output ramp is
proportional to the input voltage.

 When the output reaches a certain value, it is discharged to 0 and another

cycle begins. The frequency of the output waveform is proportional to the
input voltage.

 The input voltage produces a charging current, ei/R1 that charges the
capacitor ‘C’ to the reference voltage er.

 When er is reached, the comparator changes state, so as to trigger the

precision pulse generator.

 The pulse generator produces a pulse of precision charge content that

rapidly discharges the capacitor.

 The rate of charging and discharging produces a signal frequency that is

directly proportional to ei.
 The voltage to frequency conversion can be considered to be a dual ramp
method

The output frequency is

proportional to the input voltage ei.

This DVM has the

disadvantage that it requires
Let excellent characteristics in linearity
of the ramp.
The ac noise and supply
noise are averaged out.
 Stair case ramp type DVM
The counter starts
counting and the DAC starts to
produce an output voltage
increasing by one small step at each
count of the counter.
The result is a staircase
voltage applied to the second input
of the comparator, as shown in Fig.

Direct compensation:
The input signal is compared with
an internally generated voltage which is
increased in steps starting from zero.
The number of steps needed to
reach the full compensation is counted. A
simple compensation type is the staircase
ramp.
Stair case ramp type DVM
 The display unit shows the result of the count.
 As each count corresponds to a constant dc step in the DAC output voltage, the
number of counts is directly proportional to Vc and hence to Vi.
 By appropriate choice of reference voltage, the step height of the staircase voltage
can be determined.
 For example, each count can represent 1 mV and direct reading of the input voltage
in volts can be realized by placing a decimal point in front of the 10 decade.

The advantages of a staircase type DVM are as follows:

 Input impedance of the DAC is high when the compensation is reached.

 The accuracy depends only on the stability and accuracy of the voltage and DAC. The
clock has no effect on the accuracy.

The disadvantages are the following:

 The system measures the instantaneous value of the input signal at the moment
compensation is reached. This means the reading is rather unstable, i.e. the input
signal is not a pure dc voltage.

 Until the full compensation is reached, the input impedance is low, which can
influence the accuracy.
Successive Approximations:

Thesuccessive
approximations
principle can
be easily understood
using a simple example;
the determination of
the weight of an object.
By using a
balance and placing the
object on one side and
an approximate weight
on the other side, the
weight of the object is
determined.
 During the first clock pulse, the control circuit sets the D7 to 1, and Vout jumps
to the half reference voltage. The SAR output is 10000000.

If Vout is greater than Vin the comparator output is negative and the control
circuit resets D7.

However, if Vin is greater than Vout the comparator output is positive and the
control circuits keep D7 set. Similarly the rest of the bits beginning from D7to D0 are set
and tested. Therefore, the measurement is completed in 8 clock pulses.

Finally, when the ring counter reaches its final count, the measurement cycle
stops and the digital output of the control register represents the final approximation
of the unknown input voltage.
Continuous Balance DVM or Servo Balancing Potentiometer Type
DVM:
 The input voltage is applied to one side of a mechanical chopper
comparator, the other side being connected to the variable arm of a
precision potentiometer.

The output of the chopper comparator, which is driven by the line

voltage at the line frequency rate, is a square wave signal whose amplitude is
a function of the difference in voltages connected to the opposite side of the
chopper.

The square wave signal is amplified and fed to a power amplifier,

and the amplified square wave difference signal drives the arm of
the potentiometer in the direction needed to make the difference voltage
zero.

The servo-motor also drives a mechanical readout, which is an

indication of the magnitude of the input voltage.

This DVM uses the principle of balancing, instead of sampling,

because of mechanical movement. The average reading time is 2 s.
Comparison of various techniques:
Operating Noise Circuit
Technique Accuracy Stability
speed effect Complexity
1. Successive
Approximation Very high Very much High High Poor

2.V/F
Moderate Minimum Low Moderate Moderate
conversion

3.Single slope
Slow High Low Low Poor
V/t conversion

4.Dual
Moderate Minimum Moderate High High
Slope

5.Delta
Moderate Minimum Moderate High High
modulation
3 1/2 – DIGIT

The number of digit positions used in a digital meter determines the

resolution. Hence a 3 digit display on a DVM for a 0 –1 V range will indicate values from
0 – 999 mV with a smallest increment of 1 mV.

Normally, a fourth digit capable of indicating 0 or 1 (hence called a Half Digit)

is placed to the left. This permits the digital meter to read values above 999 up to 1999,
to give overlap between ranges for convenience, a process called over-ranging.

This type of display is called a 3 1/2 digit display, shown in Fig.

Resolution and Sensitivity of Digital Meters

Resolution
If n= number of full digits, then resolution (R) is 1/10n.
The resolution of a DVM is determined by the number of full or active digits used,

Sensitivity is the smallest change in input which a digital meter is able to detect. Hence,
it is the full scale value of the lowest voltage range multiplied by the meter’s
resolution.

Sensitivity S = (fs)min × R

Where (fs)min = lowest full scale of the meter

R = resolution expressed as decimal

 Mr.P. Devi Pradeep
ANITS-ECE Department
Digital instruments are rapidly replacing their
analog counterparts. The parameters of interest
in a laboratory environment are (i) Voltage (ii)
current (iii) power (iv) frequency, and (v) logic.
Digital systems may consist of the following
components.
Resistors
Capacitors
Transistors
Linear ICs
Digital ICs
Display devices
Analog to digital converters
Digital to analog converters
Digital multimeters

Digital frequency meters

Digital measurement of time

Phase meter
Digital Multimeter:
Analog meters require no power Digital meters, on the other
supply, they give a better visual hand, offer high accuracy, have a high
indication of changes and suffer less input impedance and are smaller in
from electric noise and isolation size.
problems. They gives an unambigious
reading at greater viewing distances.
These meters are simple The output available is electrical (for
and inexpensive. interfacing with external equipment),
in addition to a visual readout.
The three major classes of digital meters are panel meters, bench type meters
and system meters.

All digital meters employ some kind of analog to digital (A/D) converters
(often dual slope integrating type) and have a visible readout display at the converter
output.

Panel meters are usually placed at one location (and perhaps even a fixed
range), while bench meters and system meters are often multimeters, i.e. they can read
ac and dc voltage currents and resistances over several ranges.
Digital Multimeter:
The below fig indicates digital multimeter for always voltage measurement.
Current is converted to voltage by passing it through a precision low
shunt resistance while alternating current is converted into dc by employing rectifiers
and filters. Forresistance measurement, the meter includes a precision low current
source that is applied across the unknown resistance; again this gives a dc voltage which
is digitized and readout as ohms.
 A basic Digital Multimeters (DMM) is made up of several A/D converters,
circuitry for counting and an attenuation circuit.

A basic block diagram of a DMM is shown in Fig. (b). The current to voltage
converter shown in the block diagram of Fig. 6.2 (b) can be implemented with the
circuit shown in fig(c).
 The current to be measured is applied to the summing junction (Σi) at the input of
the opamp.
Since the current at the input of the amplifier is close to zero because of the very
high input impedance of the amplifier, the current IR is very nearly equal to Ii, the current
IR causes a voltage drop which is proportional to the current, to be developed across the
resistors.
This voltage drop is the input to the A/D converter, thereby providing a reading
that is proportional to the unknown current.
Resistance is measured by passing a known current, from a constant current source,
through an unknown resistance. The voltage drop across the resistor is applied to the A/D
converter, thereby producing an indication of the value of the unknown resistance.
Digital Frequency Meter:
The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and applied
continuously to an AND gate, as shown in Fig. A pulse of 1 s is applied to
the other terminal, and the number of pulses counted during this period
indicates the frequency.
The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted into a train
of pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal. The number of
pulses occurring in a definite interval of time is then counted by an electronic
counter.
Since each pulse represents the cycle of the unknown signal, the
number of counts is a direct indication of the frequency of the signal (un-
known)
Since electronic counters have a high speed of operation, high
frequency signals can be measured.
Block diagram of a digital frequency meter:
The signal may be amplified before being applied to the Schmitt
trigger. The Schmitt trigger converts the input signal into a square wave with
fast rise and fall times, which is then differentiated and clipped. As a result,
the output from the Schmitt trigger is a train of pulses, one pulse for each
cycle of the signal.
The output pulses from the Schmitt trigger are fed to a START/STOP
gate. When this gate is enabled, the input pulses pass through this gate and
are fed directly to the electronic counter, which counts the number of pulses.
When this gate is disabled, the counter stops counting the incoming
pulses. The counter displays the number of pulses that have passed through
it in the time interval between start and stop. If this interval is known, the
unknown frequency can be measured.
Basic Circuit for Frequency Measurement:
 The basic circuit for frequency measurement is as shown in Fig. The output of the
unknown frequency is applied to a Schmitt trigger, producing positive pulses at the
output.

 These pulses are called the counter signals and are present at point A of the main gate.
Positive pulses from the time base selector are present at point B of the START gate and
at point B of the STOP gate.

 Initially the Flip-Flop (F/F-1) is at its logic 1 state.

In order to start the operation, a positive pulse is applied to (read input) reset
input of F/F-1, thereby causing its state to change. Hence Y = 1, Y= 0, and as a
result the STOP gate is disabled and the START gate enabled. This same read
pulse is simultaneously applied to the reset input of all decade counters, so that
they are reset to 0 and the counting can start.

When the next pulse from the time base arrives, it is able to pass through the
START gate to reset F/F-2, therefore, the F/F-2 output changes state from 0 to 1,
hence Y changes from 0 to 1. This resulting positive voltage from Y called the
gating signal, is applied to input B of the main gate thereby enabling the gate.
The assembly consisting of two F/Fs and two gates is called a
gate control F/F.
The input signal is amplified and converted to a square wave by a Schmitt trigger
circuit.

In this diagram, the square wave is differentiated and clipped to produce a train of
pulses, each pulse separated by the period of the input signal.

The time base selector output is obtained from an oscillator and is similarly converted
into positive pulses.

The first pulse activates the gate control F/F. This gate control F/F provides an enable
signal to the AND gate.

The trigger pulses of the input signal are allowed to pass through the gate for a
selected time period and counted.

 The second pulse from the decade frequency divider changes the state of the control
F/F and removes the enable signal from the AND gate, thereby closing it.

The decimal counter and display unit output corresponds to the number of input
pulses received during a precise time interval; hence the counter display corresponds to
the frequency.
Digital Measurement of Time:
Phase Meter: Figure shows a Phase Sensitive Detector Circuit
(or phase meter) for comparing an ac, signal with a reference
signal.
The Phase Sensitive Detector Circuit produces a rectified
output,which is fed to a dc meter,

To illustrate clearly that the output of the phase sensitive

detector swings the zero centre pointer in one direction for an in-
phase error voltage and in the opposite direction for an out-phase
condition.

