Female Reproductive System
• The organs of the female reproductive system include the ovaries, the uterine
(fallopian) tube, the uterus, the vagina, and the external organs which are
collectively called the vulva or perineum. The mammary glands are also part of
the female reproductive system.
Female external structures
The main external structures of the female reproductive system include:
Termed as vulva or pudendum, the female external genitalia are the following:
1. Mons Veneris. The mons pubis is an elevation pad of adipose tissue covered
by coarse pubic hair, which cushions the pubic symphysis, the pubic bone joint.
2. Labia Majora. From the mons pubis, two longitudinal folds of skin, the labia
majora, extend down and back. These two folds of adipose tissue are covered
by loose connective tissue and epithelium; contains sebaceous and sudoriferous
glands and are also covered by pubic hair. It also has a loose connective tissue
base.The labia majora serves as protection for the external genitalia and the
distal urethra and vagina.
3. Labia Minora. Medial to the labia majora are two folds of skin called the labia
minora. The labia minora do not contain pubic hair or fat and have few
sudoriferous glands; they do contain numerous sebaceous glands. Before
menarche, these folds are fairly small; by childbearing age, they remain firm
and full; after menopause, they atrophy and again become much smaller.
Normally, the folds of labia minora are pink; the internal surface is covered with
mucous membrane, the external surface with skin.
• Other external structures include: the clitoris is a small, cylindrical mass of
erectile tissue and nerves. It is located at the anterior junction of the labia
minora. A layer of skin called the prepuce, also known as the foreskin, is
formed at appoint where the labia minora unite and cover the body of clitoris.
The exposed portion of the clitoris is the glans. The clitoris is also capable of
enlargement during sexual stimulation.
• The region between the labia minora is called the vestibule. In the vestibule
are the hymen, a tough but elastic semicircle of tissue that covers the opening
of the vagina in childhood; vaginal orifice, the opening of the vagina to the
exterior; external urethral orifice, the opening of the urethra to the exterior;
and on either side of the external urethral orifice, the openings of the ducts of
the paraurethral glands. These glands in the wall of the urethra secrete mucus.
On either side of the vaginal orifice itself are the greater vestibular glands
or skene’s glands, which produce a small quantity of mucus during sexual
arousal and intercourse that adds to cervical mucus and provides lubrication.
The bartholin’s glands (vulvovaginal glands) are located just lateral to the
vaginal opening on both sides. The alkaline pH of their secretion helps to
improve sperm survival in the vagina.
• The fourchette is the ridge of tissue formed by the posterior joining of the two
labia minora and majora. This is the structure that is sometimes cut
(episiotomy)during childbirth to enlarge the vaginal opening.
Female internal structures
1. Ovaries. - The ovaries are paired organs that produce secondary oocytes and
hormones, such as progesterone, estrogens, inhibin and relaxin. The ovaries arise
from the same embryonic tissue as the testes, and they are the size and shaped
of unshelled almonds or approximately 4 cm long by 2 cm in diameter and
approx. 1.5 cm thick. They are grayish-white and appear pitted, or with minute
indications on the surface. The germinal epithelium is a layer of simple epithelium
that covers the surface of the ovary. Deep to the germinal epithelium is the
ovarian cortex, a region of dense connective tissue that contains ovarian follicles.
• Each ovarian follicle consists of an oocyte and a variable number of
surrounding cells that nourish the developing oocyte and begin to secrete
estrogens as the follicle grows larger. The follicle enlarges until it is a mature
(graafian) follicle, a large, fluid filled follicle that is preparing to rupture and
expel a secondary oocyte. The remnants of an ovulated follicle develop into a
corpus luteum which produces progesterone, estrogen, relaxin and inhibin
until it degenerates and turns into fibrous tissue called a corpus albicans. The
ovarian medulla is a region deep to the ovarian cortex that consists of loose
connective tissue and contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves.
2. Uterine tubes. Females have two fallopian tubes that extend laterally from
the uterus and transport the secondary oocytes from the ovaries to the
uterus. The open, funnel-shaped end of each tube, the infundibulum, lies close
to the ovary but is open to the pelvic cavity. It ends in a fringe of fingerlike
projections called fimbriae. From the infundibulum, the uterine tubes extend
medially, attaching to the upper and outer corners of the uterus.
