SECTION I

Foundations of
Human Movement
CHAPTER 1
Basic Terminology
CHAPTER 2
Skeletal Considerations
for Movement
CHAPTER 3
Muscular Considerations for
Movement
CHAPTER 4
Neurological Considerations
for Movement
 1

Basic Terminology
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define mechanics, biomechanics, and kinesiology and differentiate among their uses
in the analysis of human movement.
2. Define and provide examples of linear and angular motion.
3. Define kinematics and kinetics.
4. Explain the difference between relative and absolute reference systems.
5. Define how the mechanical properties of a structure can be expressed in terms of its
stress–strain relationship.
6. Define stress, strain, elastic region, plastic region, yield point, failure point, and elastic
modulus.
7. Describe the difference between an elastic and a viscoelastic material.
8. Differentiate between brittle, stiff, and compliant materials.
9. Define sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes along with corresponding frontal, sagit-
tal, and longitudinal axes. Provide examples of human movements that occur in each
plane.
10. Explain degree of freedom and provide examples of degrees of freedom associated
with numerous joints in the body.
11. Describe the location of segments or landmarks using correct anatomical terms, such
as medial, lateral, proximal, and distal.
12. Identify segments by their correct name, define all segmental movement descriptors,
and provide specific examples in the body.

P
I. Introduction IV. Anatomical Movement Descriptors
II. Core Areas of Study A. Segment Names
A. Biomechanics vs Kinesiology B. Anatomical Terms
B. Anatomy vs Functional Anatomy C. Movement Description
C. Linear vs Angular Motion 1. Basic Movements
D. Kinematics vs Kinetics 2. Specialized Movement Descriptors
E. Statics vs Dynamics V. Reference Systems
III. Basic Structural Analysis A. Relative vs Absolute
A. Stress–Strain B. Planes and Axes
B. Types of Materials VI. Summary
1. Elastic
2. Viscoelastic

3
4 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

can be qualitatively evaluated through visual observation

Introduction by focusing on such things as whether the legs are together
and straight, the back arched, the landing solid and
To begin or renew the study of kinesiology and biome- whether it was too fast or slow. But it is through the quan-
chanics using this textbook requires a fresh mind. titative analysis that the source of the movement, the mag-
Remember that human movement is the theme and the nitude of the forces generated, can be identified. A force
focus of study in both biomechanics and kinesiology. A cannot be observed qualitatively, but knowing it is the
thorough understanding of various aspects of human source of the movement will help with qualitative assess-
movement may facilitate better teaching, successful ment of its effects, that is, the success of the handspring.
coaching, more observant therapy, knowledgeable exer- This chapter introduces terminology that will be used
cise prescription, or new research ideas. Movement is the throughout the text. The chapter begins by defining and
means by which we interact with our environment, introducing the various areas of study for movement
whether it be simply to take a walk in a park, to analysis. This will be the first exposure to the areas pre-
strengthen muscles in a bench press, to compete in the sented in much greater depth later in the text. Next, it dis-
high jump at a collegiate track meet, or to stretch or reha- cusses methods and terminology describing how we arrive
bilitate an injured joint. Movement, or motion, involves at the basic mechanical properties of various structures.
a change in place, position, or posture relative to some Finally, this chapter establishes a working vocabulary for
point in the environment. movement description at both structural and whole-body
This textbook focuses on developing knowledge in the levels.
area of human movement in such a manner that you will
feel comfortable observing human movement and solving
movement problems. There are many approaches to the
study of movement, such as observing movement using
Core Areas of Study
only the human eye and collecting data on movement
BIOMECHANICS VS KINESIOLOGY
parameters using laboratory equipment. Observers of
activities also have different concerns: a coach may be Those who study human movement often disagree over
interested in the final outcome of a tennis serve, while a the use of the terms kinesiology and biomechanics.
therapist may be interested in identifying where in the Kinesiology can be used in two ways. First, kinesiology as
serve the athlete is placing the stress on the elbow with ten- the scientific study of human movement can be an
dinitis. Some applications of biomechanics and kinesiology umbrella term used to describe any form of anatomical,
will require only a cursory view of a movement, such as physiological, psychological, or mechanical human move-
visual inspection of the forearm position in the jump shot. ment evaluation. Kinesiology also describes the content of
Other applications, such as evaluating the forces applied by a class in which human movement is evaluated by exami-
the hand on the basketball during the shot, will require nation of its source and characteristics. Consequently, kine-
some advanced knowledge and the use of sophisticated siology has been used by several disciplines to describe
equipment and techniques. many different content areas. Some departments of physi-
Elaborate equipment is not needed to apply the mate- cal education and movement science have gone so far as to
rial in this text, but it will be necessary to understand and adopt kinesiology as their department name. However, a
interpret numerical examples collected using such intricate class in kinesiology may consist primarily of functional
instruments. Qualitative examples in this text describe the anatomy at one university and strictly biomechanics at
characteristics of movement. A qualitative analysis is a another.
nonnumeric evaluation of motion based on direct obser- Historically, a kinesiology course has been part of
vation. These examples can be applied directly to a partic- college curricula as long as there have been physical educa-
ular movement situation using visual observation or video. tion and movement science programs. The course origi-
This text also presents quantitative information. A nally focused on the musculoskeletal system, movement
quantitative analysis is a numeric evaluation of the efficiency from the anatomical standpoint, and joint and
motion based on data collected during the performance. muscular actions during simple and complex movements.
For example, movement characteristics can be presented A typical student activity in the kinesiology course was to
to describe the forces or the temporal and spatial compo- identify discrete phases in an activity, describe the segmen-
nents of the activity. The application of this material to a tal movements occurring in each phase, and identify the
practical setting, such as teaching a sport skill, is more dif- major muscular contributors to each joint movement.
ficult, since it is more abstract and often cannot be visually Thus, if one were completing a kinesiological analysis of
observed. However, quantitative information is very the act of rising from a chair, the movements would be
important, since it substantiates what is seen visually in a hip extension, knee extension, and plantarflexion via
qualitative analysis. It also directs the instructional tech- the hamstrings, quadriceps femoris, and triceps surae
nique, because a quantitative analysis will identify the muscle groups, respectively. Most kinesiological analyses
source of a movement. For example, a front handspring are considered qualitative because they involve observing a
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 5

FIGURE 1-1 Types of movement analysis. Movement

can be analyzed by assessing the anatomical
contributions to the movement (functional anatomy),
describing the motion characteristics (kinematics), or
determining the cause of the motion (kinetics).

movement and providing a breakdown of the skills and force between the foot and the floor, all of which act
identification of the muscular contributions to the together to produce the movement up out of the chair.
movement. The components of a biomechanical and kinesiologic
The content of the study of kinesiology is incorporated movement analysis are presented in Figure 1-1. We now
into many biomechanics courses and is used as a precursor examine some of these components individually.
to the introduction of the more quantitative biomechani-
cal content. In this text, biomechanics will be used as an
ANATOMY VS FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY
umbrella term to describe content previously covered in
courses in kinesiology, as well as content developed as a Anatomy, the science of the structure of the body, is the
result of growth of the area of biomechanics. base of the pyramid from which expertise about human
In the 1960s and 1970s, biomechanics was developed movement is developed. It is helpful to develop a strong
as an area of study in the undergraduate and graduate understanding of regional anatomy so that for a specific
curricula across North America. The content of biome- region such as the shoulder, the bones, arrangement of
chanics was extracted from mechanics, an area of physics muscles, nerve innervation of those muscles, blood supply
that consists of the study of motion and the effect of to those muscles, and other significant structures, such as
forces on an object. Mechanics is used by engineers to ligaments, can be identified. A knowledge of anatomy can
design and build structures such as bridges and machines be put to good use if, for example, one is trying to assess
such as airplanes, since it provides the tools for analyzing an injury. Assume a patient has a pain on the inside of the
the strength of structures and ways of predicting and elbow. One’s knowledge of anatomy allows one to recog-
measuring the movement of a machine. It was a natural nize the medial epicondyle of the humerus as the promi-
transition to take the tools of mechanics and apply them nent bony structure of the medial elbow. It also indicates
to living organisms. Thus evolved biomechanics, the that the muscles that pull the hand and fingers toward the
study of the application of mechanics to biological forearm into flexion attach to the epicondyle. Thus, famil-
systems. iarity with anatomy may lead to a diagnosis of medial epi-
A biomechanical analysis evaluates the motion of a liv- condylitis, possibly caused by overuse of the hand flexor
ing organism and the effect of forces on the living organ- muscles.
ism. The biomechanical approach to movement analysis Functional anatomy is the study of the body compo-
can be qualitative, with movement observed and described, nents needed to achieve or perform a human movement
or quantitative, meaning that some aspect of the move- or function. Functional anatomy, used to analyze a dumb-
ment will be measured. The use of the term biomechanics bell lateral raise of the arm, identifies the deltoid, trapezius,
in this text incorporates qualitative components with a levator scapulae, rhomboid, and supraspinatus muscles as
more specific quantitative approach. In such an approach, contributors to upward rotation and elevation of the
the motion characteristics of a human or an object are shoulder girdle and abduction of the arm. Knowledge of
described using such parameters as speed and direction, functional anatomy will be useful in a variety of situations,
how the motion is created through application of forces for example to set up an exercise or weight training pro-
both inside and outside the body, and the optimal body gram and to assess the injury potential in a movement or
positions and actions for efficient, effective motion. For sport or when establishing training techniques and drills
example, to biomechanically evaluate the motion of rising for athletes. The prime consideration of functional
from a chair, one attempts to measure and identify joint anatomy is not the muscle’s location but the movement
forces acting at the hip, knee, and ankle along with the produced by the muscle or muscle group.
6 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