Thus, the function of this dual rectifier circuit is to deflect the

zero entre galvanometer (or dc voltmeter) not only to indicate the
value of the signal voltage Vs (that is, a measure of the error of
imbalance),

 but also the direction of this error, and the phase polarity of the
error compared to a reference voltage. Phase polarity implies that
the detector distinguishes only between in phase and 180° out of
phase conditions, without regard for other phase angles.
The circuits of Figs (a) and (b) follows the action for a signal
voltage Vs, which is in phase with the reference voltage Vr starting
with an initial condition when the input signal Vs is zero.

In Fig. (a), for the first half cycle the instantaneous polarity of
the reference voltage Vr causes the rectified current to flow
through the conduction rectifier D1, producing a positive voltage
to ground across R1 and a tendency for the meter to deflect to the
right.

On the second half cycle,

Fig.(b), the instantaneous polarity of the reference voltage
Vr causes an equal rectified current to flow through diode D2,
producing an equal tendency for the meter to deflect to the left.
Since these two equal and opposite tendencies are averaged over
the full cycle, the galvanometer reads zero over the full cycle, with
input Vs = 0.
Electronic Measurements
and Instrumentation

Tutorial-1
Electronic Measurements
and Instrumentation

Tutorial-2
Problem-1 on voltmeters
Problem-2 on voltmeters
Electronic Measurements
and Instrumentation

Tutorial-3
 3.11 Multiple-Diode Circuits 117

Rewriting Eq. (3.31),

   
10 − Von 10 V Von Von
ID = = 1− = (1.00 mA) 1 − (3.32)
10 k 10 k 10 10

we see that the value of I D is approximately 1 mA for Von  10 V. Variations in Von have only
a small effect on the result. However, the situation would be significantly different if the source
voltage were only 1 V for example (see Prob. 3.65).

3.11 MULTIPLE-DIODE CIRCUITS

The load-line technique is applicable only to single-diode circuits, and the mathematical model,
or numerical iteration technique, becomes much more complex for circuits with more than one
nonlinear element. In fact, the SPICE electronic circuit simulation program referred to throughout
this book is designed to provide numerical solutions to just such complex problems. However, we
also need to be able to perform hand analysis to predict the operation of multidiode circuits as well
as to build our understanding and intuition of diode circuit operation. In this section we discuss
the use of the simplified diode models for hand analysis of more complicated diode circuits.

3.11.1 A Two-Diode Circuit

For our first example of multiple diode circuits, consider the circuit containing two diodes in
Fig. 3.33, which is redrawn in Fig. 3.34. For simplicity, the positive and negative voltage sources
have been replaced with +15 V written at node C and −10 V at node F. We often use this
“shorthand” representation to help avoid clutter in circuit diagrams as they become more complex.
Such representations should always be interpreted to mean that a voltage source with the given
value is connected between the node and the reference terminal for the circuit.

C 10 kΩ D E 5 kΩ F

D1 D2
15 V 10 V

Figure 3.33 Circuit containing two diodes.

C 10 kΩ D E 5 kΩ F C 10 kΩ D E 5 kΩ F

+15 V –10 V +15 V –10 V

D2 D2
D1 D1

(a) (b)

Figure 3.34 (a) Simplified representation of the circuit from Fig. 3.33. (b) Diodes replaced by the ideal
diodes.
118 Chapter 3 Solid-State Diodes and Diode Circuits

EXAMPLE 3.8 ANALYSIS OF A CIRCUIT CONTAINING TWO DIODES

As the complexity of diode circuits grows, we must rely on our intuition to eliminate unreasonable
solution choices. Intuition is developed by working problems, and here we analyze our first circuit
containing more than one diode.

PROBLEM Find the Q-points for both diodes in the circuit in Figs. 3.33 and 3.34.
SOLUTION Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and element values appear in Fig. 3.33.
Unknowns: (I D1 , VD1 ), (I D2 , VD2 )
Approach: Following the five steps in Sec. 3.10, the ideal diode model was chosen for the
analysis, and in Fig. 3.34(b), the circuit is redrawn using this model. With two diodes, there will
be four potential piecewise linear models for the circuit corresponding to the four diode states in
Table 3.4. We must try to use some intuition to make a choice of states. It appears that the +15-V
source will try to force a current in the positive direction through both diodes D1 and D2 ; the
−10-V source will also try to force a current through D2 in the positive direction. A reasonable
initial choice for this circuit, therefore, is to assume that both diodes are in the on state.

TABLE 3.4
Possible Diode States for C 10 kΩ I 1 D ID2 E 5 kΩ F
Circuit in Fig. 3.34(b) +15 V D2 –10 V

D1 ID1
D1 D2
Off Off
Off On
On On
On Off Figure 3.35 Circuit with both diodes assumed
to be on.

Assumptions: Use of the ideal diode model is adequate for the analysis
Analysis: The circuit is redrawn in Fig. 3.35 using the piecewise linear models assuming both
ideal diodes are in the on state. The currents in the circuit can now be found using a combination
of Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s current law. Because the voltage at node D is zero due to the
short circuit of ideal diode D1 , the currents I1 and I D2 can be written directly using Ohm’s law:

(15 − 0) V 0 − (−10) V
I1 = = 1.50 mA and I D2 = = 2.00 mA (3.33)
10 k 5 k

At node D, I1 = I D1 + I D2 , so I D1 = 1.50 − 2.00 = −0.50 mA.

Check of Results: The calculated Q-points are (−0.5 mA, 0 V) and (2.0 mA, 0 V). The result,
I D2 > 0, is consistent with D2 being on, but I D1 < 0 is not allowed by the diode. Our assumed
state must be incorrect, so we must change our assumptions and try again.
A SECOND Because the current in D2 was valid but that in D1 was invalid, an appropriate second guess
ITERATION would be D1 off and D2 on. Note, however, that there is no guarantee that this choice will in
fact be correct. Analysis of the new circuit in Fig. 3.36 proceeds as follows. Because I D1 is now
 3.11 Multiple-Diode Circuits 119

C 10 kΩ I1 D ID2 E 5 kΩ F

+15 V D2 –10 V
+
D1 VD1
–

Figure 3.36 Circuit with D1 off and D2 on.

assumed to be zero, I D2 = I1 and a single-loop equation can be written for I1 :

15 − 10,000I1 − 5000I D2 − (−10) = 0

25 = 10,000I1 + 5000I1 because I D2 = I1
(3.34)
25 V
I1 = = 1.67 mA
15,000 

The voltage across diode D1 is given by

VD1 = 15 − 10,000I1 = 15 − 16.7 = −1.67 V (3.35)

Check of Results: The Q-points of the two diodes are now given by
D1 : (0 mA, −1.67 V): off ✔

D2 : (1.67 mA, 0 V): on ✔

Both Q-points are consistent with the assumed states of the diodes, so we have found the correct
solution.
Discussion: In the worst situation, we could have to perform four analyses to find the correct
answer. As our understanding of diode circuits matures, we should be able to eliminate most of
the unfruitful possibilities.
Computer-Aided Analysis: SPICE is always a good avenue to check our analysis. In this
circuit, IS defaults to 10 fA. The device parameters and Q-points can be obtained directly from
SPICE with the SHOW and SHOWMOD commands, and the results are (−1.23 pA, −1.22 V)
and (1.62 mA, 0.667 V). Our hand calculations agree well with these results. The large reverse
leakage current in D1 results from a more complex diode model in the author’s version of SPICE.
The diode voltage of 0.645 V does not significantly affect the current in D2 because the driving
voltage in the loop is so high (25 V).

R1 R2

10 K 5K
D2

V1 15 V D1 –10 V V2

Circuit for
SPICE simulation
120 Chapter 3 Solid-State Diodes and Diode Circuits

Exercise: Find the Q-points for the two diodes in Fig. 3.33 if the value of the 5 k resistor
is changed to 10 k.
Answers: (0.50 mA, 0 V); (1.00 mA, 0 V)

Exercise: Use SPICE to calculate the Q-points of the diodes in the previous exercise. Use
I S = 10 fA.
Answers: (0.439 mA, 0.634 V); (0.998 mA, 0.655 V)

3.11.2 A Three-Diode Circuit

Figure 3.37 is a second example of a circuit with several diodes. In the analysis of this circuit, we
will use the CVD model for improved accuracy.

+10 V

R1 10 kΩ

D1 I1 D2 D3
A C

B
I2 I3

R2 10 kΩ R3 10 kΩ

– 20 V –10 V

Figure 3.37 Example of a circuit containing three diodes.

EXAMPLE 3.9 ANALYSIS OF A CIRCUIT CONTAINING THREE DIODES

Now we will attempt to find the solution for a three-diode circuit. Our analysis will employ the
CVD model.