3. Uterus. - The uterus serves as part of the pathway for sperm deposited in the
vagina to reach the uterine tube. It is a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ
located in the lower pelvis, posterior to the bladder and anterior to the rectum.
With maturity, the uterus is approx. 5 t0 7 cm long, 5 cm wide, and in its widest
upper part 2.5 cm deep. In a nonpregnant state, it weighs approx. 60 g. the
function of the uterus is to receive the ovum from the fallopian tube; provide a
place for implantation and nourishment during fetal growth; furnish protection to
a growing fetus; and at maturity of the fetus, expel it from the woman’s body.
4. Vagina. - The vagina is a tubular canal that extends from the exterior of the
body to the uterine cervix. It is the receptacle for the penis during sexual intercourse,
the outlet for menstrual flow, and the passageway for childbirth. The vagina is
situated between the urinary bladder and the rectum. A recess, called the fornix,
surrounds the cervix. When properly inserted, a contraceptive diaphragm rests on
the fornix, covering the cervix.
Breast. - The mammary glands arise from ectodermic tissue early in utero. The
mammary glands located in the breasts, are modified sudoriferous glands that
produce milk. The breasts lie over the pectoralis major and serratus anterior muscles
and are attached to them by a layer of connective tissue.
• The functions of the mammary glands are the synthesis, secretion and
ejection of milk; these functions, called lactation, are associated with
pregnancy and childbirth. Milk production is stimulated largely by the
hormone prolactin from the anterior pituitary, with contributions from
progesterone and estrogens. The ejection of milk is stimulated by oxytocin,
which is released from the posterior pituitary in response to the sucking of
an infant on the mother’s nipple (suckling).
Female Reproductive Function and Cycle • Sperm production
in males begin at
Oogenesis and Ovarian Cycle puberty and
generally continues throughout life. The situation is quite different in
females. The period in which a woman’s reproductive capability, her
ability to produce eggs, gradually declines and then finally ends is
called menopause.
• Meiosis, the special kind of cell division that occurs in the male
testes to produce sperm, also occurs in the female ovaries. But in this case,
female gametes, or sex cells, are produced, and the process is called oogenesis
(“the beginning of an egg”).
• Another major difference between males and females concern the
size and structure of their sex cells. Sperms are tiny and equipped with tails for
locomotion. They have little nutrient-containing cytoplasm; thus, the nutrients in
seminal fluid are vital to their survival. In contrast, the egg is a large, nonmotile
cell, well stocked with nutrient reserves that nourish the developing embryo until
it can take up residence in the uterus.
• In the developing female fetus, oogania, the female stem cells,
multiply rapidly to increase their number, and then their daughter cells, primary
oocytes, push into the ovary connective tissue, where they become surrounded
by a single layer of cells to form the primary follicles. By birth, the oogania no
longer exist, and a female’s lifetime supply of primary oocytes (approximately 2
million of them) is already in place in the ovarian follicles, awaiting the chance to
undergo meiosis to produce functional eggs.
• At puberty, the anterior pituitary gland begins to release follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH), which stimulates a small number of primary
follicles to grow and mature each month, and ovulation begins to occur each
month. These cyclic changes that occur monthly in the ovary constitute the
ovarian cycle.
• As a follicle prodded by FSH grows larger, it accumulates fluid in the
central chamber called the antrum,and the primary oocyte it contain replicated
its chromosomes and begins meiosis. The first meiotic division produces two cells
that are very dissimilar in size. The larger cell is a secondary oocyte and the
other, very tiny cell is a polar body. By the time a follicle has ripened to the
mature (vesicular follicle) stage, it contains a secondary oocyte and protrudes like
an angry boil from the external surface of the ovary. Follicle development to this
stage takes about 14 days, and ovulation (of a secondary oocyte) occurs at just
about that time in response to the burstlike release of a second anterior pituitary
hormone, luteinizing hormone (LH). The ovulated secondary oocyte is still
surrounded by its follicle-cell capsule, now called the corona radiate (“radiating
crown”). Generally speaking, one of the developing follicles outstrips the others
each month to become the dominant follicle. Just how this follicle is selected or
selects itself is not understood, but the follicle that is at the proper stage of
maturity when the LH stimulus occurs will rupture and release its oocyte into the
peritoneal cavity. The mature follicles that are no ovulated soon become overripe
and deteriorate. In addition to triggering ovulation, LH also causes the ruptured
follicle to change into a very different glandular structure, the corpus luteum.