LINEAR VS ANGULAR MOTION The center of mass of the body, of a segment, or of an

object is usually the point monitored in a linear analysis
Two types of motion are present in a human movement or
(Fig. 1-2). The center of mass is the point at which the
an object propelled by a human. First is linear motion,
mass of the object appears to be concentrated, and it rep-
often termed translation or translational motion. Linear
resents the point at which the total effect of gravity acts on
motion is movement along a straight or curved pathway in
the object. However, any point can be selected and evalu-
which all points on a body or an object move the same dis-
ated for linear motion. In skill analysis, for example, it is
tance in the same amount of time. Examples are the path
often helpful to monitor the motion of the top of the head
of a sprinter, the trajectory of a baseball, the bar move-
to gain an indication of certain trunk motions. An exami-
ment in a bench press, and the movement of the foot dur-
nation of the head in running is a prime example. Does the
ing a football punt. The focus in these activities is on the
head move up and down? Side to side? If so, it is an indi-
direction, path, and speed of the movement of the body
cation that the central mass of the body is also moving in
or object. Figure 1-2 illustrates two focal points for linear
those directions. The path of the hand or racket is impor-
movement analysis.
tant in throwing and racket sports, so visually monitoring
the linear movement of the hand or racket throughout the
execution of the motion is beneficial. In an activity such as
sprinting, the linear movement of the whole body is the
most important component to analyze, since the object of
the sprint is to move the body quickly from one point to
another.
The second type of motion is angular motion, which
is motion around some point so that different regions of
the same body segment or object do not move through
the same distance in a given amount of time. As illus-
trated in Figure 1-3, swinging around a high bar repre-
sents angular motion because the whole body rotates
around the contact point with the bar. To make one full
revolution around the bar, the feet travel through a
much greater distance than the arms because they are far-
ther from the point of turning. It is typical in biome-
chanics to examine the linear motion characteristics of an
activity and then follow up with a closer look at the
angular motions that create and contribute to the linear
motion.
All linear movements of the human and objects pro-
pelled by humans occur as a consequence of angular
contributions. The only exceptions to this rule are
movements such as skydiving or free falling, in which
the body is held in a position to let gravity create the lin-
ear movement downward, and when an external pull or
push moves the body or an object. It is important to
identify the angular motions and their sequence that
make up a skill or human movement, because the angu-
lar motions will determine the success or failure of the
linear movement.
Angular motions occur about an imaginary line called
the axis of rotation. Angular motion of a segment, such as
the arm, occurs about an axis running through the joint.
For example, lowering the body into a deep squat entails
angular motion of the thigh about the hip joint, angular
motion of the leg about the knee joint and angular
motion of the foot about the ankle joint. Angular motion
can also occur about an axis through the center of mass.
Examples of this type of angular motion are a somersault
FIGURE 1-2 Examples of linear motion. Ways to apply linear motion in the air and a figure skater’s vertical spin. Finally, angular
analysis include examination of the motion of the center of gravity or the motion can occur about a fixed external axis. For example,
path of a projected object. the body follows an angular motion path when swinging
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 7

FIGURE 1-3 Examples of angular motion. Angular motion of the body, an object, or segment can take place
around an axis running through a joint (A), through the center of gravity (B), or about an external axis (C).

around a high bar, with the high bar acting as the axis of KINEMATICS VS KINETICS
rotation.
A biomechanical analysis can be conducted from either of
For proficiency in human movement analysis, it is nec-
two perspectives. The first, kinematics, is concerned with
essary to identify the angular motion contributions to the
motion characteristics and examines motion from a spa-
linear motion of the body or an object. This is apparent in
tial and temporal perspective without reference to the
a simple activity such as kicking a ball for maximum dis-
forces causing the motion. A kinematic analysis involves
tance. The intent of the kick is to make solid contact
the description of movement to determine how fast an
between a foot traveling at a high linear speed and mov-
object is moving, how high it goes, or how far it travels.
ing in the proper direction to send the ball in the desired
Thus, position, velocity, and acceleration are the compo-
direction. The linear motion of interest is the path and
nents of interest in a kinematic analysis. Examples of
velocity of the ball after it leaves the foot. To create the
linear kinematic analysis are the examination of the pro-
high speeds and the correct path, the angular motions in
jectile characteristics of a high jumper and a study of the
the kicking leg are sequential, drawing speed from each
performance of elite swimmers. Examples of angular
other so that the velocity of the foot is determined by the
kinematic analysis are an observation of the joint move-
summation of the individual velocities of the connecting
ment sequence for a tennis serve and an examination of
segments. The kicking leg moves into a preparatory
the segmental velocities and accelerations in a vertical
phase, drawing back through angular motions of the
jump. Figure 1-4 presents both an angular (top) and lin-
thigh, leg, and foot. The leg whips back underneath the
ear (bottom) example of the kinematics of the golf swing.
thigh very quickly as the thigh starts to move forward to
By examining an angular or linear movement kinemati-
initiate the kick. In the power phase of the kick, the thigh
cally, we can identify segments of a movement that require
moves vigorously forward and rapidly extends the leg and
improvement or obtain ideas and technique enhance-
foot forward at very fast angular speeds. As contact is
ments from elite performers or break a skill down into
made with the ball, the foot is moving very fast because
identifiable parts. By each of these, we can further our
the velocities of the thigh and leg have been transferred
understanding of human movement.
to the foot. Skilled observation of human movement
Pushing on a table may or may not move the table,
allows the relationship between angular and linear
depending upon the direction and strength of the push. A
motion shown in this kicking example to serve as a foun-
push or pull between two objects that may or may not
dation for techniques used to correct or facilitate a move-
result in motion is termed a force. Kinetics is the area of
ment pattern or skill.
8 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

because forces cannot be seen (Fig. 1-5). Only the effects

of forces can be observed. Watch someone lift a 200-lb
barbell in a squat. How much force has been applied? Since
the force cannot be seen, there is no way of accurately eval-
uating the force unless it can be measured with recording
instruments. A likely estimate of the force is at least 200 lb,
since that is the weight of the bar. The estimate may be off

FIGURE 1-4 Examples of kinematic movement analysis. Kinematic analy-

sis focuses on the amount and type of movement, the direction of the
movement, and the speed or change in speed of the body or an object.
The golf shot is presented from two of these perspectives: the angular
components of the golf swing (top) and the direction and speed of the
club and ball (bottom).

FIGURE 1-5 Examples of kinetic movement analysis. Kinetic analysis

focuses on the cause of movement. The weight lifter demonstrates how
study that examines the forces acting on a system, such as lifting can be analyzed by looking at the vertical forces on the ground
the human body, or any object. A kinetic movement analy- that produce the lift (linear) and the torques produced at the three lower
extremity joints that generate the muscular force required for the lift
sis attempts to define the forces causing a movement. A (Redrawn from Lander, J. et al. [1986]. Biomechanics of the squat exer-
kinetic movement analysis is more difficult than a kine- cise using a modified center of mass bar. Medicine and Science in Sports
matic analysis both to comprehend and to evaluate, and Exercise, 18:469–478).
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 9