PROBLEM Find the Q-points for the three diodes in Fig. 3.37. Use the constant voltage drop model for the
diodes.
SOLUTION Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and element values in Fig. 3.37
Unknowns: (I D1 , VD1 ), (I D2 , VD2 ), (I D3 , VD3 )
Approach: With three diodes, there are eight possibilities. For this circuit, it appears that the
+10-V supply will tend to forward-bias D1 and D2 , and the −10-V supply will tend to forward-
bias D2 and D3 . The −20-V supply will also try to forward-bias D1 , so our initial circuit model
will assume that all three diodes are on.
Assumptions: Use the constant voltage drop model with Von = 0.6 V.
Analysis: The circuit is redrawn using the CVD diode models in Fig. 3.38. Here we skipped
the step of physically drawing the circuit with the ideal diode symbols but instead incorporated
Oscilloscopes and signal analysis
 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Introduction to CRO – Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
• The cathode ray oscilloscope is an extremely useful and versatile laboratory instrument used for studying wave shapes of
alternating currents and voltages as well as for measurement of voltage, current, power and frequency, in fact, almost any
quantity that involves amplitude and waveform.
• It allows the user to see the amplitude of electrical signals as a function of time on the screen. It is widely used for trouble
shooting radio and TV receivers as well as laboratory work involving research and design.
• It can also be employed for studying the wave shape of a signal with respect to amplitude distortion and deviation from
the normal. In true sense the cathode ray oscilloscope has been one of the most important tools in the design and
development of modern electronic circuits.
• The instrument employs a cathode ray tube (CRT), which is the heart of the oscilloscope. It generates the electron beam,
accelerates the beam to a high velocity, deflects the beam to create the image, and contains a phosphor screen where
the electron beam eventually becomes visible.
• For accomplishing these tasks various electrical signals and voltages are required, which are provided by the power
supply circuit of the oscilloscope.
• Low voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun for generation of electron beam and high voltage, of
the order of few thousand volts, is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the beam. Normal voltage supply, say a
few hundred volts, is required for other control circuits of the oscilloscope.
• Horizontal and vertical deflection plates are fitted between electron gun and screen to deflect the beam according to
input signal.
• Electron beam strikes the screen and creates a visible spot.
• This spot is deflected on the screen in horizontal direction (X-axis) with constant time dependent
rate. This is accomplished by a time base circuit provided in the oscilloscope.
• The signal to be viewed is supplied to the vertical deflection plates through the vertical amplifier,
which raises the potential of the input signal to a level that will provide usable deflection of the
electron beam.
• Now electron beam deflects in two directions, horizontal on X-axis and vertical on Y-axis. A
triggering circuit is provided for synchronizing two types of deflections so that horizontal
deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical signal each time it sweeps.
 Vertical Deflection System
• It synchronizes the horizontal deflection of the electron beam with the vertical input signal waveform.
• The main function of the Vertical Deflection System (VDS) of a CRO is, to suitably amplify the signal input such
that its basic characteristics do not undergo any change or modification
• The i/p connector feeds an i/p attenuator, after which follows the vertical amplifier. The i/p impedance of the
oscilloscope is rather high, being on the order of 1MΩ, which is desirable for measuring voltages in high
impedance ckts.
• I/p attenuator sets the sensitivity of the oscilloscope (i.e it provides the correct 1-2-5 sequence attenuation)
• The push-pull output stage delivers equal signal voltages of opposite polarity to the vertical plates of the CRT
Capacitive voltage divider improves high freq.response of attenuator
 Delay Line
• All electronic circuitry in the oscilloscope (attenuators, amplifiers, pulse shapers, generators) causes a certain
amount of time delay in the transmission of signal voltages to the deflection plates.
• Comparing the vertical and horizontal deflection ckt.s, we observe that horizontal signal (time base or sweep
voltage) is initiated or triggered by a portion of the o/p signal applied to the vertical CRT plates.
• Signal processing in the horizontal channel consists of generating and shaping a trigger pulse, that starts the
sweep generator, whose o/p is fed to the horizontal amplifier and then to the horizontal deflection plates.
• This whole process takes time, on the order of 80ns. The signal, drive for the vertical CRT plates must therefore
be delayed by at least the same amount of time i.e (80ns)
• We observe that a 200ns delay line has been added to the vertical channel, so that the signal voltage to the CRT
plates is delayed by 200ns and the horizontal sweep is started prior to the vertical deflection
 Types of Delay Line
• 1) Lumped Parameter Delay Line: Consists of cascaded symmetrical LC networks (Ex: T-
section)
• It is true that the characteristic impedance of transmission line is equal to its i/p impedance
when the line is infinitely long. It is the property of that a delay line is terminated in its
characteristic impedance to save from the reflections or line oscillations
• 2) Distributed Parameter Delay Line: consists of a specially manufactured coaxial cable with a
high value of inductance per unit length
• In a two wire transmission line, the two wires are separated by a dielectric and therefore distributed
capacitance is also present.
• Because no capacitor is perfect, a dielectric leakage resistance must also be considered
• Equivalent ckt. for a short length of line therefore must include all these elements with resistance R and
inductance L in series and dielectric leakage conductance G and capacitive reactance in shunt
• Loss less ( where R=G=0) lines are performed as delay lines because they do not introduce attenuation to the
impressed signal. Further infinite lines are simulated by finite lines terminated in its characteristic impedance
 Horizontal Deflection System
• The purpose of the horizontal deflection system is to deflect the horizontal portion of the trace at a const. rate
relative time, which is often referred to as linear sweep
• Horizontal deflection system consists of Trigger ckt., time base generator and a horizontal amplifier.
• Trigger Circuit: The signals which are used to activate the trigger circuit are converted to trigger pulses for the
precision sweep operation whose amplitude is uniform. Hence input signal and the sweep frequency can be
synchronized.
• Time Base Circuit: Time base circuit uses a uni junction transistor, which is used to produce the sweep. The saw
tooth voltage produced by the time base circuit is required to deflect the beam in the horizontal section. The
spot is deflected by the saw tooth voltage at a constant time dependent rate.
• The sweep generator uses the charging characteristics of a capacitor to generate linear rise time voltages to
feed to the horizontal amplifier
• Sweep generator is capable of low sweeps of 20µs per division to a maximum of 50ns per
division using both variable currents and switches capacitors.
• Sweep generator follows the same 1-2-5 sequence that was used in the i/p attenuator in the
vertical system
• Resistors in the constant current generator are switched to provide currents in a 1-2-5
sequence, which involves switching resistors in the reciprocal relationship, i.e 1-1/2-1/5
sequence, while the capacitors are switched in a decade sequence.
• Horizontal Amplifier: The saw tooth voltage produced by the time base circuit is amplified by
the horizontal amplifier before it is applied to horizontal deflection plates.
• It is required to increase the amplitude of the signals generated in the sweep generator to
the level required by the horizontal deflection plates of the cathode ray tube.
 Cathode Ray Tube

The interior of a cathode-ray tube for use in an oscilloscope. 1.

Deflection voltage electrode; 2. Electron gun; 3. Electron beam;
4. Focusing coil; 5. Phosphor-coated inner side of the screen
• Used in low freq. oscilloscopes
• Electron Gun Assembly : (preaccelarating anode at few hundred volts )
• Electrostatic Focusing System
• Electron lens requires 3 elements,
with the center element at a lower
potential than the two outer
elements
• The two elements are at different
potentials with r.h.s element at a
higher potential than the l.h.s
element
• Because of the potential difference
there would be an electric field
generated
• Deflection Plate Assembly.
• Electron beam, after leaving the electron gun, passes through the two pairs of
deflection pates. One pair of deflection plates is mounted vertically and deflects the
beam in horizontal or X-direction and so called the horizontal or l-plates and the
other pair is mounted horizontally and deflects the beam in vertical or Y-direction and
called the vertical or Y-plates. These plates are to deflect the beam according to the
voltage applied across them. For example if a constant pd is applied to the set of Y-
plates, the electron beam will be deflected upward if the upper plate is positive. In
case the lower plate is positive then the beam will be deflected downward. Similarly if
a constant pd is applied to the set of X-plates, the electron beam will be deflected to
the left or right of the tube axis according to the condition whether the left or right
plate is positive. When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to Y-plates, the beam will be
moved up and down according to the variation of plate potential. If the frequency of
variation is more than 16 Hz the deflection will be a vertical line in the center of the
screen. In case the sinusoidal voltage is applied to X-plates and frequency of variation
is more than 16 Hz the deflection will be a horizontal line. If potentials are applied to
both sets of plates simultaneously, the deflection will be an oblique line. The amount
of deflection is in proportion to the voltage applied to the pair of plates.
• Deflection of Moving Electrons in CRO Tubes
• We know that a force is experienced by an electron when it is kept in a uniform
electric field. This principle is the basis for the deflection of electron beam
owing to deflection plates. Let us consider an electron having initial velocity of
u m/s along X-axis at point O in the space between the plates A and B, each of
length l metres and separated by a distance of d metres. Let the pd across the
plates be of V volts. For simplicity, let us assume that the field is uniform and
does not extend beyond the ends of the plates. Axial velocity of electron
remains unchanged and is equal to u as there is no axial force and, therefore,
no axial acceleration.
• Screen For CRT.
• As we know that some crystalline materials, such a phosphor, have property of
emitting light when exposed to radiation. This is called the
fluorescence characteristic of the materials. These fluorescent materials
continue to emit light even after radiation exposure is cut off. This is called the
phosphorescence characteristic of the materials. The length of time during
which phosphorescence occurs is called the persistence of the phosphor.The
end wall of the CRT, called the screen, is coated with phosphor. When electron
beam strikes the CRT screen, a spot of light is produced on the screen. The
phosphor absorbs the kinetic energy of the bombarding electrons and emits,
energy at a lower frequency in a visual spectrum. Among the fluorescent
materials used are zinc orthosilicate giving a green trace very suitable for visual
observations; calcium tungstate giving blue and ultra-violet radiations very
suitable for photography and zinc sulphide with other materials giving a white
light suitable for TV. Zinc phosphate gives a pronounced after glow and is useful
when studying transient phenomena because the trace persists for short while
after the transient has disappeared.
• Glass Body And Base.
• The whole assembly is protected in a conical highly evacuated glass housing
through suitable supports. The inner walls of CRT between neck and screen are
usually coated with a conducting material known as aquadag and this coating is
electrically connected to the accelerating anode. The coating is provided
in order to accelerate the electron beam after passing between the deflecting
plates and to collect the electrons produced by secondary emission when
electron beam strikes the screen. Thus the coating prevents the formation of –
ve charge on the screen and state of equilibrium of screen is
maintained. Horizontal and vertical marks are marked on the screen of the CRT
to provide user a correct measurement. These marks, usually in rectangular
form, are called graticule.
 CRT Circuits
• Cathode Ray Tube must be supplied with several dc potentials to provide the proper control, acceleration and focusing action
• CRT and associated ckts., provide required potentials for operation
• The first requirement is a low voltage for the cathode heater
• High –ve potential will be applied to cathode grid and focusing electrodes.
• High +ve potential will be applied to post deflection acceleration electrode
• Three controls are associated with operating voltages of CRT: Intensity, Focus and Astigmatism

Intensity control varies the potential b/w the cathode

And the control grid
Focus control adjusts the focal length of electrostatic
Lens
Astigmatism control adjusts the potential b/w the
deflection plates and the first accelerating electrode
And is used to produce the round spot
 Oscilloscope Probes and Transducers
• Oscilloscope probes, or scope probes, can be categorized into a number of
different types: active, passive, 1X, 10X, 100X

• Passive oscilloscope probes: This type of probe is the one that is in most
widespread use. It only includes passive elements and may provide 1:1, i.e.
straight through connectivity from the point under test, to the scope input.
Other types may provide a defined degree of attenuation.
• Active oscilloscope probes: As indicated by the name, this type of scope probe
has active components incorporated within the probe itself. This enables
greater levels of functionality and higher levels of performance to be attained.
However they are much more expensive and normally reserved for more
exacting or specialist requirements.
• Passive oscilloscope probes
• The great majority of test scope probes used with oscilloscopes are the passive
variety. They enable a wide range of measurements to be made, and cover
most applications. In addition to this, passive test probes are far cheaper than
active ones as would be expected.

• Scope probes are generally classified according to the level of attenuation of

the signal they provide. Types including 1X (giving a 1 : 1 attenuation ratio), 10X
(giving a 10 : 1 attenuation ratio) and 100X (giving a 100 : 1 attenuation ratio)
are available:
• 1X scope probes The most basic form of oscilloscope probe, or scope probe, is what is often
termed the 1X probe.
• It is so called because this type of scope probe does not attenuate the incoming voltage as many
other probes do.
• It consists of a connector to interface to the oscilloscope (generally a BNC (Bayonet Neill–
Concelman) connector), and a length of coax which is connected to the probe itself.
• This comprises a mechanical clip arrangement so that the probe can be attached to the appropriate
test point, and an earth or ground clip to be attached to the appropriate ground point on the circuit
under test.