• If the ovulated secondary oocyte is penetrated by the sperm, it
undergoes the second meiotic division that produces another polar body and the
ovum. Once the ovum is formed, its 23 chromosomes are combined with those of
the sperm to form the fertilized egg, which is the first cell of the yet-to0be
offspring. However, if the secondary oocyte is not penetrated by the sperm, it
simply deteriorates without ever completing meiosis to form a functional egg.
Although meiosis in females yields only one functional ovum and three tiny polar
bodies. Since the polar bodies have essentially no cytoplasm. They deteriorate
and die quickly.
Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
• Although the uterus is the receptacle in which the young embryo implants
and develops, it is receptive to implantation only for a very short period each
month. The events of the uterine, or menstrual, cycle are the cyclic changes that
the endometrium, or mucosa of the uterus, goes through month after month as it
responds to changes in the levels of ovarian hormones in the blood.
• Since the cyclic production of estrogens and progesterone by the ovaries
is, in turn, regulated by the anterior pituitary gonadotropic hormones, FSH and
LH, it is important to understand how these “hormonal pieces” fit together.
Generally speaking, both female cycles are about 28 days long (a period
commonly called a lunar month), with ovulation typically occurring midway in the
cycles, on or about day 14.
The three stages of the menstrual phase:
1.)Days 1-5: Menstrual Phase. - During this interval, the superficial functional layer of
the thick endometrial lining of the uterus is sloughing off, or becoming detached,
from the uterine wall. The detached tissues and blood pass through the vagina as the
menstrual flow usually for 3 to 5 days. The average blood loss during this period is 50
to 150 ml (or about a/4 to a/2 cup). By day 5, growing ovarian follicles are beginning
to produce more estrogen.
2.)Days 6-14: Proliferative Phase. - Stimulated by rising estrogen levels produced by
the growing follicles of the ovaries, the basal layer of the endometrium regenerates
the functional layer, glands are formed in it, and the endometrial blood supply is
increased. The endometrium once again becomes velvety, thick and well
vascularized. (Ovulation occurs in the ovary at the end of this stage, in response to
the sudden surge of LH in the blood.)
3.) Days 15-28: Secretory Phase - Rising levels of progesterone production by the
corpus luteum of the ovary act on the estrogen-primed endometrium and increase its
blood supply even more. Progesterone also causes the endometrial glands to
increase in size and to begin screting nutrients into the uterine cavity. These
nutrients will sustain a developing embryo (if one is present) until it has implanted. If
fertilization does occur, the embryo produces a hormone very similar to LH, which
causes the corpus luteum to continue producing its hormones. If fertilization does not
occur, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate toward the end of this period as LH
blood levels decline. Lack of ovarian hormones in the blood causes the blood vessels
supplying the functional layer of the endometrium to go into spasms and kink. When
deprived of oxygen and nutrients, those endometrial cells begin to die, which sets
the stage for menses to begin again on day 28.
Hormone Production by the Ovaries
As the ovaries become active at puberty and start to produce ova, production of
ovarian hormones begins. The follicle cells of the growing and mature follicles
produce estrogens, which cause the appearance of the secondary sex characteristics
in the young woman. Such changes include:
• Enlargement of the accessory organs of the female reproductive system
(uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitals).
• Development of the breasts.
• Appearance of axillaries and pubic hair.
• Increased deposits of fat beneath the skin in general, and particularly in the hips and
breasts.
• Widening and lightening of the pelvis.
• Onset of menses, or the menstrual cycle.