by a significant amount if the weight of the body lifted and chair and the foot and the ground. In addition, muscular
the speed of the bar were not considered. forces are acting throughout the body to counteract gravity
The forces produced during human movement are very and keep the head and trunk erect. Forces are present
important, since they are responsible for creating all of our without motion and are produced continuously to maintain
movements and for maintaining positions or postures hav- positions and postures that do not involve movement.
ing no movement. The assessment of these forces represents Principles of statics are used to evaluate the sitting posture.
the greatest technical challenge in this field, since it requires Statics is a branch of mechanics that examines systems that
sophisticated equipment and significant expertise. Thus, for are not moving or are moving at a constant speed. Static
the novice movement analyst, concepts relating to maximiz- systems are considered to be in equilibrium. Equilibrium is
ing or minimizing force production in the body will be more a balanced state in which there is no acceleration because
important than evaluating the actual forces themselves. the forces causing a person or object to begin moving, to
A kinetic analysis can provide the teacher, therapist, coach, speed up, or to slow down are neutralized by opposite
or researcher with valuable information about how the forces that cancel them out.
movement is produced or how a position is maintained. This Statics is also useful for determining stresses on
information can direct conditioning and training for a sport anatomical structures in the body, identifying the magni-
or movement. For example, kinetic analyses performed by tude of muscular forces, and identifying the magnitude of
researchers have identified weak and strong positions in var- force that would result in the loss of equilibrium. How
ious joint movements. Thus, we know that the weakest posi- much force generated by the deltoid muscle is required to
tion for starting an arm curl is with the weights hanging hold the arm out to the side? Why is it easier to hold an
down and the forearm straight. If the same exercise is started arm at the side if you lower the arm so that it is no longer
with the elbow slightly bent, more weight can be lifted. perpendicular to the body? What is the effect of an
Kinetics also identifies the important parts of a skill in increased curvature, or swayback, on forces coming
terms of movement production. For example, what is the through the lumbar vertebrae? These are the types of
best technique for maximizing a vertical jump? After questions static analysis may answer. Since the static case
measuring the forces produced against the ground that are involves no change in the kinematics of the system, a static
used to propel the body upward, researchers have con- analysis is usually performed using kinetic techniques to
cluded that the vertical jump incorporating a very quick identify the forces and the site of the force applications
drop downward and stop-and-pop upward action (often responsible for maintaining a posture, position, or con-
called a countermovement action) produces more effec- stant speed. However, kinematic analyses can be applied in
tive forces at the ground than the slow, deep gather jump. statics to substantiate whether there is equilibrium
Last, kinetics has played a crucial role in identifying through the absence of acceleration.
aspects of a skill or movement that make the performer To leave the computer workstation and get up out of
prone to injury. Why do 43% of participants and 76% of the chair, it is necessary to produce forces in the lower
instructors of high-impact aerobics incur an injury (4)? extremity and on the ground. Dynamics is the branch of
The answer was clearly identified through a kinetic analy- mechanics used to evaluate this type of movement, since it
sis that found forces in typical high-impact aerobic exer- examines systems that are being accelerated. Dynamics
cises to be in the magnitude of 4 to 5 times body weight uses a kinematic or kinetic approach or both to analyze
(5). For an individual weighing 667.5 N (newtons) or movement. An analysis of the dynamics of an activity such
150 lb, repeated exposure to forces in the range of 2670 as running may incorporate a kinematic analysis in which
to 3337.5 N (600–750 lb) partially contributes to injury the linear motion of the total body and the angular
of the musculoskeletal system. motion of the segments are described. The kinematic
Examination of both the kinematic and kinetic compo- analysis may be related to a kinetic analysis that describes
nents are essential to full understanding of all aspects of a forces applied to the ground and across the joints as the
movement. It is also important to study the kinematic and person runs. Since this textbook deals with numerous
kinetic relationships, since any acceleration of a limb, of an examples involving motion of the human or a human-
object, or of the human body is a result of a force applied propelled object, dynamics is addressed in detail in specific
at some point, at a particular time, of a given magnitude, chapters on linear and angular kinematics and kinetics.
and for a particular duration. While it is of some use merely
to describe the motion characteristics kinematically, one
must also explore the kinetic sources before a thorough Basic Structural Analysis
comprehension of a movement or skill is possible.
Section 1 of this book discusses the basic structures that
make up the human body. These structures include bone,
STATICS VS DYNAMICS
tendon, ligament, and muscle. Of great interest to
Examine the posture used to sit at a desk and work at a biomechanists are the mechanical properties of these tissues.
computer. Are forces being exerted? Yes, even though there Generally, when analyzing the mechanical properties of such
is no movement, there are forces between the back and the structures, we discern the external forces that are applied to
10 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

the structure and relate these to the resulting deformation of

the structure. The ability of a structure to resist deformation Load cell
is dependent on its material organization and overall shape.
Therefore, this type of analysis is important because it gives
us information on the mechanical properties of the structure
that may ultimately influence its function.

STRESS–STRAIN
Rod in tibia
The force applied to deform a structure and the resulting
deformation are referred to as stress and strain, respectively.
To enable comparison of structures of different sizes, stress
and strain are scaled quantities of the force applied and the
deformation of the structure, respectively. The values of Steel block
stress and strain are measured on a machine that can place
either tension (pulling stress) or compression (pushing Roller
stress) on the structure (Fig. 1-6). In this figure, the load
cell measures the tension, or pulling force, applied to the
tendon, and the extensiometer measures the length to
which the tendon is stretched. The actuator is a motor that
initiates the pull on the tendon. Figure 1-7 shows a similar
setup to determine the compression stress on an ampu-
tated foot. The graph relating stress to strain is the Actuator
stress–strain curve of a structure. A stress–strain analysis FIGURE 1-7 A testing machine that determines the stress–strain properties
can be used in such ways as to discern how a material of an amputated foot. (Reprinted with permission from Alexander, R. McN.
(1992). The Human Machine. New York: Columbia University Press.)
changes with age, how materials react to different force
applications, and how a material reacts to lack of everyday
stress. Figure 1-8 illustrates the stress–strain relationships
of bone vertebrae of normal rhesus monkeys versus those
that have been immobilized. A stress–strain analysis can be
Load cell performed with either pulling force (tension), pushing
force (compression) or shear force (a push or pull along
the surface of the material). This book deals only with ten-
sion and compression stress–strain relationships.
In this type of test, stress is defined as the force per unit
area and is designated with the Greek letter sigma (␴).
Clamp Stress is calculated thus:
F
␴⫽
A
Tendon
Extensiometer where F is the applied force and A is the unit area over
which the force is applied. The force is applied perpendi-
cular to the surface of the structure over a predetermined
area. The unit in which a force is measured is the newton
(N). The unit of area is the square meter (m2). Thus, the
unit of stress is newtons per square meter (N/m2), or the
pascal (Pa).
Deformation or strain is also scaled to the initial length
Actuator of the structure being tested. That is, the deformation
caused by the applied stress is compared to the initial, or
resting, length of the material, when no force is applied.
Strain, designated by the Greek letter epsilon (⑀), is there-
fore defined as the ratio of the change in length to the
FIGURE 1-6 A testing machine that determines the stress–strain proper- resting length. Thus:
ties of a tendon. The actuator stretches the tendon, which is then
allowed to recoil. (Reprinted with permission from Alexander, R. McN. ⌬L
␧⫽
(1992). The Human Machine. New York: Columbia University Press.) L
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 11

point, the structure is said to be in the elastic region. If

the stress is removed while the material is in this region,
Normal
the material will return to its original length with no
structural damage. After the yield point, the molecular
components of the material are permanently displaced
with respect to each other, and if the applied force is
removed, the material will not return to its original length
Stress

(Fig. 1-10). The difference between the original length of

the material and the (resting) length resulting from stress
into the plastic region is the residual strain.
The region after the yield point is the plastic region.
For rigid materials, such as bone, the yield or plastic
Immobilized region is relatively small, while for other materials it can be
relatively large. If the applied force continues beyond the
plastic region, the structure will eventually reach failure,
at which point the stress quickly falls to zero. The maxi-
mal stress reached when failure occurs determines the fail-
ure strength and failure strain of the material.
Strain In normal functional activities, the stress applied will
FIGURE 1-8 Stress–strain curves for bone vertebral segments from a nor- not cause a strain that reaches the yield point. When struc-
mal and immobilized rhesus monkey (Adapted from Kazarian, L. E., Von tures are designed by an engineer, the engineer considers
Gierke, H. E. [1969]. Bone loss as a result of immobilization and chela-
a safety factor when determining the stress–strain rela-
tion. Preliminary results in Macaca mulatta. Clinical Orthopaedics,
65:67–75.). tionship of the structure. This safety factor is generally in
the range of 5 to 10 times the stress that would normally
be placed on the structure. That is, the applied force to
where ⌬L is the change in length of the structure and L is
reach the yield point is significantly greater than the force
the initial length. Because we are dividing a length by a
generally applied in everyday activities. It is obvious and
length, there are no units and so strain is a dimensionless
has been suggested that biological materials and biologi-
number.
cal structures must have a significantly large safety factor.
A stress–strain curve is presented in Figure 1-9. A
Needless to say, the stresses placed on a biological structure
number of key points on this curve are important to the
in everyday activities are much less than the structure can
ultimate function of the structure. In this curve, the slope
handle. Figure 1-11 illustrates a stress–strain curve for a
of the linear portion of the curve is the elastic modulus,
human adult tibia and the actual stress–strain relationship
or stiffness of the material. Stiffness is thus calculated as:
during jogging.
Stress ␴ When a structure is deformed by an applied force, the
k⫽ ⫽
Strain ␧ strain developed in the material relates to the mechanical
As greater force is applied to the structure, the slope of
the curve will eventually decrease. At this point, the struc- Plastic flow
ture is said to yield or reach its yield point. Up to the yield
σf
Failure σy
σf
σy
Stress

Yield point A
Stress

Ε B
σ

ε εy
Residual
Strain
Elastic Plastic
strain
εy εf FIGURE 1-10 A stress–strain curve of a material that has been elongated
Strain into the plastic region. A, The period of the applied load. B, The period
FIGURE 1-9 An idealized stress–strain curve showing the elastic and plas- when the applied load is removed. The residual strain results because of
tic regions and the elastic modulus. the reorganization of the material at the molecular level.
12 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

TYPES OF MATERIALS
Elastic
The idealized material described in Figure 1-9 is an elas-
tic material. In this type of material there is a linear rela-
tionship between the stress and strain. That is, when the
material is deformed by the applied force, the amount of
Stress

deformation is the same for a given amount of stress.

When the applied load is removed, the material will return
to its resting length as long as the material did not reach
its yield point. In an elastic material, the mechanical
energy that was stored is fully recovered.