• The 1X probes are suitable for many low frequency applications. They typically offer the same input
impedance of the oscilloscope which is normally 1 M Ohm.
• However for applications where better accuracy is needed and as frequencies start to rise, other test
probes are needed.
• 10X scope probes To enable better accuracy to be achieved higher levels of impedance are required. To
achieve this, attenuators are built into the end of the probe that connects with the circuit under test.

• The most common type of probe with a built in attenuator gives an attenuation of ten, and it is known as a 10X
oscilloscope probe. The attenuation enables the impedance presented to the circuit under test to be increased
by a factor of ten, and this enables more accurate measurements to be made.

• The 10X scope probe uses a series resistor (9 M Ohms) to provide a 10 : 1 attenuation when it is used with the 1
M Ohm input impedance of the scope itself. A 1 M Ohm impedance is the standard impedance used for
oscilloscope inputs and therefore this enables scope probes to be interchanged between oscilloscopes of
different manufacturers.

Typical oscilloscope probe schematic

• 100X scope probes Although they are not as common as the 1X and 10X scope
probes, 100X probes and other values including 20X and 1000X are also available.

• These oscilloscope probes tend to be used very high voltages need to be monitored
and a high degree of attenuation is required or if very low levels of loading are
needed.

• These probes are not common and tend to be quite specialized. If they were used for
normal applications, the 100X attenuation would result in very small signal levels
being presented to the input of the oscilloscope and as a result, noise on the input
amplifiers of the scope would tend to be visible
 Active Probe
• FET is an active element used to amplify the i/p signal
• FET must be mounted directly in the voltage probe tip, so that the capacitance of an interconnecting cable can be eliminated.
• The FET voltage follower drives a coaxial cable, but instead of the cable connecting directly to the high-i/p impedance of the oscilloscope, the cable
is terminated in its characteristic impedance.
• Disadvantage of FET Probe:
• Because there is no signal attenuation between the FET amplifier and the probe tip, the range of signals that can be handled by the FET probe is
limited to the dynamic range of the FET amplifier (typically few volts)
• It is for this reason that, active voltage probes have limited use.
• Therefore, to handle a larger dynamic range, external attenuators are added at the probe tip
• Adding the attenuator to the FET probe is effectively making the FET probe an attenuator probe.
• Single-ended active probes
• Active probes contain a small, active amplifier built into the probe body near
the probe tip.
• This arrangement makes it possible to keep the probe input capacitance very
low, usually less than 2 pF.
• This low capacitance results in high input impedance on high frequencies.
• It has the best overall combination of resistive and capacitive loading. With
such low loading, active probes can be used on high-impedance circuits that
would be seriously loaded by passive probes.
• Active probes are the least intrusive of all the probes
 Current probes
• Current probes sense the current flowing through a conductor and convert it to a voltage that can be viewed
and measured on an oscilloscope.
• Keysight current probes use a hybrid technology that includes a Hall-effect sensor, which senses the DC
current, and a current transformer, which senses the AC current.
• Using split core construction, the current probe easily clips on and off of a conductor, making it unnecessary to
make an electrical connection to the circuit. Measurement bandwidths from DC to 150 MHz are available.
These probes have a flexible clip-around sensor coil that can easily be wrapped around current carrying test
points for measurement and can measure large current without increase in transducer size
https://youtu.be/lShhZHNUTs0
 Mr.P. Devi Pradeep
ANITS-ECE Department
Unit-3 -Second Part

Contents

 Signal analysis-basic wave analyzer

 heterodyne wave analyzer

 harmonic distortion analyzer

 spectrum analyzer
Introduction:
Any complex waveform is made up of a fundamental and its harmonics.

 It is often desired to measure the amplitude of each harmonic or fundamental

individually. This can be performed by instruments called wave analyzers.

 This is the simplest form of analysis in the frequency domain, and can be
performed with a set of tuned filters and a voltmeter.

 Wave analyzers are also referred to as frequency selective voltmeters, carrier

frequency voltmeters, and selective level voltmeters.

The instrument is tuned to the frequency of one component whose amplitude is

measured.

 This instrument is a narrow band superheterodyne receiver, similar to a

spectrum analyzer (discussed later). It has a very narrow pass-band. A meter is
used for measurement, instead of a CRT.

Wave analyzers are used in the low RF range, below 50 MHz and down through
the AF range. They provide a very high frequency resolution.
Some wave analyzers have the facility of automatic frequency
control, in which the tuning automatically locks to a signal.

 This makes it possible to measure the amplitude of signals that

are drifting in frequency by amounts that would carry them
outside the widest pass-band available.

 When a sinusoidal signal is applied to the input of an ideal

linear amplifier, it produces a sinusoidal output waveform.
 However, in most cases the output waveform is not an exact
replica of the input signal because of different types of distortion.

 The amount by which the output waveform of an amplifier

differs from the input waveform is a measure of the distortion
introduced by the inherent non-linear characteristics of the active
devices.
 Harmonic distortion analyzers measure the total harmonic
content in the waveforms.
It can be shown mathematically that an amplitude distorted
sine wave is made up of pure sine wave components, including
the fundamental frequency f of the input signal,
and harmonic multiples of the fundamental frequency, 2f, 3f, 4f
etc.
 Harmonic distortion can be quantitatively measured very
accurately with a harmonic distortion analyzer, generally called a
distortion analyzer.

The total harmonic distortion or factor is given by

Where D2,D2,D3 … represent the second harmonic, third

harmonic, etc. respectively
The distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic distortion
without indicating the amplitude and frequency of each
component waves.
Signal analysis of both random and periodic signals in the
frequency domain is used extensively in electronic and
telecommunications. The frequency stability and spectral purity of
signal sources can be measured by the use of these signal
analyzers.

These signal analyzers can be used along with a frequency

generator or a source of white or pseudo-random noise to
measure the frequency response of amplifiers, filters or other
networks.
The operational characteristics of a transreceiver and
communication system are determined by measuring various
parameters, such as spectral purity of the carrier wave, spectral
power distribution of the amplitude or frequency modulated
wave, signal distortion, and the systems signal to noise ratio.
Basic Wave Analyzer:
 A basic wave analyzer is shown in Fig. It consists of a primary detector, which
is a simple LC circuit.
 This LC circuit is adjusted for resonance at the frequency of the particular
harmonic component to be measured.
 The intermediate stage is a full wave rectifier, to obtain the average value of
the input signal.

 The indicating device is a simple dc voltmeter that is calibrated to read

the peak value of the sinusoidal input voltage.
 Since the LC circuit is tuned to a single frequency, it passes only the frequency
to which it is tuned and rejects all other frequencies.
 A number of tuned filters, connected to the indicating device through a
selector switch, would be required for a useful Wave analyzer.
Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer:
The Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer consists of a very narrow pass-band
filter section which can be tuned to a particular frequency within the audible
frequency range (20 Hz — 20 kHz). The block diagram of a wave analyzer is as
shown in Fig.
The complex wave to be analyzed is passed through an adjustable attenuator
which serves as a range multiplier and permits a large range of signal
amplitudes to be analyzed without loading the amplifier.
The output of the attenuator is then fed to a selective amplifier, which
amplifies the selected frequency.
The driver amplifier applies the attenuated input signal to a high-Q active
filter.
This high-Q filter is a low pass filter which allows the frequency which is
selected to pass and reject all others.
The magnitude of this selected frequency is indicated by the meter and the
filter section identifies the frequency of the component.
The filter circuit consists of a cascaded RC resonant circuit and amplifiers. For
selecting the frequency range, the capacitors generally used are of the closed
tolerance polystyrene type and the resistances used are
precision potentiometers.
The capacitors are used for range changing and the potentiometer is used to
change the frequency within the selected pass-band, Hence this wave analyzer
is also called a Frequency selective voltmeter
The entire AF range is covered in decade steps by switching capacitors in the RC
section.
 The selected signal output from the final amplifier stage is applied to the
meter circuit and to an untuned buffer amplifier.

The main function of the buffer amplifieris to drive output devices, such as
recorders or electronics counters.
The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel scales marked on it. It is
driven by an average reading rectifier type detector.
The wave analyzer must have extremely low input distortion, undetectable by
the analyzer itself.

The bandwidth of the instrument is very

narrow, typically about 1% of the
selective band given
by the following
response characteristics.
Heterodyne Wave Analyzer:
 Wave analyzers are useful for measurement in the audio
frequency range only.
For measurements in the RF range and above (MHz range), an
ordinary wave analyzer cannot be used.
Hence, special types of wave analyzers working on the principle
of heterodyning (mixing) are used.
These wave analyzers are known as Heterodyne Wave Analyzer.
 In this wave analyzer, the input signal to be analyzed is heterodyned with the
signal from the internal tunable local oscillator in the mixer stage to produce a
higher IF frequency.

 By tuning the local oscillator frequency, various signal frequency components

can be shifted within the pass-band of the IF amplifier.

 The output of the IF amplifier is rectified and applied to the meter circuit.

 The input signal is heterodyned to the known IF by means of a tunable local

oscillator.

 The amplitude of the unknown component is indicated by the VTVM or

output meter. The VTVM is calibrated by means of signals of known amplitude.

Practical RF heterodyne waver analyzer home work

Harmonic distortion analyzer:
Fundamental suppression type:
 A Harmonic Distortion Analyzer measures the total harmonic
power present in the test wave rather than the distortion caused
by each component.

 The simplest method is to suppress the fundamental frequency

by means of a high pass filter whose cut off frequency is a little
above the fundamental frequency.

 This high pass allows only the harmonics to pass and the total
harmonic distortion can then be measured.

Other types of Harmonic Distortion Analyzer based on

fundamental suppression are as follows.
1.Employing a Resonance bridge :
 The bridge shown in Fig. is balanced for the fundamental
frequency, i.e. L and C are tuned to the fundamental frequency.
 The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics, i.e. only harmonic
power will be available at the output terminal and can be
measured.
 If the fundamental frequency is changed, the bridge must be
balanced again. If L and C are fixed components, then this method
is suitable only when the test wave has a fixed frequency.
Indicators can be thermocouples or square law VTVMs. This
indicates the rms value of all harmonics.
 When a continuous adjustment of the fundamental frequency is desired, a
Wien bridge arrangement is used as shown in Fig.

Wien’s Bridge Method:

 The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency. The fundamental

energy is dissipated in the bridge circuit elements.
 Only the harmonic components reach the output terminals. The harmonic
distortion output can then be measured with ameter.
 For balance at the fundamental frequency, C1,C2,C, R1=R2=R,R3=2R4.
Bridged T-Network Method:

 Referring to Fig. the, L and C’s are tuned to the fundamental frequency, and R
is adjusted to bypass fundamental frequency.