The second ovarian hormone, progesterone, is produced by the glandular
corpus luteum. After ovulation occurs the ruptured follicle is converted to the corpus
luteum, which looks and acts completely different from the growing and mature
follicle. Once formed, the corpus luteum produces progesterone (and some estrogen)
as long as LH is still present in the blood. Generally speaking, the corpus luteum has
stopped producing hormones by 10 to 14 days after ovulation. Except for working
with estrogen to establish the menstrual cycle, progesterone does not contribute to
the appearance of the secondary sex characteristics. Its other major effects are
exerted during pregnancy, when it helps maintain the pregnancy and prepare the
breasts of milk production. (However, the source of progesterone during pregnancy is
the placenta, not the ovaries).
Accomplishing Fertilization
• Before fertilization can occur, the sperm must reach the ovulated secondary
oocyte. The oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours after it is cast out of the ovary, and
sperm generally retain their fertilizing power within the female reproductive tract
for 12 to 48 hours after ejaculation. Consequently, for fertilization to occur, sexual
intercourse must occur no more than 24 hours after, at which point the oocyte is
approximately one-third of the way down the length of the uterine tube. The
sperm are attracted to the oocyte by chemicals that act as “homing devices,”
allowing them to locate the oocyte. It takes one to two hours for system to the end
of the uterine tubes, and if an oocyte is en route into the tube, fertilization is a
distinct possibility.
• When the swarming sperm reach the oocyte, hundreds of their acrosomes rupture,
releasing enzymes that break down the “cement” that holds the follicle cells of the
corona radiate together around the oocyte. Once a path ahs been cleared and a
single sperm makes contact with the oocyte’s membrane receptors, its head
(nucleus) is pulled into the oocyte cytoplasm. A sperm that comes along later,
after hundreds of sperm have undergone acrosomal reactions to expose the
oocyte membrane, is in the best position to be the fertilizing sperm. Once a single
sperm has penetrated the oocyte, the oocyte nucleus completes the second
meiotic division, forming the ovum and a polar body.
• Fertilization occurs at the moment the genetic material of a sperm combines with
that of an ovum to form a fertilized egg, or zygote The zygote represents the first
cell of the new individual.
PROCESS OF IMPLANTATION
a. The morula floats in the uterus for 3 to 4 days, gaining in size and weight. At this
time, the hollow fluid-filled morula, now called blastocyst burrows into the uterine
lining.
b. The outer surface of the blastocyst becomes covered with finger-like projections
called chorionic villi. Chorionic villi aid in the process of implantation into the
endometrium (decidua). Villi also manufacture human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
which signal the corpus luteum within the ovaries to continue production of
progesterone and estrogen to prevent menstruation.
c. Implantation normally occurs in the upper, posterior wall of the uterus. The point of
implantation becomes the origin for the placenta and umbilical cord.
PREGNANCY
Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother
Pregnancy (the period from conception to the birth of the baby) can be a difficult
time for the mother. Not only are there obvious anatomical changes, but striking
changes occur in her physiology as well.
Anatomical Changes
• Starting as a fist-sized organ, the uterus grows to occupy most of the pelvic cavity
by 16 weeks. As pregnancy continues, the uterus pushes higher and higher into
the abdominal cavity. As birth nears, the uterus reaches the level of the xiphoid
process and occupies the bulk of the abdominal cavity. The crowded abdominal
organs press superiorly against the diaphragm, which intrudes on the thoracic
cavity. As a result, the ribs flare, causing the thorax to widen.
• The increasing bulkiness of the abdomen changes the woman’s center of gravity,
and many women develop an accentuated lumbar curvature (lordosis), often
accompanied by backaches, during the last few months of pregnancy. Placental
production of the hormone relaxin causes pelvic ligaments and the pubic
symphysis to relax, widen, and become more flexible. This increased motility
eases birth passage, but it may also result in waddling gait during pregnancy.
• Obviously, good maternal nutrition is necessary throughout pregnancy if the
developing fetus is to have all the building materials (proteins, calcium, iron, and
the like) it needs to form its tissues and organs. Actually, a pregnant woman
needs only about 300 additional calories daily to sustain proper fetal growth.
