Endocrine gland
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Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products,
hormones, directly into the blood rather than through a duct. The main endocrine glands
include the pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, and adrenal glands.
The hypothalamus is a neuroendocrine organ. Other organs which are not so well known
for their endocrine activity include the stomach, which produces such hormones as
ghrelin.
The major endocrine glands: 1 Pineal gland 2 Pituitary gland 3 Thyroid gland 4 Thymus
5 Adrenal gland 6 Pancreas 7 Ovary (female) 8 Testes (male)
Local chemical messengers, not generally considered part of the endocrine system,
include autocrines, which act on the cells that secrete them, and paracrines, which act on
a different cell type nearby.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Chemistry
• 2 Target cell specificity
• 3 Interaction of hormones at target cells
• 4 Control of hormone release
• 5 Major endocrine organs
o 5.1 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
o 5.2 Thyroid gland
o 5.3 Parathyroid glands
o 5.4 Pancreas
o 5.5 Gonads
o 5.6 Pineal gland
• 6 Other hormone-producing structures
• 7 Developmental aspects of the endocrine system
• 8 References
[edit] Chemistry
Most hormones are steroid- or amino acid-based. Hormones alter cell activity by
stimulating or inhibiting characteristic cellular processes of their target cells.
Cell responses to hormone stimulation may involve changes in membrane permeability;
enzyme synthesis, activation, or inhibition; secretory activity; gene activation; and
mitosis.
Second-messenger mechanisms employing intracellular messengers and transduced by G
proteins are a common means by which amino acid–based hormones interact with their
target cells. In the cyclic AMP system, the hormone binds to a plasma membrane receptor
that couples to a G protein. When the G protein is activated it, in turn, couples to
adenylate cyclase, which catalyzes the synthesis of cyclic AMP from ATP. Cyclic AMP
initiates reactions that activate protein kinases and other enzymes, leading to cellular
response. The PIP-calcium signal mechanism, involving phosphatidyl inositol, is another
important second-messenger system. Other second messengers are cyclic GMP and
calcium.
Steroid hormones (and thyroid hormone) enter their target cells and effect responses by
activating DNA, which initiates messenger RNA formation leading to protein synthesis.
You do not include the pineal gland in your list of endocrine glands even though it is
indicated on your chart to the right.
[edit] Target cell specificity
The ability of a target cell to respond to a hormone depends on the presence of receptors,
within the cell or on its plasma membrane, to which the hormone can bind.
Hormone receptors are dynamic structures. Changes in number and sensitivity of
hormone receptors may occur in response to high or low levels of stimulating hormones.
Blood levels of hormones reflect a balance between secretion and degradation/excretion.
The liver and kidneys are the major organs that degrade hormones; breakdown products
are excreted in urine and feces.
Hormone half-life and duration of activity are limited and vary from hormone to
hormone.
[edit] Interaction of hormones at target cells
Permissiveness is the situation in which a hormone cannot exert its full effects without
the presence of another hormone.
Synergism occurs when two or more hormones produce the same effects in a target cell
and their results are amplified.
Antagonism occurs when a hormone opposes or reverses the effect of another hormone.
[edit] Control of hormone release
Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural, or hormonal
stimuli. Negative feedback is important in regulating hormone levels in the blood.
The nervous system, acting through hypothalamic controls, can in certain cases override
or modulate hormonal effects.
[edit] Major endocrine organs
[edit] Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
Main article: Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland hangs from the base of the brain by a stalk and is enclosed by bone. It
consists of a hormone-producing glandular portion (anterior pituitary) and a neural
portion (posterior pituitary), which is an extension of the hypothalamus. The
hypothalamus regulates the hormonal output of the anterior pituitary and synthesizes two
hormones that it exports to the posterior pituitary of storage and later release.
Four of the six adenohypophyseal hormones are tropic hormones that regulate the
function of other endocrine organs. Most anterior pituitary hormones exhibit a diurnal
rhythm of release, which is subject to modification by stimuli influencing the
hypothalamus.
Somatotropic hormone or Growth hormone (GH) is an anabolic hormone that stimulates
growth of all body tissues but especially skeletal muscle and bone. It may act directly, or
indirectly via insulin-like growth factors (IGFs). GH mobilizes fats, stimulates protein
synthesis, and inhibits glucose uptake and metabolism. Secretion is regulated by growth
hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH),
or somatostatin. Hypersecretion causes gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults;
hyposecretion in children causes pituitary dwarfism.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) promotes normal development and activity of the
thyroid gland. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates its release; negative
feedback of thyroid hormone inhibits it.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex to release
corticosteroids. ACTH release is triggered by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and
inhibited by rising glucocorticoid levels.
The gonadotropins—follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
regulate the functions of the gonads in both sexes. FSH stimulates sex cell production;
LH stimulates gonadal hormone production. Gonadotropin levels rise in response to
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Negative feedback of gonadal hormones
inhibits gonadotropin release.
Prolactin (PRL) promotes milk production in humans. Its secretion is prompted by
prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) and inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH).
The neurohypophysis stores and releases two hypothalamic hormones:
• Oxytocin stimulates powerful urine contractions, which trigger your thingy and
delivery of another thingy yeah thats right i chinged it so what :p, and milk
ejection in nursing women. Its release is mediated reflexively by the
hypothalamus and represents a positive feedback mechanism.
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulates the kidney tubules to reabsorb and
conserve water, resulting in small volumes of highly concentrated urine and
decreased plasma osmolality. ADH is released in response to high solute
concentrations in the blood and inhibited by low solute concentrations in the
blood. Hyposecretion results in diabetes insipidus.