 The tank circuit being tuned to the fundamental frequency, the fundamental
energy will circulate in the tank and is bypassed by the resistance.

 Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and the distorted
output can be measured by the meter.
T he Q of the resonant circuit must be at least 3-5.
Spectrum Analyzer :
 The most common way of observing signals is to display them on an
oscilloscope, with time as the X-axis (i.e. amplitude of the signal versus time).

 This is the time domain. It is also useful to display signals in the frequency
domain.

The instrument providing this frequency domain view is the spectrum analyzer.
 A Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram provides a calibrated graphical display on
its CRT, with frequency on the horizontal axis and amplitude (voltage) on the
vertical axis.

 Displayed as vertical lines against these coordinates are sinusoidal

components of which the input signal is composed.

The height represents the absolute magnitude, and the horizontal location
represents the frequency.

 These instruments provide a display of the frequency spectrum over a given

frequency band. Spectrum analyzers use either a parallel filter bank or a swept
frequency technique.
 In a parallel filter bank analyzer,
the frequency range is covered by a
series of filters whose central
frequencies and bandwidth are so
selected that they overlap each
other, as shown in Fig.

 Typically, an audio analyzer will

have 32 of these filters, each covering
one third of an octave.

 For wide band narrow resolution

analysis, particularly at RF
or microwave signals, the swept
technique is preferred.
Basic Spectrum Analyzer Using Swept Receiver Design:
 Referring to the block diagram of Fig.b, the sawtooth generator provides the
sawtooth voltage which drives the horizontal axis element of the scope and this
sawtooth voltage is frequency controlled element of the voltage tuned
oscillator.
As the oscillator sweeps from fmin to fmax of its frequency band at a linear
recurring rate, it beats with the frequency component of the input signal and
produce an IF, whenever a frequency component is met during its sweep.
The frequency component and voltage tuned oscillator frequency beats
together to produce a difference
frequency, i.e. IF.
The IF corresponding to the
component is amplified and
detected if necessary, and then
applied
to the vertical plates
of the CRO, producing
a display of amplitude
versus frequency.
The spectrum produced if the input wave is a single toned A.M. is given in Figs 9.10,
9.11, and 9.12.
Spectrum Analyzer Applications
 One of the principal applications of spectrum analyzers has been in
the study of the RF spectrum produced in microwave instruments

In a microwave instrument, the horizontal axis can display as a

wide a range as 2 — 3 GHz for a broad survey and as narrow as 30
kHz, for a highly magnified view of any small portion of the
spectrum.

Signals at microwave frequency separated by only a few kHz can be

seen individually.

The frequency range covered by this instrument is from 1 MHz to

40 GHz. The basic block diagram (Fig. 9.13)(next slide) is of a
spectrum analyzer covering the range 500 kHz to 1 GHz, which is
representative of a superheterodyne type.
 The input signal is fed into a mixer which is driven by a local
oscillator.
This oscillator is linearly tunable electrically over the range 2 — 3
GHz. The mixer provides two signals at its output that are
proportional in amplitude to the input signal but of frequencies
which are the sum and difference of the input signal and local
oscillator frequency.
The IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band around 2 GHz, since
the local oscillator is tuned over the range of 2 — 3 GHz,
 only inputs that are separated from the local oscillator
frequency by 2 GHz will be converted to IF frequency band, pass
through the IF frequency amplifier, get rectified and produce a
vertical deflection on the CRT.
 From this, it is observed that as the sawtooth signal sweeps, the
local oscillator also sweeps linearly from 2 — 3 GHz.
The tuning of the spectrum analyzer is a swept receiver, which
sweeps linearly from 0 to 1 GHz.
The sawtooth scanning signal is also applied to the horizontal
plates of the CRT to form the frequency axis.
(The Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram is also sensitive to signals
from 4 — 5 GHz referred to as the image frequency of the
superheterodyne. A low pass filter with a cutoff frequency above
1 GHz at the input suppresses these spurious signals.)
Spectrum analyzers are widely used in radars, oceanography,
and bio-medical fields.
Digital storage oscilloscope: The conventional Cathode rayb tube has the
persistence of the phosphor ranging from a few millisecond to several seconds. But some
times it is necessary to retain the image for much longer periods up to several hours . It
requires storing of wave form for a certain duration, independent of phospor persistence.
Ø The input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section.

Ø The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as used in the
conventional oscilloscopes.

Ø The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier.

Ø To digitize the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used.

Ø The output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section.

Ø The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most oftenly used in the
digital storage oscilloscopes.

Ø The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration &
the waveform to be recorded.

Ø Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it.

Ø The signal is then captured in the memory.

Ø Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as memory can
be readout without being erased.
Ø The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes:

1. Roll mode: Very fast varying signals are displayed clearly in this
mode. In this mode

2. Store mode: This is called refresh. In this case input intimates

trigger circuit. Memory write cycle starts with trigger pulse. When
memory is full , write cycle stops, thenusing DAC , the stored signal
is converted to analog and displayed. When next trigger occurs the
memory is refreshed

3. Hold or save mode: this is automatic refresh mode. When new

sweep signal is generated by time base generator, the old contents
get over written by new one. By pressing hold and save button, over
writing can be stopped and previously saved signal gets locked.
Advantages
i) It is easier to operate and has more capability.

ii) The storage time is infinite.

iii) The display flexibility is available. The number of traces that can be stored and
recalled depends on the size of the memory.

iv) The cursor measurement is possible.

v) The characters can be displayed on screen along with the waveform

which can indicate waveform information such as minimum, maximum, frequency,
amplitude etc.
vi) The X-Y plots, B-H curve, P-V diagrams can be displayed.

vii) The pretrigger viewing feature allows to display the waveform before trigger pulse.

viii) Keeping the records is possible by transmitting the data to computer system where
the further processing is possible

ix) Signal processing is possible which includes translating the raw data into finished
information e.g. computing parameters of a captured signal like r.m.s. value, energy
stored etc.
Bridge Measurements
• Wheatstone bridge, Kelvin bridge,
• Digital read-out bridges, microprocessor controlled bridge
• AC bridges: Measurement of inductance-Maxwell‟s bridge, hay
bridge, Anderson Bridge.
• Measurement of capacitance- Schering Bridge,
• Measurement of frequency-Wien bridge,
• wagners earth connection
Measurement of Resistance
(Wheatstone bridge, Kelvin bridge)
 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
• Wheatstone Bridge Circuit are extensively used for measuring
component values such as R, L and C.

• Wheatstone Bridge Circuit (Measurement of Resistance):

• The circuit diagram of a typical Wheatstone Bridge Circuit is given in Fig.
11.1. The source of emf and switch is connected to points A and B, while
a sensitive current indicating meter, the galvanometer, is connected to
points C and D.

• The galvanometer is a sensitive micro ammeter, with a zero center scale. When there is no current through
the meter, the galvanometer pointer rests at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current in one direction causes the pointer to
deflect on one side and current in the opposite direction to the other side.

• When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point A, i.e. I1 and I2. The bridge is
balanced when there is no current through the galvanometer, or when the potential difference at points C
and D is equal, i.e. the potential across the galvanometer is zero.
• To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig. 11.1.

• For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions should be satisfied.

• Substituting in Eq. (11.1)

Rx unknown resistance

• This is the equation for the bridge to be balanced.

• In a practical Wheatstone Bridge Circuit, at least one of the resistance is made adjustable, to
permit balancing. When the bridge is balanced, the unknown resistance (normally
connected at R4) may be determined from the setting of the adjustable resistor, which is
called a standard resistor because it is a precision device having very small tolerance.
• Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge
• When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition, current flows through the
galvanometer, causing a deflection of its pointer.
• The amount of deflection is a function of the sensitivity of the galvanometer.
Sensitivity can be thought of as deflection per unit current.
• A more sensitive galvanometer deflects by a greater amount for the same
current. Deflection may be expressed in linear or angular units of measure, and
sensitivity can be expressed in units of S = mm/μA or degree/µA or radians/μA.
• Therefore it follows that the total deflection D is D = S x I, where S is the
sensitivity and I is the current in microamperes.
• Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge
• To determine the amount of deflection that would result for a particular degree of unbalance, general circuit
analysis can be applied, but we shall use Thevenin’s theorem.
• Since we are interested in determining the current through the galvanometer, we wish to find the Thevenin’s
equivalent, as seen by the galvanometer.
• Thevenin’s equivalent voltage is found by disconnecting the galvanometer from the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit,
and determining the open-circuit voltage between terminals a and b.

Applying the voltage divider equation, the voltage at point a can be determined as follows

Therefore, the voltage between a and b is the difference between Ea and Eb,
which represents Thevenin’s equivalent voltage.

Therefore
• Thevenin’s equivalent resistance can be determined by replacing the voltage source E with its
internal impedance or otherwise short-circuit and calculate the resistance looking into
terminals a and b. Since the internal resistance is assumed to be very low, we treat it as 0 Ω.
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance circuit is shown in Fig. 11.3.

The equivalent resistance of the circuit is R1//R3 in series with R2//R4 i.e. R1//R3 + R2//R4.

If a galvanometer is connected across the terminals a and b, or its Thevenin

equivalent Fig. 11.4 it will experience the same deflection at the output of the
bridge. The magnitude of current is limited by both Thevenin’s equivalent
resistance and any resistance connected between a and b. The resistance
between a and b consists only of the galvanometer resistance Rg.
The deflection current in the galvanometer is therefore given by
 Application of Wheatstone’s Bridge
A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the dc resistance of various types of wire, either
for the purpose of quality control of the wire itself, or of some assembly in which it is used.
For example, the resistance of motor windings, transformers, solenoids, and relay coils can be
measured.

Limitations of Wheatstone’s Bridge

• For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts becomes
significant and introduces an error. This can be eliminated by Kelvin’s Double bridge.
 Kelvins Bridge theory
• When the resistance to be measured is of the order of magnitude of bridge contact and lead resistance, a
modified form of Wheatstone’s bridge, the Kelvins Bridge theory is employed.

• In low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads connecting the unknown resistance to the terminal
of the bridge circuit may affect the measurement. Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.10, where Ry represents the
resistance of the connecting leads from R3 to Rx (unknown resistance).

• 1) The galvanometer can be connected either to point c or to point a. When it is

connected to point a, the resistance Ry, of the connecting lead is added to the
unknown resistance Rx, resulting in too high indication for Rx.

• 2) When the connection is made to point c, R3, is added to the bridge arm R3 and
resulting measurement of Rx is lower than the actual value, because now the
actual value of R3 is higher than its nominal value by the resistance Ry.