Viscoelastic
Physiologic area As opposed to elastic structures, certain materials show
stress–strain characteristics that are not strictly linear;
Strain these are viscoelastic materials. These structures have
FIGURE 1-11 The shaded area represents the tension stress–strain values nonlinear or viscous properties in combination with linear
of an adult human tibia during jogging while the solid line represents elastic properties. The combination of these properties
bone samples tested to failure (Adapted with permission from Nordin,
M., Frankel, V. H. [1989]. Basic Biomechanics of the Musculoskeletal
results in the magnitude of the stress being dependent on
System. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.). the rate of loading, or how fast the load is applied. Nearly
all biological materials, such as tendon and ligament, show
some level of viscoelasticity.
energy absorbed by the material. The amount of mechani-
Figure 1-13 illustrates a viscoelastic material. On a
cal energy stored is proportional to the area under the
stress– strain curve of a viscoleastic material, the terms stiff-
stress–strain curve (Fig. 1-12). That is, the stored mechan-
ness, yield point, and failure point also apply. The elastic
ical energy is:
and plastic regions are defined similarly as in an elastic mate-
rial. However, in contrast to an elastic structure, stiffness
1
ME ⫽ ␴␧ has several values that can be determined by where it was
2
calculated on the curve. In Figure 1-13, the stiffness desig-
When the applied force is removed, the stored energy nated by E1 is less than that of E2. However, E3 is certainly
is released. For example, a rubber band can be stretched less than E2. In addition, in a viscoelastic material, the
by pulling on both ends. When one end is released, the stored mechanical energy is not completely returned when
rubber band rebounds back to its original length but in the applied load is removed. Thus, the energy returned is
doing so releases the energy stored during stretching. For not equal to the energy stored. The energy that is lost is
practical purposes, this is the same concept as a trampo- hysteresis (Fig. 1-14).
line. The weight of the person bouncing on it deforms the Materials, whether they are elastic or viscoelastic, are
bed and stores energy. The trampoline rebounds and often referred to as stiff, compliant, or brittle, depending on
releases the stored energy to the person.

σf

σy
Energy = 1/2 σε Ε3
Stress

Stress

Ε2

Ε1

εy εf
Strain
Strain FIGURE 1-13 A stress–strain curve of a typical viscoelastic material. The
FIGURE 1-12 The stored mechanical energy (shaded area) is equal to the elastic modulus (slope of the curve) varies according to the portion of the
area under the stress–strain curve. curve on which it is calculated.
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 13

Hysteresis them consistently when analyzing movement. The correct

(energy lost) interpretation of flexing the arm is to raise the whole arm,
since the arm is the segment between the shoulder and the
elbow, not the segment between the elbow and the wrist
or the hand segment. A review of segment names is
Stress

worthwhile preparation for more extensive use of them in

Energy
the study of biomechanics.
recovered
The head, neck, and trunk are segments composing
the main part of the body and the axial portion of the
skeleton. This portion of the body is large, accounting
for more than 50% of a person’s weight, and it usually
moves much more slowly than the other parts of the
body. Because of its large size and slow speed, the trunk
Strain
is a good segment to observe visually when one is learn-
FIGURE 1-14 A stress–strain curve of a typical viscoelastic material show- ing to analyze movement or following the total body
ing the energy recovered when the material is allowed to return to its
resting length. The hysteresis or energy lost is equal to the energy stored
activity.
when the material is deformed minus the energy recovered. The upper and lower extremities are termed the
appendicular portion of the skeleton. Generally speak-
ing, as one moves away from the trunk, the segments
the elastic modulus. Stress–strain curves of these materials become smaller, move faster, and are more difficult to
are presented in Figure 1-15. A compliant material will have observe because of their size and speed. Thus, arm flex-
an elastic modulus less than that of a stiff material. The ion is raising the upper extremity in front, while forearm
compliant material will store considerably more energy than flexion describes a movement at the elbow. The move-
a stiff material. On the other hand, a brittle material will ments of the arm will typically be described as they occur
have a greater elastic modulus and will store less energy in the shoulder joint; the forearm movements will be
than a stiff material. Nonetheless, all of these terms are rel- described in relation to elbow joint activity; and hand
ative. Depending on the materials being tested, a brittle movements will be described relative to wrist joint
material may be considered stiff relative to one material and activity. Figure 1-16 illustrates the axial and appendicular
compliant relative to another. For example, bone is brittle regions of the body with the correct segment names.
relative to tendon but compliant relative to glass. In the lower extremity, the thigh is the region between
the hip and knee joints; the leg is the region between the
knee and ankle joints; and the foot is the region distal to
Anatomical Movement Descriptors the ankle joint. The movement of the thigh will typically

SEGMENT NAMES
To flex the arm, does one lift at the elbow with weights in
the hand or raise the whole arm in front? Whatever inter-
pretation is placed on the segment name, the term arm
will determine the type of movement performed. It is
important to identify segment names correctly and use

Brittle
Stiff

Compliant
Stress

Strain
FIGURE 1-16 Anatomical vs fundamental starting position. The anatom-
FIGURE 1-15 Stress–strain curves of compliant, stiff and brittle materials. ical and fundamental starting positions serve as a reference point for the
The elastic modulus is significantly different in the three materials. description of joint movements.
14 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

be described as it occurs at the hip joint; leg movement, positions appear to be quite obvious, since there is usually
described by actions at the knee joint; and the foot move- a straight line between the two segments so that no rela-
ments, determined by ankle joint activity. tive angle is formed between them. Zero position in the
trunk occurs when the trunk is vertical and lined up with
the lower extremity. The zero position at the knee is found
ANATOMICAL TERMS in the standing posture when there is no angle between
The description of a segmental position or joint movement the thigh and the leg. One not so obvious zero position is
is typically expressed relative to a designated starting posi- at the ankle joint. For this joint, the zero position is
tion. This reference position, the anatomical position, has assumed in stance with the foot at a right angle to the leg.
been a standard reference point used for many years by Movement description or anatomical location can best
anatomists, biomechanists, and the medical profession. In be presented using terminology universally accepted and
this position, the body is in an erect stance with the head understood. Movement terms should become a part of a
facing forward, arms at the side of the trunk with palms working vocabulary, regardless of the level of application
facing forward, and the legs together with the feet point- of kinesiology required. Development of solid knowledge
ing forward. Some biomechanists prefer to use what is of the movement characteristics of the various phases of a
called the fundamental position as the reference position. human movement or sport skill can improve the effective-
This reference position is similar to the anatomical position ness of teaching a skill, assist in correcting flaws in a per-
except that the arms are in a more relaxed posture at the formance, identify important movements and segments
sides with the palms facing in toward the trunk. Whatever for emphasis in conditioning, and identify aspects of the
starting position is used, all segmental movement descrip- skill that may be associated with injury. The experienced
tions are made relative to some reference position. Both of coach or teacher can determine the most relevant move-
these reference positions are illustrated in Figure 1-16. ments in a skill and will use a specific vocabulary of terms
To discuss joint position, we must define the joint to instruct students or athletes. A standardized set of
angle, or more correctly, the relative angle between two terms is most helpful in this situation.
segments. A relative angle is the included angle between The anatomical terms describing the relative position
the two segments (Fig. 1-17). The calculation of the rela- or direction are illustrated in Figure 1-18. The term
tive angle will be illustrated in a later section of this book. medial refers to a position relatively close to the midline
The starting position is also called the zero position, or of the body or object or a movement that moves toward
origin, for description of most joint movements. For the midline. In the anatomical position, the little finger
example, when a person is standing, there is zero move- and the big toe are on the medial side of the extremity,
ment at the hip joint. If the thigh is lifted or rotated in or since they are on the side of the limb closest to the midline
out, the amount of movement is described relative to the of the body. Also, pointing the toes toward the midline of
fundamental or anatomical starting position. Most zero the body is considered a medial movement. The opposite
of medial is lateral, that is, a position relatively far from
the midline or a movement away from the midline. The
thumb and the little toe are on the lateral side of the hand
and foot, respectively, since they are farther from midline.
Likewise, pointing the toes out is a lateral movement.
Landmarks are also commonly designated as medial or lat-
eral based on their relative position to the midline, such as
medial and lateral condyles, epicondyles, and malleoli.
A Proximal and distal are used to describe the relative
position with respect to a designated reference point, with
proximal representing a position closer to the reference
point and distal being a point farther from the reference.
The elbow joint is proximal and the wrist joint is distal
relative to the shoulder joint. The ankle joint is proximal
and the knee joint is distal relative to the point of heel
contact with the ground. Both proximal and distal must
B be expressed relative to some reference point.
A segment or anatomical landmark may lie on the
superior aspect of the body, placing it above a particular
reference point or closer to the top of the head. It may lie
on an inferior aspect, that is, lower than a reference seg-
ment or landmark. For example, the head is positioned
superior to the trunk, the trunk is superior to the thigh,
FIGURE 1-17 Relative angles of the elbow (A) and the knee (B). and so on. The greater trochanter is located on the
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 15