• 3) If the galvanometer is connected to point b, in between points c and a, in such

a way that the ratio of the resistance from c to b and that from a to b equals the
ratio of resistances R1 and R2, then
• The usual balance equations for the bridge give the relationship

Substituting for Rab and Rcb in Eq. (11.7), we have

Equation (11.8) is the usual Wheatstone’s balance equation and it indicates that the effect of the resistance of the
connecting leads from point a to point c has been eliminated by connecting the galvanometer to an intermediate
position, b.
 Kelvin’s Double Bridge

• The above principle forms the basis of the construction of Kelvin’s Double Bridge, popularly
known as Kelvin’s Bridge. It is a Double bridge because it incorporates a second set of ratio
arms. Figure 11.11 shows a schematic diagram of Kelvin’s double bridge.
Measurement of inductance
(Maxwell’s bridge, hay bridge, Anderson Bridge)
 Maxwell’S Bridge
• Maxwell Bridge Theory, shown in Fig. 11.21, measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitor.
The use of standard arm offers the advantage of compactness and easy shielding.
• The capacitor is almost a loss-less component. One arm has a resistance R1 in parallel with C1, and hence it is
easier to write the balance equation using the admittance of arm 1 instead of the impedance.
The general equation for bridge balance is

From Eq. (11.14) we have

• Equating real terms and imaginary terms we have

• Maxwell’s bridge is limited to the measurement of low Q values (1 — 10). The

measurement is independent of the excitation frequency. The Maxwell bridge using a
fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there is an interaction between the resistance
and reactance balances.
• This can be avoided by varying the capacitances, instead of R2 and R3, to obtain a
reactance balance. However, the bridge can be made to read directly in Q.

• The bridge is particularly suited for inductances measurements, since comparison with a
capacitor is more ideal than with another inductance.
• Commercial bridges measure from 1 — 1000 H, with ± 2% error. (If the Q is very large, R1
becomes excessively large and it is impractical to obtain a satisfactory variable standard
resistance in the range of values required).
 Hays Bridge
• Hays Bridge Circuit, shown in Fig. 11.23, differs from Maxwell’s bridge by having a resistance
R1 in series with a standard capacitor C1 instead of a parallel. For large phase angles, R1 needs
to be low; therefore, this bridge is more convenient for measuring high-Q coils. For Q = 10,
the error is ± 1%, and for Q = 30, the error is ± 0.1%. Hence Hay’s bridge is preferred for coils
with a high Q, and Maxwell’s bridge for coils with a low Q. At balance

Substituting these values in the balance equation we get

• Equating the real and imaginary terms we have

Solving for Lx and Rx we have, Rx = ω2LxC1R1. Substituting for Rx in Eq. (11.16)

Multiplying both sides by C1 we get

• Therefore, Substituting for Lx in Eq. (11.17)

The term w appears in the expression for both Lx and Rx. This indicates that the bridge is
frequency sensitive.
The Hay bridge is also used in the measurement of incremental inductance. The inductance
balance equation depends on the losses of the inductor (or Q) and also on the operating fre-
quency.

For a value of Q greater than 10, the term 1/Q2 will be smaller than 1/100 and can be
therefore neglected.
Therefore Lx = R2R3C1, which is the same as Maxwell’s equation. But for inductors with a Q
less than 10, the 1/Q2 term cannot be neglected. Hence this bridge is not suited for
measurements of coils having Q less than 10. A commercial bridge measure from 1 μ H —
100 H with ± 2% error.
 Measurement of Inductance
Anderson’s Bridge
• This bridge is modification of Maxwell’s bridge. In this method, the self
inductance is measured in terms of a standard capacitor. This method is
applicable for precise measurement of self inductance over a wide range of
values
 Measurement of capacitance
(Schering Bridge)
• This bridge is used to measure to the capacitance of the capacitor, dissipation factor and
measurement of relative permittivity. Let us consider the circuit of Schering bridge as shown
below:

• Here, c1 is the unknown capacitance whose value is to be

determined with series electrical resistance r1.
• c2 is a standard capacitor. c4 is a variable capacitor. r3 is a pure
resistor (i.e. non inductive in nature) and r4 is a variable non
inductive resistor connected in parallel with variable capacitor
c4.
• Now the supply is given to the bridge between the points a and
c.
• The detector is connected between b and d. From the theory of
ac bridges we have at balance condition,
At balance, we get

Equating the real and imaginary parts we get,

Dissipation factor D indicates the quality of the capacitor

D is the reciprocal of the quality factor Q. i.e D = 1/Q

Commercial units measure from 100pf - 1µf, with ±2% accuracy

This bridge is widely used for testing small capacitors at low voltages with very high precision
 Measurement of frequency
Wien bridge
• The Wien Bridge Circuit has a series RC combination in one arm and a parallel combination in the adjoining arm.
Wien’s bridge in its basic form, is designed to measure frequency. It can also be used for the measurement of an
unknown capacitor with great accuracy

The impedance of one arm is

The admittance of the parallel arm is

Using the bridge balance equation,

Therefore,
• Equating the real and imaginary terms we have
• The bridge is used for measuring frequency in the audio range. Resistances R1 and R3 can be
ganged together to have identical values. Capacitors C1 and C3 are normally of fixed values.

• The audio range is normally divided into 20 — 200 — 2 k — 20 kHz ranges. In this case, the
resistances can be used for range changing and capacitors C1 and C3 for fine frequency
control within the range. The Wien Bridge Circuit can also be used for measuring
capacitances. In that case, the frequency of operation must be known.

• The bridge is also used in a harmonic distortion analyzer, as a Notch filter, and in audio
frequency and radio frequency oscillators as a frequency determining element.

• An accuracy of 0.5% — 1% can be readily obtained using this bridge. Because it is frequency
sensitive, it is difficult to balance unless the waveform of the applied voltage is purely
sinusoidal.
 Wagner Earth Connection
• Like the DC Bridges, with balanced resistance condition. Sometimes we use AC voltage
sources, to attain the balanced bridge condition.
Z1/Z2 = Z3/Z4

• A potential problem in AC bridge circuits is the stray

capacitance between either end of the null detector and the
earth(ground) potential.

• Because capacitance can conduct AC by charging and

discharging, they form stray current paths to the AC voltage
source which may effect the bridge balanced condition.

• One way to reduce the effect is to connect the null potential

at ground potential, so that there will be no AC potential
between the two. Thus no current through stray capacitances.
• Directly connecting to ground potential is not possible. Instead, we use a special voltage
divider circuit called Wagner Ground or Wagner Earth.

• The Wagner earth circuit is designed to have the voltage ratio

and phase shift as each side of the bridge. Because the
midpoint of the Wagner divider is directly grounded, any other
divider circuit (including either side of the bridge) having the
same voltage proportions and phases as the Wagner divider,
and powered by the same AC voltage source, will be at ground
potential as well. Thus, the Wagner earth divider forces the null
detector to be at ground potential, without a direct connection
between the detector and ground.
 Wagner Earth Connection
• When performing measurements at high frequency, stray capacitances between the various bridge elements
and ground, and between the bridge arms themselves, become significant.
• This introduces an error in the measurement, when small values of capacitance and large values of inductance
are measured.
• An effective method of controlling these capacitances, is to enclose the elements by a shield and to ground the
shield. This does not eliminate the capacitance, but makes it constant in value.

• Another effective and popular method of eliminating these stray capacitances

and the capacitances between the bridge arms is to use a Wagner Earth
Connection.

• Figure 11.28 shows a circuit of a capacitance bridge. C1 and C2 are the stray
capacitances. In Wagner’s ground connection, another arm, consisting of Rw
and Cw forming a potential divider, is used.

• The junction of Rw and Cw is grounded and is called Wagner Earth Connection.

The procedure for adjustment is as follows.
• The detector is connected to point 1 and R1 is adjusted for null or minimum sound in the
headphones. The switch S is then connected to point 2, which connects the detector to the
Wagner Earth Connection. Resistor Rw is now adjusted for minimum sound. When the switch `S’ is
connected to point 1, again there will be some imbalance. Resistors R1 and R3 are then adjusted
for minimum sound and this procedure is repeated until a null is obtained on both switch
positions 1 and 2. This is the ground potential. Stray capacitances C1 and C2 are then effectively
short-circuited and have no effect on the normal bridge balance.
• The capacitances from point C to D to ground are also eliminated by the addition of Wagner’s
ground connection, since the current through these capacitors enters Wagner’s ground
connection.
• The addition of the Wagner ground connection does not affect the balance conditions, since the
procedure for measurement remains unaltered.
TRANSDUCERS
Classification of transducers :
Advantages of Electrical Transducer
The main advantages of electrical transducer (conversion of physical quantity into electrical quantities) are as follows:
Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.
Mass-inertia effects are minimized.
Effects of friction are minimized.
The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing
medium.
The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling
units. The signal magnitude can be related in terms of the voltage current. (The analog
signal information can be converted in to pulse or frequency information. Since output
can be modified, modulated or amplified at will, the output signal can be easily used for
recording on any suitable multichannel recording device.)
The signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain any combination with outputs of
similar transducers or control signals.
The electrical or electronic system can be controlled with a very small power level.
The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of
measurement.
 Measurement of Displacement
Resistive Transducer:
The change in the value of the resistance with a change in the length of the conductor
can be used to measure displacement.

Strain gauges work on the principle that the resistance of a conductor or semiconductor
changes when strained. This can be used for the measurement of displacement, force
and pressure.