Medial Medial

Lateral Lateral

Superior

Proximal

Posterior Anterior

Distal

FIGURE 1-18 Anatomical terms used to

describe relative position or direction. Inferior

superior aspect of the femur, and the medial epicondyle of straightening movement in which the relative angle of the
the humerus is located on the inferior end of the humerus. joint between two adjacent segments increases as the joint
The location of an object or a movement relative to the returns to the zero or reference position. Numerous
front or back is anterior or posterior, respectively. Thus, examples of both flexion and extension are provided in
the quadriceps muscle group is located on the anterior Figure 1-19. A person can also perform hyperflexion if
aspect of the thigh, while the hamstrings muscle group is the flexion movement goes beyond the normal range of
located on the posterior aspect of the thigh. Anterior is flexion. For example, this can happen at the shoulder only
also synonymous with ventral for a location on the human when the arm moves forward and up in flexion through
body, while posterior refers to the dorsal surface or posi- 180° until it is at the side of the head, and then hyper-
tion on the human. flexes as it continues to move past the head toward the
The term ipsilateral describes activity or location of a back. Hyperextension can occur in many joints as the
segment or landmark positioned on the same side as a extension movement continues past the original zero posi-
particular reference point. Actions, positions, and land- tion. It is common to see hyperextension movements in
mark locations on the opposite side can be designated as the trunk, arm, thigh, and hand.
contralateral. Thus, when a person lifts the right leg for- A toe-touch movement entails flexion at the vertebral,
ward, there is extensive muscular activity in the iliopsoas shoulder, and hip joints. The return to the standing posi-
muscle of that leg, the ipsilateral leg, and extensive activ- tion involves the opposite movements: of vertebral exten-
ity in the gluteus medius of the contralateral leg to main- sion, hip extension, and shoulder extension. The power
tain balance and support. In walking, as the ipsilateral phase of the jump shot is produced via smooth timing of
lower limb is swinging forward, the other limb, the con- lower extremity hip extension, knee extension, and ankle
tralateral limb, is pushing on the ground to propel the extension coordinated with shoulder flexion, elbow exten-
walker forward. sion, and wrist flexion in the shooting limb. This example
illustrates the importance of the lower extremity extension
movements to the production of power. Lower extremity
MOVEMENT DESCRIPTION
extension often serves to produce upward propulsion
Basic Movements working against the pull of gravity. It is opposite in the
Six basic movements occur in varying combinations in the shoulder joint, where flexion movements are primarily
joints of the body. The first two movements, flexion and used to develop propulsion upward against gravity to raise
extension, are movements found in almost all of the freely the limb.
movable joints in the body, including the toe, ankle, knee, The second pair of movements, abduction and adduc-
hip, trunk, shoulder, elbow, wrist, and finger. Flexion is a tion, are not as common as flexion and extension,
bending movement in which the relative angle of the joint occurring only in the metatarsophalangeal (foot), hip,
between two adjacent segments decreases. Extension is a shoulder, wrist, and metacarpophalangeal (hand) joints.
16 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

FIGURE 1-19 Flexion and extension. These movements occur in many joints in the body, including vertebra,
shoulder, elbow, wrist, metacarpophalanx, interphalanx, hip, knee, and metatarsophalanx.

Many of these movements are presented in Figure 1-20. medial or internal rotation refers to the movement of a
Abduction is a movement away from the midline of the segment about a vertical axis running through the segment
body or the segment. Raising an arm or leg out to the side so that the anterior surface of the segment moves toward
or the spreading of the fingers or toes is an example of the midline of the body while the posterior surface moves
abduction. Hyperabduction can occur in the shoulder away from the midline. Lateral or external rotation is the
joint as the arm moves more than 180° from the side all opposite movement in which the anterior surface moves
the way up past the head. Adduction is the return move- away from the midline and the posterior surface of the seg-
ment of the segment back toward the midline of the body ment moves toward the midline. Since the midline runs
or segment; bringing the arms back to the trunk, bringing through the trunk and head segments, the rotations in
the legs together, and closing the toes or fingers are these segments are described as left or right from the per-
examples of adduction. Hyperadduction occurs fre- spective of the performer. Right rotation is the movement
quently in the arm and thigh as the adduction continues of the anterior surface of the trunk so that it faces right
past the zero position so that the limb crosses the body. while the posterior surface faces left, and left rotation is the
These side-to-side movements are commonly used to opposite movement so that the anterior trunk faces left and
maintain balance and stability during the performance of the posterior trunk faces right. Rotations occur in the ver-
both upper and lower extremity sport skills. Controlling tebrae, shoulder, hip, and knee joints. Rotation move-
or preventing abduction and adduction movements of the ments are very important in the power phase of sport skills
thigh is especially crucial to the maintenance of pelvic and involving the trunk, arm, or thigh. For throwing, the
limb stability during walking and running. throwing arm laterally rotates in the preparatory phase and
The last two basic movements are segment rotations, medially rotates in the power and follow-through phases.
illustrated in Figure 1-21. A rotation can be either medial The trunk complements the arm action with right rotation
(also known as internal) or lateral (also known as external). in the preparatory phase (right-handed thrower) and left
Rotations are designated as right and left for the head and rotation in the power and follow-through phase. Likewise,
trunk only. When in the fundamental starting position, the right thigh laterally rotates in the preparatory phase
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 17

FIGURE 1-20 Abduction and adduction. These movements occur in the sternoclavicular, shoulder, wrist,
metacarpophalangeal, hip, intertarsal, and metatarsophalangeal joints.

and medially rotates until the lower extremity comes off bottom of the scapula moves away from the trunk and the
the ground in the power phase. top of the scapula moves toward the trunk. This movement
is termed upward rotation; the return movement, when
Specialized Movement Descriptors the scapula swings back down into the resting position, is
Specialized movement names are assigned to a variety downward rotation.
of segmental movements (Fig. 1-22). While most of these In the arm and the thigh, a combination of flexion
segmental movements are technically among the six basic and adduction is termed horizontal adduction and a
movements, the specialized movement name is the termi- combination of extension and abduction is called hori-
nology commonly used by movement professionals. Right zontal abduction. Horizontal adduction, sometimes
and left lateral flexion applies only to movement of the called horizontal flexion, is the movement of the arm or
head or trunk. When the trunk or head tilts sideways, the thigh across the body, toward the midline, using a move-
movement is termed lateral flexion. If the right side of the ment horizontal to the ground. Horizontal abduction,
trunk or head moves so that it faces down, the movement or horizontal extension, is a horizontal movement of
is termed right lateral flexion and vice versa. the arm or thigh away from the midline of the body.
The shoulder girdle has specialized movement names These movements are used in a wide variety of sport
that can best be described by observing the movements of skills. The arm action of the discus throw is a good exam-
the scapula. The raising of the scapula, as in a shoulder ple of the use of horizontal abduction in the preparatory
shrug, is termed elevation, while the opposite lowering phase and horizontal adduction in the power and follow-
movement is depression. If the two scapulae move apart, through phase. Many soccer skills use horizontal adduc-
as in rounding the shoulders, the movement is termed tion of the thigh to bring the leg up and across the body
protraction. The return movement, in which the scapulae for a shot or pass.
move toward each other with the shoulders back, is called In the forearm, pronation and supination occur as the
retraction. Finally, the scapulae can swing out so that the distal end of the radius rotates over and back on the ulna
18 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

FIGURE 1-21 Rotation. Rotation occurs in the vertebral, shoulder, hip, and knee joints.

at the radioulnar joints. Supination is the movement of In the foot, plantarflexion and dorsiflexion are spe-
the forearm in which the palm rotates to face forward cialized names for foot extension and flexion,
from the fundamental starting position. Pronation is the respectively. Plantarflexion is the movement in which
movement in which the palms face backward. Supination the bottom of the foot moves down and the angle
and pronation joint movements have also been referred to formed between the foot and the leg increases. This
as external and internal rotation, respectively. As the fore- movement can be created by raising the heel so the
arm moves from a supinated position to a pronated posi- weight is shifted up on the toes or by placing the foot flat
tion, the forearm passes through the semiprone position, on the ground in front and moving the leg backward so
in which the palms face the midline of the body with the that the body weight is behind the foot. Dorsiflexion is
thumbs forward. The actions of forearm pronation and the movement of the foot up toward the leg that
supination are used with arm rotation movements to decreases the relative angle between the leg and the foot.
increase the range of motion, add spin, enhance power, This movement may be created by putting weight on the
and change direction during the force application phases heels and raising the toes or by keeping the feet flat on
in racket sports, volleyball, and throwing. the floor and lowering with weight centered over the
At the wrist joint, the movement of the hand toward the foot. Any foot–leg angle greater than 90° is termed a
thumb is called radial flexion, while the opposite move- plantarflexed position, while any foot–leg angle less than
ment of the hand toward the little finger is called ulnar 90° is termed dorsiflexion.
flexion. These specialized movement names are easier to The foot has another set of specialized movements,
remember because they do not depend on forearm or arm called inversion and eversion, that occur in the intertarsal
position, as do the interpretation of abduction and adduc- and metatarsal articulations. Inversion of the foot takes
tion, and they can easily be interpreted if the location of place when the medial border of the foot lifts so that the
the radius (thumb side) and the ulna (little finger side) is sole of the foot faces in toward the other foot. Eversion
known. Ulnar and radial flexion are important in racket is the opposite movement of the foot: the lateral aspect of
sports for control and stabilization of the racket. Also, in the foot lifts so that the sole of the foot faces away from
volleyball, ulnar flexion is a valuable component of the the other foot.
forearm pass, as it helps to maintain the extended arm posi- Often there is confusion over the use of the terms inver-
tion and increases the contact area of the forearms. sion and eversion and the popularized use of pronation and
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 19

FIGURE 1-22 Examples of specialized movements. Some joint move-

ments are designated with specialized names, even though they
may technically be one of the six basic movements.