The resistivity of materials changes with changes in temperature. This property can be
used for the measurement of temperature.
 Measurement of Displacement
Resistive Transducer: resistive transducer works on the principle that, the resistance of the element is
directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor
R = ρl/A
The change in the value of resistance with a change in the length of the conductor can be used to measure the
Displacement

The change in the resistance is measured by the AC or DC measuring devices

Resistive transducer is used for measuring the physical quantities like temperature, displacement, vibration etc…
• Some potentiometers use the combination of translational as well as rotational
are called helipots
• Advantage of Potentiometers
• They are inexpensive.
• Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the
requirements are not particularly severe.
• They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of
displacement.
• Electrical efficiency is very high, and they provide sufficient output to
allow control operations.
• Disadvantages of Potentiometers
• When using a linear potentiometer, a large force is required to move
the sliding contacts.
• The sliding contacts can wear out, become misaligned and generate
noise.
Measurement of Displacement
• Inductive Transducer Definition may be either of the self generating
or the passive type.
• The self generating type utilises the basic electrical generator
principle, i.e. a motion between a conductor and magnetic
field induces a voltage in the conductor (generator action).
• This relative motion between the field and the conductor is supplied
by changes in the measured.
• An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that converts
physical motion (position change) into a change in inductance.
• Transducers of the variable inductance type work upon one of the
following principles.
• Variation of self inductance
• Variation of mutual inductance
• Inductive Transducer Definition are mainly used for the measurement of
displacement. The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause
variation in any of three variables
• Number of turns
• Geometric configuration
• Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits
 Measurement of Displacement
• Inductive Transducer
 Measurement of Displacement
• Inductive Transducer

L is proportional to 1/lg (i.e when the target is near the core, the length is small and therefore the self inductance is large)
Capacitive Transducer
• A capacitive transducer has a static plate and a deflected flexible diaphragm with a
dielectric in between. When a force is exerted to the outer side of the diaphragm the
distance between the diaphragm and the static plate changes. This produces a capacitance
which is measured using an alternating current bridge or a tank circuit.
• A tank circuit is more preferred because it produces a change in frequency according to the
change in capacitance. This value of frequency will be corresponding to the displacement or
force given to the input.
Principle of Operation
The equations below express the capacitance between the plates of a capacitor

Where A – overlapping area of plates in m2

d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space

The capacitive transducer is mainly used for measurement of linear displacement. The capacitive transducer
uses the following three effects.
1. Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor plates.
2. The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the plates.
3. The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.
• The following methods are used for measuring the displacement.
• 1) A transducer using the change in the Area of Plates – The equation below
shows that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates.
The capacitance changes correspondingly with the change in the position of the
plates.
• The capacitive transducers are used for measuring the large displacement
approximately from 1mm to several cms. The area of the capacitive
transducer changes linearly with the capacitance and the displacement.
The capacitance of the parallel plates is given as

where x – the length of overlapping part of plates

ω – the width of overlapping part of plates.
• The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the angular displacement. It is
measured by the movable plates shown below. One of the plates of the
transducer is fixed, and the other is movable
• The angular movement changes the capacitance of the transducers. The
capacitance between them is maximum when these plates overlap each other.
The maximum value of capacitance is expressed as

• The capacitance at angle θ is given expressed as

• The 180° is the maximum value of the angular displacement of the capacitor.
• 2. The transducer using the change in distance between the plates – The
capacitance of the transducer is inversely proportional to the distance between
the plates. The one plate of the transducer is fixed, and the other is movable.
The displacement which is to be measured links to the movable plates.
• The capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance because of which the
capacitor shows the nonlinear response. Such type of transducer is used for
measuring the small displacement.
• Advantage of Capacitive Transducer
• It requires an external force for operation and hence very useful for small systems.
• The capacitive transducer is very sensitive.
• It gives good frequency response because of which it is used for the dynamic study.
• The transducer has high input impedance hence they have a small loading effect.
• It requires small output power for operation.

• Disadvantages of capacitive Transducer

• The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.
• The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect of the stray
magnetic field.
• Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear behaviours because of the edge effect
which is controlled by using the guard ring.
• The cable connecting across the transducer causes an error.
• Uses of Capacitive Transducer

• The capacitive transducer uses for measurement of both the linear and angular
displacement. It is extremely sensitive and used for the measurement of very small
distance.
• It is used for the measurement of the force and pressures. The force or pressure,
which is to be measured is first converted into a displacement, and then the
displacement changes the capacitances of the transducer.
• It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where the dielectric constant of the
transducer changes with the pressure.
• The humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive transducer.
• The transducer uses the mechanical modifier for measuring the volume, density,
weight etc.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
• LVDT is an acronym for Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is a common type of electromechanical
transducer that can convert the rectilinear motion of an object to which it is coupled mechanically into a
corresponding electrical signal.
• The differential transformer is a passive inductive transformer. It is also known as a Linear Variable Differential
Transducer (LVDT).
• The transformer consists of a single primary winding P1 and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a
hollow cylindrical former. The secondary windings have an equal number of turns and are identically placed on
either side of the primary windings. The primary winding is connected to an ac source.
• An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and therefore affects the magnetic coupling
between the primary and the two secondaries.
• The displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft iron core. (In practice, the core is
made up of a nickel-iron alloy which is slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses.)
• When the core is in its normal (null) position, equal voltages are induced in the two secondary windings. The
frequency of the ac applied to the primary winding ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.

• The output voltage of the secondary windings S1 is Es1 and that of secondary winding S2 is Es2.
• In order to convert the output from S1 to S2 into a single voltage signal, the two secondaries S1 and S2 are
connected in series opposition, as shown in Fig. 13.20. Hence the output voltage of the transducer is the
difference of the two voltages. Therefore the differential output voltage Eo=Es1~Es2.
• Linear Variable Differential Transducer are available with ranges as low as ± 0.05 in. to as high as ± 25
in. and are sensitive enough to be used to measure displacements of well below 0.001 in. They can be
obtained for operation at temperatures as low as — 265°C and as high as + 600°C

• Advantages
• Linearity: The output voltage of this transducer is practically linear for displacements upto 5 mm (a
linearity of 0.05% is available in commercial LVDTs).
• High output: It gives a high output (therefore there is frequently no need for intermediate
amplification devices).
• High sensitivity: The transducer possesses a sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm.
• Ruggedness: These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of vibration and shock.
• Low power: consumption Most LVDTs consume less than 1 W of power

• Disadvantages
• Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
• They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields (but shielding is possible).
• The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by the applied
voltage.
• Temperature also affects the transducer.
Example :
Applications of LVDT :
 Strain Gauge
• The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical resistance in wires
to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.
• Since strain can be measured more easily by using variable resistance transducers, it is a common practice to
measure strain instead of stress, to serve as an index of pressure. Such transducers are popularly known as
strain gauges.
• A quarter bridge output corresponding to the application of a force is shown below. Initially, the circuit will be
balanced without the application of any force. When a downward force is applied, the length of the strain gauge
increases and thus a change in resistance occurs. Thus an output is produced in the bridge corresponding to the
strain.
 Types of strain gauges
• Wire strain gauges
• Foil strain gauges
• Semiconductor strain gauges

• Resistance Wire Gauge

• Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms, the unbonded type, and
the bonded type.
• 1. Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
• 2. Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauges
• 1.Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
• An unbonded strain gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating medium, such as air.
The diameter of the wire used is about 25 μm. The wires are kept under tension so that there is no sag and no
free vibration. Unbonded Strain Gauge Derivation are usually connected in a bridge circuit. The bridge is
balanced with no load applied as shown in Fig. 13.3.
• When an external load is applied, the resistance of the Strain Gauge Derivation changes, causing an unbalance
of the bridge circuit resulting in an output voltage. This voltage is proportional to the strain. A displacement of
the order of 50μm can be detected with these strain gauges.
 Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauges
• A metallic bonded Strain Gauge Derivation is shown in Fig. 13.4.
• A fine wire element about 25 μm (0.025 in.) or less in diameter is looped back and forth on a carrier (base) or
mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the member undergoing stress. The grid of fine wire is cemented
on a carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper, bakelite, or teflon.
• The wire is covered on the top with a thin material, so that it is not damaged mechanically. The spreading of
the wire permits uniform distribution of stress. The carrier is then bonded or cemented to the member being
studied. This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to wire.
• A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional
area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance

• where
• ρ = the specific resistance of the material in Ωm.
• l = the length of the conductor in m
• A = the area of the conductor in m2
 Temperature Transducers
(Measurement of Temperature)
1) Resistance Thermometer
2) Thermistor
3) Thermocouple
 1) Resistance Thermometer Transducer
• The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This property is utilised for the
measurement of temperature.
• The Resistance Thermometer Transducer is an instrument used to measure electrical resistance in terms of
temperature, i.e. it uses the change in the electrical resistance of the conductor to determine the
temperature
• The main part of a resistance thermometer is its
sensing element. The characteristics of the sensing
element determines the sensitivity and operating
temperature range of the instrument.

• Figure 13.11(a) shows an industrial platinum resistance

thermometer. The changes in resistance caused by
changes in temperature are detected by a Wheatstone
bridge, as shown in Fig. 13.11(b). Hence, the
temperature sensing element, which may be nickel,
copper or platinum contained in a bulb or well, along
with the balancing bridge, form the essential
components of a temperature measuring system based
upon this principle.
• Advantages of Resistance Thermometer Bridge Circuit
• The measurement of temperature by the electrical resistance method has the following advantages and
characteristics.
• The measurement is very accurate.
• Indicators, recorders and controllers can also be operated.
• More than one resistance element can be clubbed to the same indicating/ recording instrument.
• The temperature resistance element can be easily installed and replaced.
• The accuracy of the measuring circuit can be easily checked by substituting a standard resistor for the resistive
element.
• Resistive elements can be used to measure differential temperature.
• Resistance thermometer have a wide working range without loss of accuracy, and can be used for temperature
ranges (-200°C-650°C)
• They are best suited for remote sensing and indication.
• The response time of the resistive element is 2-10 s.
• The error of the resistive element is in the range of ± 0.25% of the scale
• The size of the resistive element may be about 6-12 mm in diameter.
• No necessity of temperature compensation.
• Extremely accurate temperature sensing.
• Performance stability over longer periods of time
• Limitations of Resistance Thermometer Bridge Circuit
• High cost
• Need for bridge and power source
• Possibility of self heating.
 2) Thermistor
• The electrical resistance of most materials changes with temperature.
• By selecting materials that are very temperature sensitive, devices that are useful in temperature control circuits
and for temperature measurements can be made.
• Thermistor (THERMally sensitive resISTOR) are non-metallic resistors (semiconductor material), made by sintering
mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.

• Thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) (Shown in fig. 13.12), i.e. resistance decreases as
temperature rises.
• In some cases, the resistance of thermistors at room temperature may decrease by 5% for each 1°C rise in
temperature. This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes the thermistor extremely useful for precision
temperature measurements, control and compensation.
• Disc thermistors about 10 mm in diameter, either self supporting or mounted on a small
plate, are mainly used for temperature control. These thermistors are made by pressing
thermistors material under several tons of pressure in a round die to produce flat pieces
1.25 — 25 mm in diameter and 0.25 — 0.75 mm thick, having resistance values of 1 Ω to 1
MΩ. These are sintered and coated with silver on two flat surfaces.