supination as descriptors of foot motion. Inversion and Circumduction movements are also possible in the foot,
eversion are not the same as pronation and supination; in thigh, trunk, head, and hand. The movements of all of
fact, they are only a part of pronation and supination. the major segments are reviewed in Table 1-1.
Pronation of the foot is actually a set of movements con-
sisting of dorsiflexion at the ankle joint, eversion in the
tarsals, and abduction of the forefoot. Supination is created
through ankle plantarflexion, tarsal inversion, and forefoot
Reference Systems
adduction. Pronation and supination are dynamic move-
RELATIVE VS ABSOLUTE
ments of the foot and ankle occurring when the foot is on
the ground during a run or walk. These two movements A reference system is necessary for accurate observation
are determined by structure and laxity of the foot, body and description of any type of motion. The use of joint
weight, playing surfaces, and footwear. movements relative to the fundamental or anatomical
The final specialized movement, circumduction, can starting position is an example of a simple reference sys-
be created in any joint or segment that has the potential tem. This system was previously used in this chapter to
to move in two directions, so that the segment can be describe movement of the segments. To improve upon the
moved in a conic fashion as the end of the segment precision of a movement analysis, a movement can be eval-
moves in a circular path. An example of circumduction uated with respect to a different starting point or position.
is placing the arm out in front and drawing an imaginary A reference system is necessary to specify position of the
O in the air. Circumduction is not a simple rotation but body, segment, or object so as to describe motion or iden-
four movements in sequence. The movement of the arm tify whether any motion has occurred. The reference frame
in the creation of the imaginary O is actually a combi- or system is arbitrary and may be within or outside of the
nation of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction. body. The reference frame is placed at a designated spot and
20 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

TABLE 1-1 Movement Review

Segment Joint Df Movements

Head Intervertebral 3 Flexion, extension, hyperextension, R/L lateral flexion, R/L rotation,
circumduction
Atlantoaxial (3 jts) 1 each R/L rotation
Trunk Intervertebral 3 Flexion, extension, hyperextension, R/L rotation, R/L lateral flexion,
circumduction
Arm Shoulder 3 Flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction,
hyperabduction, hyperadduction, horizontal abduction, horizontal
adduction, med/lat rotation, circumduction
Arm/shoulder Sternoclavicular 3 Elevation, depression
Girdle Acromioclavicular 3 Abduction, adduction (protraction, retraction), upward/downward
rotation
Forearm Elbow 1 Flexion, extension, hyperextension
Radioulnar 1 Pronation, supination
Hand Wrist 2 Flexion, extension, hyperextension, radial flexion, ulnar flexion, circum-
duction
Fingers Metacarpophalangeal 2 Flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction,
circumduction
Interphalangeal 1 Flexion, extension, hyperextension
Thumb Carpometacarpal 2 Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, opposition, circumduction
Metacarpophalangeal 1 Flexion, extension
Interphalangeal 1
Thigh Hip 3 Flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction,
hyperadduction, horizontal adduction, horizontal abduction, med/lat
rotation, circumduction
Leg Knee 2 Flexion, extension, hyperextension, med/lat rotation
Foot Ankle 1 Plantarflexion, dorsiflexion
Intertarsal 3 Inversion, eversion
Toes Metatarsophalangeal 2 Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction
Interphalangeal 1 Flexion, extension

R/L, right–left; med/lat, medial–lateral.

usually consists of imaginary lines called axes that intersect reference frame is one in which the axes intersect in the
at right angles at a common point termed the origin. center of the joint and movement of a segment is
The axes are generally given letter representations to differ- described with respect to that joint. The axes are generally
entiate the direction in which they are pointing. Any posi- oriented horizontally (X-axis) and vertically (Y-axis), and
tion can be described by identifying the distance of the the segment angle is measured from the right horizontal
object from each of the three axes. It is important to iden- axes (Fig. 1-23A). The absolute positioning of an
tify the frame of reference used in the description of motion. abducted arm perpendicular to the trunk is 0° or 360°
An example of a reference system placed outside the when described relative to the axes running through the
body is the starting line in a race. The center of an shoulder joint. A relative reference frame is one in which
anatomical joint, such as the shoulder, can be used as a the movement of a segment is described relative to the
reference system within the body. The arm can be adjacent segment. This type of reference frame is often
described as moving through a 90° angle if abducted until used to describe a joint angle. The axes in this reference
perpendicular to the trunk. However, if the ground is used frame are not horizontal and vertical. Figure 1-23B shows
as a frame of reference, the same arm abduction move- the Y-axis placed along one segment, the leg, and the X-
ment can be described with respect to the ground, such as axis perpendicular to the Y-axis. The knee angle can then
movement to a height of 1.6 m from the ground. be determined from the lower portion of the Y-axis to the
When angular motion is described, the joint positions, dotted line describing the thigh segment.
velocities, and accelerations can be described using either In the previously described example of the arm, with
an absolute or a relative frame of reference. An absolute abduction perpendicular to the trunk, the relative
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 21

A
FIGURE 1-23 Absolute vs relative reference X
frame. Left, An absolute reference frame meas- X
ures the segment angle (A) with respect to the
distal joint. Right, A relative reference frame
measures the relative angle (B) formed by the two
segments. It is important to designate the refer-
ence frame in movement description.

positioning of the arm with respect to the trunk is 90°. out to the side of the body. The planes and axes of the
The reference frame should be clearly identified so that human body for motion description are presented in
the results can be interpreted accordingly, and since refer- Figure 1-25.
ence systems vary among researchers, the reference system The sagittal plane bisects the body into right and left
and reference point must be identified before comparing halves. Movements in the sagittal plane occur about a
and contrasting results between studies. For example, mediolateral axis running side to side through the center
some researchers label a fully extended forearm as a 180° of mass of the body. Sagittal plane movements involving
position, and others label the position 0°. After 30° of the whole body rotating around the center of mass include
flexion at the elbow joint, the final position is 150° or 30°, somersaults, backward and forward handsprings, and flex-
respectively, for the two systems described above. There ing to a pike position in a dive. The frontal or coronal
can be considerable confusion when trying to interpret an plane bisects the body to create front and back halves.
article using a different reference system from that of the The axis about which frontal plane movements occur is
authors. the anteroposterior axis that runs anterior and posterior
from the plane. Frontal plane motions of the whole body
PLANES AND AXES
The universally used method of describing human move-
ments is based on a system of planes and axes. A plane is
a flat two-dimensional surface. Three imaginary planes
are positioned through the body at right angles to each
other so they intersect at the center of mass of the body.
These are the cardinal planes of the body. Movement is
said to occur in a specific plane if it is actually along the
plane or parallel to it. Movement in a plane always occurs
about an axis of rotation perpendicular to the plane
(Fig. 1-24). Stick a pin through a piece of cardboard and
spin the paper around the pin. The movement of the
cardboard takes place in the plane and the pin represents
the axis of rotation. The cardboard can spin around the
pin while the pin is front-to-back horizontal, vertical, or
sideways, for movement of the cardboard in all three of
the planes. This example can be applied to describe
imaginary lines running through the total body center of
mass in the same three pin directions. These planes allow
full description of a motion and contrast of an arm move- FIGURE 1-24 The plane and axis. Movement takes place in a plane about
ment straight out in front of the body with one straight an axis perpendicular to the plane.
22 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

Longitudinal axis

Sagit
plan tal
e
Mediolateral
axis

Anteroposterior
axis

Transverse
plane

e
tal plan
Fron
FIGURE 1-26 Planes and axes for the knee.

a joint center. Examples of sagittal plane movements at a

joint can be demonstrated by performing flexion and exten-
FIGURE 1-25 Planes and axes on the human body. The three cardinal sion movements, such as raising the arm in front, bending
planes that originate at the center of gravity are the sagittal plane, which the trunk forward and back, lifting and lowering the leg in
divides the body into right and left; the frontal plane, dividing the body front, and rising on the toes. Examples of sagittal plane
into front and back; and the transverse plane, dividing the body into top movements of the body about an external support point
and bottom. Movement takes place in or parallel to the planes about a
include rotating the body over the planted foot running
mediolateral axis (sagittal plane), an anteroposterior axis (frontal plane),
or a longitudinal axis (transverse plane). and rotating the body over the hands in a vault. The most
accurate view of any motion in a plane is obtained from a
position perpendicular to the plane of movement to allow
viewing along the axis of rotation. Therefore, sagittal plane
about the center of mass are not as common as move- movements are best viewed from the side of the body to
ments in the other planes. The transverse or horizontal allow focus on a frontal axis of rotation (Fig. 1-27).
plane bisects the body to create upper and lower halves. Like sagittal plane movements, frontal plane move-
Movements occurring in this plane are primarily rotations ments can occur about a joint. Characteristic joint move-
about a longitudinal axis. An example of transverse plane ments in the frontal plane include thigh abduction and
movement about the body’s center of mass is spinning adduction, finger and hand abduction and adduction, lat-
vertically around the body while in the air. eral flexion of the head and trunk, and inversion and ever-
Although we have described the sagittal, transverse, sion of the foot. Frontal plane motion about an external
and frontal cardinal planes, actually any number of other point of contact can be seen often in dance and ballet
planes can pass through the body. For example, we can especially, as the dancers move laterally from a pivot point,
define many sagittal planes that do not pass through the and in gymnastics with the body rotating sideways over
center of mass of the body. The only requirement for the hands, such as in the cartwheel. The best position to
defining such a plane is that it is parallel to the cardinal view frontal plane movements is in front or in back of the
sagittal plane. Likewise we can have multiple transverse body to focus on the joint or the point about which the
or frontal planes. Defining these noncardinal planes is whole body is going to rotate (Fig. 1-28).
useful for describing joint or limb movements. The inter- Examples of movements in the transverse plane about
section of the three planes is placed at the joint center so longitudinal joint axes are rotations at the vertebrae,
that joint actions can be described in a sagittal, trans- shoulder, and hip joints. Pronation and supination of the
verse, or frontal plane (Fig. 1-26). Noncardinal planes forearm at the radioulnar joints is also a transverse plane
can also be used in examining movements that take place movement. The axis for all of these movements is an imag-
about an external axis. inary line running vertically through the vertebrae, the
Most planar or two-dimensional analyses in biomechan- shoulder, the radioulnar or the hip joints. This is a very
ics are concerned with motion in the sagittal plane through common movement in gymnastics, dance, and ice skating.
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 23

FIGURE 1-28 Movements in the frontal plane. Segmental movements in

the frontal plane about anteroposterior joint axes are abduction and
adduction or some specialized side-to-side movement. Frontal plane
movements about the center of gravity or an external point involve side-
ways movement of the body, which is more difficult than movement to
the front or back.

plane movements about an external axis running through

a pivot point between the foot and the ground. All spin-
ning movements that have the whole body turning about
the ground or the ice are examples. While transverse plane
motions are vital aspects of most successful sport skills,
these movements are difficult to follow visually, since the
best viewing position is either above or below the move-
ment, perpendicular to the plane of motion. Consequently,
FIGURE 1-27 Movements in the sagittal plane. Sagittal plane movements rotation motions are evaluated by following the linear
are typically flexions and extensions or some forward or backward turn- movement of some point on the body if vertical position-
ing exercise. The movements can take place about a joint axis, the cen- ing cannot be achieved. Examples of movements in the
ter of gravity, or an external axis.
transverse plane are presented in Figure 1-29.
Most human movements take place in multiple planes
There are also numerous examples from dance, skating, at the various joints. In running, for example, the lower
and gymnastics in which the athlete performs transverse extremity appears to move predominantly in the sagittal
24 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

FIGURE 1-29 Movements in the transverse plane. Most transverse plane

movements are rotations about a longitudinal axis running through a
joint, the center of gravity, or an external contact point.

plane as the limbs swing forward and back through the joints include the atlantoaxial (neck), interphalangeal
gait cycle. Upon closer examination of the limbs and (hand and foot), radioulnar (elbow), and ankle joints.
joints, one will find movements in all of the planes. At the Three degrees of freedom does not always imply great
hip joint, for example, the thigh will perform flexion and mobility, but it does indicate that the joint allows move-
extension in the sagittal plane, abduction and adduction in ment in all three planes of motion. The shoulder is much
the frontal plane, and internal and external rotation in the more mobile than the hip, even though they both are
transverse plane. If human movements were confined to triaxial joints and are capable of performing the same
single-plane motion, we would look like robots as we per- movements. The trunk movements, although classified as
formed our skills or joint motions. Examine the three- having 3 df, are quite restricted if one evaluates movement
dimensional motion for an overhand throw presented in at a single vertebral level. For example, the lumbar and
Figure 1-30. Note the positioning for viewing motion in cervical areas of the vertebrae allow the trunk to flex and
each of the three planes. extend, but this plane of movement is limited in the mid-
The movement in a plane can also be described as a sin- dle thoracic portion of the vertebrae. Likewise, the rota-
gle degree of freedom (df ). This terminology is com- tion actions of the trunk occur primarily in the thoracic
monly used to describe the type and amount of motion and cervical regions, since the lumbar region has limited
structurally allowed by the anatomical joints. A joint with movement potential in the horizontal plane. It is only the
1 df indicates that the joint allows the segment to move combination of all of the vertebral segments that allows
through one plane of motion. A joint with 1 df is also the 3-df motion produced by the spine.
termed uniaxial, since there is one axis perpendicular to Also, gliding movements occur across the joint sur-
the plane of motion about which movement occurs. A faces. Gliding movements may be interpreted as adding
1-df joint, the elbow, allows only flexion and extension in more degrees of freedom to those defined in the litera-
the sagittal plane. ture. For example, the knee joint is considered to have
Conventionally, most joints are considered to have 1, 2, 2 df for flexion and extension in the sagittal plane and
or 3 df offering movement potential that is uniaxial, biax- rotation in the transverse plane. However, the knee joint
ial, or triaxial, respectively. The shoulder is an example of also demonstrates linear translation and it is well known
a 3-df, or triaxial, joint because it allows the arm to move that there is movement in the joint in the frontal plane as
in the frontal plane via abduction and adduction, in the the joint surfaces glide over one another to create side-to-
sagittal plane via flexion and extension, and in the trans- side translation movements. While these movements have
verse plane via rotation. been measured and are relatively significant, they have not
Joints with 3 df include the vertebrae, shoulder, and been established as an additional degree of freedom for
hip; 2-df joints include the knee, metacarpophalangeal the joint. The degrees of freedom for most of the joints in
(hand), wrist, and thumb carpometacarpal joints; 1-df the body are shown in Table 1-1.
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 25

FIGURE 1-30 Movements in all three planes. Most human movements employ movement in all three planes.
The release phase of the overhand throw illustrates movements in all three planes. The sagittal plane move-
ments are viewed from the side; the frontal plane movements, from the rear; and the transverse plane move-
ments, from above.

A kinematic chain is derived from combining degrees of Anatomical movement descriptors should be used to
freedom at various joints to produce a skill or movement. describe segmental movements. This requires acknowl-
The chain is the summation of the degrees of freedom in edgment of the starting position (fundamental or anatom-
adjacent joints that identifies the total degrees of freedom ical), standardized use of segment names (arm, forearm,
available or necessary for the performance of a movement. hand, thigh, leg, foot), and the correct use of movement
For example, kicking a ball might involve an 11-df system descriptors (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction,
relative to the trunk. This would include perhaps 3 df at rotation).
the hip, 2 df at the knee, 1 df at the ankle, 3 df in the
tarsals (foot), and 2 df in the toes.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
True or False
Summary
1. ____ Biomechanics is the application of the laws of physics to
Biomechanics, the application of the laws of physics to human motion.
the study of motion, is a useful tool for studying human 2. ____ A biomechanical analysis can be accomplished only quali-
movement. Human motion can be qualitatively or quan- tatively.
titatively assessed biomechanically. A qualitative analysis 3. ____ Kinesiology is essentially the same as biomechanics.
is a nonnumeric assessment of the movement. A quanti-
4. ____ The appendicular skeleton includes the head, trunk, and
tative analysis uses kinematic or kinetic applications that upper extremities.
analyze a skill or movement by identifying its compo-
nents or by assessing the forces creating the motion, 5. ____ For each rotation, an axis of rotation can be defined.
respectively. 6. ____ A relative angle measures the position of a segment in
Individual structures of the human body may be ana- space.
lyzed mechanically using a stress–strain curve to help 7. ____ When the relative angle between two segments increases,
determine its basic properties. Stress–strain curves illustrate flexion is said to take place.
the elastic and plastic regions and the elastic modulus of 8. ____ Pronation and supination describe motions of the fore-
the structure. Structures and materials can be differenti- arm and can be used for motions of the foot.
ated as elastic or viscoelastic based on their stress–strain 9. ____ The right leg is ipsilateral to the left leg.
curves. These basic mechanical properties may give insight
into how a movement may take place. 10. ____ When a material reaches its failure point, the applied
force immediately drops to zero.
To provide a specific description of a movement, it is
helpful to define movements with respect to a starting 11. ____ Hysteresis is the energy stored in a stress–strain test.
point or to one of the three planes of motion: sagittal, 12. ____ Both the anatomical and fundamental reference posi-
frontal, or transverse. tions are used by biomechanists.
26 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

13. ____ The foot is distal to the leg relative to the thigh. 7. Which of the following are examples of a static analysis?
14. ____ Lower extremity motion in running can be studied as if it a. A weight-lifter holding a barbell over his head
occurred only in the sagittal plane. b. An isometric exercise
c. The path of a spaceship in flight in space
15. ____ A viscoelastic material has no elastic properties at all. d. All of the above
16. ____ The foot is inferior to the thigh relative to the head. 8. The unit of force is ____.
17. ____ A mediolateral axis runs from the medial side of the a. Gram
body to the distal side. b. Centimeter
c. Newton
18. ____ When a material remains in its elastic region during a
d. All of the above
stress–strain test, it exhibits no residual strain.
19. ____ Statics is a branch of mechanics that studies systems that 9. A dynamic analysis of human movement could use ____.
do not move. a. Both a kinematic and kinetic approach
b. Neither a kinematic nor a kinetic approach
20. ____ Angular motion occurs about an axis of rotation. c. A kinematic but not a kinetic approach
21. ____ A biomechanist must have a sound knowledge of anatomy. d. A kinetic but not a kinematic approach
22. ____ The stiffness of a material can be determined by 10. The force applied to a structure will cause a ____.
calculating the slope of the linear portion of the stress–strain a. Strain
curve. b. Stress
c. Both A and B
23. ____ A joint that has only 1° of freedom can also be called a
d. Neither A nor B
uniaxial joint.
24. ____ All joints in the human body have at least 3° of freedom. 11. To compare the stress–strain properties of two different
materials, the applied force must be applied to ____.
25. ____ All analyses in biomechanics must be quantitative. a. Both materials at the same time
b. The same side of each material
c. The same volume
Multiple Choice d. The same area