• Washer thermistors are made like disc thermistors, except that a hole is formed in the
centre in order to make them suitable for mounting on a bolt. Rod thermistors are extruded
through dies to make long cylindrical units of 1.25, 2.75, and 4.25 mm in diameter and 12.5
— 50 min long. Leads are attached to the end of the rods. Their resistance usually varies
from 1 — 50 Ω
• The advantage of rod thermistors over other configurations is the ability to produce high resistance
units with moderately high power handling capability.
• A thermistor in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge provides precise temperature information.
Accuracy is limited, in most applications, only by the readout devices.
• Thermistors are non-linear devices over a temperature range, although now units with better than
0.2% linearity over the 0-100°C temperature range are available. The typical sensitivity of a
thermistor is approximately 3 mV/°C at 200°C.
• Advantages of Thermistor
• Small size and low cost.
• Fast response over narrow temperature range.
• Good sensitivity in the NTC region.
• Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence of resistance on absolute
temperature.
• Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due to large Rth (resistance).
• Limitations of Thermistor
• Non-linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics.
• Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
• Very low excitation current to avoid self-heating.
• Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance.
 Thermocouple
• Thermocouple – One of the most commonly used methods of measurement of
moderately high temperature is the thermocouple effect. When a pair of wires
made up of different metals is joined together at one end, a temperature
difference between the two ends of the wire produces a voltage between the
two wires as illustrated in Fig.13.41
• The thermpcouple (TC) is a temperature transducer that develops an emf that is a function of
the temperature difference between its hot and cold junctions.
• A Thermocouple Circuit may be regarded as a thermometer based on thermo-emf and works
on the principle that the potential between two dissimilar metals or metal alloys is a function
of temperature.
• Type ‘T’ Thermocouple shown in Fig. 13.44, uses copper and constantan.

• Copper used, is an element and constantan used is an alloy of nickel and copper. The copper
side is positive and constantan side is negative. Assuming copper wires used to connect the
Thermocouple Circuit to the next stage (circuit), a second Copper-Constantan junction is
(formed) produced. This junction is called as the reference junction. It generates a Seebeck
voltage that opposes the voltage generated by the sensing junction.
• If both junctions are at the same temperature, the output voltage Vout will be zero. If the
sensing junction is at a higher temperature, Vout will be proportional to the difference
between the two junction temperature.
• The temperature cannot be derived directly from the output voltage alone. It is subjected to
an error caused by the voltage produced by the reference junction.
• This can be overcome by placing the reference junction in an ice bath to keep it at a known
temperature. This process is called as cold junction compensation as shown in Fig.13.45(a).
The reference voltage is maintained at 0 °C.
 Thermocouple
• A thermocouple is a device used extensively for measuring temperature
• A thermocouple is comprised of at least two metals joined together to form two junctions. One is
connected to the body whose temperature is to be measured; this is the hot or measuring junction.
The other junction is connected to a body of known temperature; this is the cold or reference
junction.
• Therefore the thermocouple measures unknown temperature of the body with reference to the
known temperature of the other body.
• 1) Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined
together at two junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The amount
of emf generated is different for different combinations of the metals.
• 2) Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are joined together to form two
junctions, emf is generated within the circuit due to the different temperatures of the two junctions
of the circuit.
• 3) Thomson effect: As per the Thomson effect, when two unlike metals are joined together forming
two junctions, the potential exists within the circuit due to temperature gradient along the entire
length of the conductors within the circuit.
• In most of the cases the emf suggested by the Thomson effect is very small and it can be neglected by
making proper selection of the metals. The Peltier effect plays a prominent role in the working
principle of the thermocouple
• How it Works
• The general circuit for the working of thermocouple is shown in the figure 1 above. It
comprises of two dissimilar metals, A and B. These are joined together to form two junctions,
p and q, which are maintained at the temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. Remember that
the thermocouple cannot be formed if there are not two junctions. Since the two junctions
are maintained at different temperatures the Peltier emf is generated within the circuit and it
is the function of the temperatures of two junctions.
• If the temperature of both the junctions is same, equal and opposite
emf will be generated at both junctions and the net current flowing
through the junction is zero. If the junctions are maintained at
different temperatures, the emf’s will not become zero and there will
be a net current flowing through the circuit. The total emf flowing
through this circuit depends on the metals used within the circuit as
well as the temperature of the two junctions. The total emf or the
current flowing through the circuit can be measured easily by the
suitable device.
• The device for measuring the current or emf is connected within the
circuit of the thermocouple. It measures the amount of emf flowing
through the circuit due to the two junctions of the two dissimilar
metals maintained at different temperatures. In figure 2 the two
junctions of the thermocouple and the device used for measurement
of emf (potentiometer) are shown.
• Now, the temperature of the reference junctions is already known,
while the temperature of measuring junction is unknown. The output
obtained from the thermocouple circuit is calibrated directly against
the unknown temperature. Thus the voltage or current output
obtained from thermocouple circuit gives the value of unknown
temperature directly.
• Devices Used for Measuring EMF
• The amount of emf developed within the thermocouple circuit is very small,
usually in millivolts, therefore highly sensitive instruments should be used for
measuring the emf generated in the thermocouple circuit. Two devices used
commonly are the ordinary galvanometer and voltage balancing potentiometer.
Of those two, a manually or automatically balancing potentiometer is used most
often.
• Figure 2 shows the potentiometer connected in the thermocouple circuit. The
junction p is connected to the body whose temperature is to be measured. The
junction q is the reference junction, whose temperature can be measured by the
thermometer. In some cases the reference junctions can also be maintained at
the ice temperature by connecting it to the ice bath (see figure 3). This device can
be calibrated in terms of the input temperature so that its scale can give the value
directly in terms of temperature.
IEEE 488 BUS:

The purpose of IEEE 488 BUS is to provide digital interfacing between program-
mable instruments. There are many instrumentation systems in which interactive
instruments, under the command of a central controller, provide superior error-free
results when compared with conventional manually operated systems.
Problems such as impedance mismatch, obtaining cables with proper connectors
and logic level compatibility are also eliminated by designing the system around a bus-
compatible instrument.
Piezoelectric Transducer:
A symmetrical crystalline materials such as Quartz, Rochelle salt and Barium
titanate produce an emf when they are placed under stress. This property is
used in Piezoelectric Transducer Working Principle, where a crystal is placed
between a solid base and the force-summing member
Active transducer is a transducer, which converts the non-electrical quantity into
an electrical quantity.

 Let us consider the non-electrical quantities such as pressure, illumination of

light and temperature.

 Hence, we will get the following three active transducers depending on the
non-electrical quantity that we choose.

Piezo Electric Transducer

Photo Electric Transducer
Thermo Electric Transducer

Now, let us discuss about these three active transducers one by one.
Piezo Electric Transducer
An active transducer is said to be piezo electric transducer, when it
produces an electrical quantity which is equivalent to the pressure input.

The following three substances exhibit piezo electric

effect.
 Quartz
 Rochelle salts
 Tourmaline
The piezo-electric effect exhibited by these three substances is
Tourmaline, Quartz, and Rochelle salts, in this ascending order.

The ascending order of mechanical strength having by these three

substances is Rochelle salts, Quartz, Tourmaline.
Quartz is used as piezo electric transducer, as it exhibits the moderate piezo electric
effect and having moderate mechanical strength among those three piezo electric
substances.
Quartz Transducer
The circuit diagram of Quartz transducer is shown in below figure. As shown in the
figure, quartz crystal is placed between base and force summing member. The output
voltage can be measured across the metal electrodes, which are placed on two sides
of quartz crystal.
Photo Electric Transducer
An active transducer is said to be photo electric transducer, when it
produces an electrical quantity which is equivalent to the illumination of light
input. The circuit diagram of photo electric transducer is shown in below figure.
Thermo Electric Transducer
An active transducer is said to be thermo electric transducer, when it produces
an electrical quantity which is equivalent to temperature input.
The following two transducers are the examples of thermo electric transducers.
Thermistor Transducer
Thermocouple Transducer
Now, let us discuss about these two transducers one by one
Thermocouple Transducer
Thermocouple transducer produces an output voltage for a
corresponding change of temperature at the input.
If two wires of different metals are joined together in order to create
two junctions, then that entire configuration is called Thermocouple.

The above thermocouple has two metals, A & B and two junctions, 1
& 2. Consider a constant reference temperature, T2 at junction 2.
Let the temperature at junction, 1 is T1. Thermocouple generates
an emf (electro motive force), whenever the values of T1 and T2 are different
That means, thermocouple generates an emf, whenever there is a
temperature difference between the two junctions, 1 & 2 and it is directly
proportional to the temperature difference between those two
junctions. Mathematically, it can be represented as e α (T1−T2)
Where, e is the emf generated by thermocouple
passive transducer is a transducer, which produces the variation in passive
element. We will consider the passive elements like resistor, inductor and
capacitor.
Hence, we will get the following three passive transducers depending
on the passive element that we choose.
Resistive Transducer
Inductive Transducer
Capacitive Transducer
Resistive Transducer
A passive transducer is said to be a resistive transducer, when it
produces the variation (change) in resistance value. the following
formula for resistance, R of a metal conductor.
R= ρl/A
Where,
ρ is the resistivity of conductor
l is the length of conductor
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor
Strain guages discussed so far
Data Acquisition Systems:
The systems, used for data acquisition are known as data
acquisition systems.
These data acquisition systems will perform the tasks such
as conversion of data, storage of data, transmission of data and
processing of data.
Data acquisition systems consider the following analog signals.
Analog signals, which are obtained from the direct
measurement of electrical quantities such as DC & AC voltages, DC
& AC currents, resistance and etc.
Analog signals, which are obtained from transducers such as
LVDT, Thermocouple & etc

Types of Data Acquisition Systems

 Analog Data Acquisition Systems
 Digital Data Acquisition Systems
 Too often taken for granted, signal conditioning is
one of the most important components of any data
acquisition system.
It is the interface between real-world
analog signals and the rest of the system.
Electronic Measurements
and Instrumentation

Tutorial-7
 fy
Observe the following lissajous patterns and find out ?
fx
 fy
Observe the following lissajous patterns and find out ?
fx
Answer:c
Explain in detail phase measurement by using lissajous pattern method:

Necessary explanation:
Electronic Measurements
and Instrumentation

Tutorial-8
Classify CRO probes and describe the principle of CRO probes:

 One can connect any test circuit to an oscilloscope through a probe. As

CRO is a basic oscilloscope, the probe which is connected to it is also
called CRO probe.

 One should select the probe in such a way that it should not create any
loading issues with the test circuit. So that we can analyze the test circuit
with the signals properly on CRO screen.

 CRO probes should have the following characteristics.

High impedance
High bandwidth

 CRO probes can be classified into the following two types.

Passive Probes
Active Probes
Picture out block diagram of CRO probe:
Describe active probes:

 If the probe head consists of active electronic components, then it is called active
probe. The block diagram of active probe.
 As shown in the figure, the probe head consists of a FET source follower in cascade
with BJT emitter follower.

The FET source follower provides high input impedance and low output impedance.
 Whereas, the purpose of BJT emitter follower is that it avoids or eliminates the
impedance mismatching.

 The other two parts, such as co-axial cable and termination circuit remain same in
both active and passive probes.
 Describe Passive probes:

If the probe head consists of

passive elements, then it is
called passive probe.

As shown in the figure, the probe head consists of a parallel

combination of resistor, R1R1 and a variable capacitor, C1C1.
Similarly, the termination circuit consists of a parallel
combination of resistor, R2R2 and capacitor, C2C2.
The above circuit diagram is modified in the form of bridge
circuit and it is shown in below figure.