1. Which of the following are not essential areas of study for a 12. When stressed in its elastic region, a material will exhibit ____.
biomechanist? a. Structural reorganization
a. Anatomy b. Failure
b. Physics c. No effect
c. Philanthropy d. Residual strain
d. Mathematics 13. A viscoelastic material ____.
2. Which of the following is not an example of a qualitative a. Has elastic and viscous properties
analysis? b. Exhibits non-linear behavior
a. A coach correcting a free throw c. Has multiple stiffnesses
b. A force profile of a weight lifter d. All of the above
c. A physical therapist watching a patient exercise 14. The difference between the anatomical and fundamental
d. All of the above positions is ____.
3. Which of the following are examples of linear motion? a. The position of the hands relative to the trunk
a. The arm of a pitcher throwing a ball b. The position of the head
b. A parachutist in free-fall c. Both A and B
c. A runner’s leg motion during a 100-m race d. There is no difference
d. None of the above 15. The elbow joint in relation to to the wrist relative to the trunk
4. Which of the following are examples of angular motion? is ____.
a. The ball after being thrown by the pitcher a. Proximal
b. A parachutist in free fall b. Medial
c. A runner’s leg motion during a 100-m race c. Inferior
d. None of the above d. Anterior
5. Which of the following could be a kinetics study? 16. The hip joint relative to the head is ____.
a. The position of a runner during each segment of a race a. Proximal
b. The velocity of a runner during portion of a race b. Medial
c. The angular motion of a runner’s leg during a race c. Inferior
d. None of the above d. Anterior
6. An example of a kinematic study is ____. 17. The right knee relative to the left knee is ____.
a. The force acting on a runner during a race a. Proximal
b. The velocity of a runner during portion of a race b. Contralateral
c. The force applied to a ball being kicked c. Inferior
d. None of the above d. Ipsilateral
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 27

18. A joint in which the relative angle continues past its zero 25. A uniaxial joint has how many degrees of freedom?
position undergoes ____. a. 3
a. Hyperextension b. 1
b. Hyperflexion c. 2
c. Hyperadduction d. Multiple
d. Hyperabduction
19. Which of the following are not movements of the scapula?
a. Depression
REFERENCES
b. Lateral flexion 1. Richie, D. H., et al. (1985). Aerobic dance injuries: A retro-
c. Upward rotation spective study of instructors and participants. Physician and
d. Retraction Sports Medicine, 13:130–140.
20. Radial flexion takes place on ____. 2. Ulibarri, V. D., et al. (1987). Ground reaction forces in selected
a. The thumb side of the hand aerobics movements. Biomechanics in Sport. New York:
b. The little finger side of the hand Bioengineering Division of the American Society of Mechanical
c. The big toe side of the foot Engineering, 19–21.
d. The little toe side of the foot 3. Lander, J., et al. (1986). Biomechanics of the squat exercise
using a modified center of mass bar. Medicine and Science in
21. A reference system has ____.
Sports and Exercise, 18:469–478.
a. Planes
4. Kazarian, L. E., Von Gierke, H. E. (1969). Bone loss as a result
b. Axes
of immobilization and chelation. Preliminary results in Macaca
c. An origin
mulatta. Clinical Orthopaedics, 65:67–75.
d. All of the above
5. Nordin, M., Frankel, V. H. (1989). Basic Biomechanics of the
22. Motion in the coronal plane take place about which axis? Musculoskeletal System. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.
a. Longitudinal
b. Mediolateral
c. Transverse
d. Anteroposterior
ADDITIONAL READING
23. Most human movements take place in ____. Alexander, R. McN. (1992). The Human Machine. New York:
a. The sagittal plane Columbia University Press.
b. The frontal plane Marieb, E. N., Mallatt, J. (2001). Human Anatomy (3rd ed.). San
c. The transverse plane Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
d. Multiple planes Roozbazar, A. (1974). Biomechanics of lifting. In R.C. Nelson and
C.A. Morehouse (Eds.), Biomechanics IV. Baltimore: University
24. A degree of freedom is ____.
Park Press, 37–43.
a. The type of movement structurally allowed by a joint
Vetter, W. L., et al. (1985). Aerobic dance injuries. Physician and
b. The number of movements possible at a joint
Sports Medicine, 13:114–120.
c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
28 SECTION I Foundations of Human Movement

GLOSSARY
Abduction: A movement away from the midline of the body. Failure Point: The point on a stress–strain curve when the
Absolute Reference Frame: A reference frame in which the applied force causes a complete rupture of the material.
origin is at the joint center. Flexion: The action in which the relative angle between two
Adduction: A movement toward the midline of the body. adjacent segments becomes smaller.
Anatomy: The science of the structure of the body. Frontal (Coronal) Plane: The plane that bisects the body into
Anatomical Position: The standardized reference position front and back halves.
used in the medical profession. Fundamental Position: A standardized reference position
Angular Motion: Motion around an axis of rotation in similar to the anatomical position.
which different regions of the same object do not move Functional Anatomy: The study of the body components
through the same distance. needed to achieve a human movement or function.
Anterior: A position in front of a designated reference
point. Horizontal Abduction: A combination of extension and
abduction of the arm or thigh.
Anteroposterior Axis: The axis through the center of mass
of the body running from posterior to anterior. Horizontal Adduction: A combination of flexion and adduc-
tion of the arm or thigh.
Appendicular Skeleton: The bones of the extremities.
Hysteresis: The mechanical energy lost by a material that has
Axes: The imaginary lines of a reference system along which
been deformed.
position is measured.
Axial Skeleton: The bones of the head, neck, and trunk. Inferior: A position below a designated reference point.
Axis of Rotation: The imaginary line about which an object Inversion: The movement in which the medial border of the
rotates. foot lifts so that the sole of the foot faces away from the
midline of the body.
Biomechanics: The study of motion and the effect of forces
Ipsilateral: On the same side.
on biological systems.

Cardinal Planes: The planes of the body that intersect at the Kinematics: Area of study that examines the spatial and
total body center of mass. temporal components of motion (position, velocity,
acceleration).
Circumduction: A movement that is a combination of flex-
ion, adduction, extension, and abduction. Kinesiology: Study of human movement.

Contralateral: On the opposite side. Kinetics: Study of the forces that act on a system.

Degree of Freedom: The movement of a joint in a plane. Lateral: A position relatively far from the midline of the
body.
Depression: The lowering movement of the scapula.
Lateral Flexion: A flexion movement of the head or trunk.
Distal: A position relatively far from a designated reference
point. Linear Motion: Motion in a straight or curved line in which dif-
ferent regions of the same object move the same distance.
Dorsal: See Posterior.
Longitudinal Axis: The axis through the center of mass of
Dorsiflexion: The motion in which the relative angle
the body running from top to bottom.
between the foot and the leg decreases.
Downward Rotation: The action whereby the scapula swings Medial: A position relatively closer to the midline of the
toward the midline of the body. body.
Dynamics: The branch of mechanics in which the system Mediolateral Axis: The axis through the center of mass of
being studied undergoes an acceleration. the body running from right to left.
Elastic Material: A material that exhibits only elastic proper- Movement: A change in place, position, or posture occurring
ties on a stress–strain curve. over time and relative to some point in the environment.
Elastic Modulus: The linear portion of a stress–strain curve.
Origin: The intersection of the axes of a reference system
Elastic Region: The area of a stress–strain curve before the and the reference point from which measures are taken.
yield point. The area in which the material will return to
its resting length when the applied force is removed. Plane of Motion: A two-dimensional flat surface running
Elevation: The raising of the scapula. through an object. Motion occurs in the plane or parallel
Eversion: The movement in which the lateral border of the to the plane.
foot lifts so that the sole of the foot faces away from the Plantarflexion: The motion in which the relative angle
midline of the body. between the foot and the leg increases.
Extension: The action in which the relative angle between Plastic Region: The region between the yield point and the
two adjacent segments gets larger. failure point on a stress–strain curve. The region in
 CHAPTER 1 Basic Terminology 29

which the material will not return to its initial length Safety Factor: The ratio of the stress to reach the yield point
after it is deformed. to the stress of everyday activity.
Posterior: A position behind a designated reference point. Sagittal Plane: The plane that bisects the body into right
Pronation: Movement in which the forearm rotates to a and left sides.
palms down position relative to anatomical position. Statics: A branch of mechanics in which the system being
Protraction: The motion describing the separating action of studied undergoes no acceleration.
the scapula. Stress: Force per unit area.
Proximal: A position relatively closer to a designated refer- Stress–strain Curve: A plot of the stress placed on a material
ence point. against the strain imposed by the stress.

Qualitative Analysis: A nonnumeric description or evalua- Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: The plane that bisects the
tion of movement based on direct observation. body into top and bottom halves.
Quantitative Analysis: A numeric description or evaluation Superior: A position above a designated reference point.
of movement based on data collected during the per- Supination: The movement in the forearm in which the
formance of the movement. forearm rotates to a palms-up position relative to
anatomical position.
Radial Flexion: The flexion movement of the hand toward
the forearm on the thumb side of the hand. Ulnar Flexion: The flexion movement of the hand toward
Reference System: A system to locate a point in space. the forearm on the little finger side of the hand.
Relative Angle: The included angle between two adjacent Upward Rotation: The action whereby the scapula swings
segments. out from the midline of the body.
Relative Reference Frame: A reference frame in which the
origin is at the joint center and one of the axes is placed Ventral: See Anterior.
along one of the segments. Viscoelastic Material: A material that exhibits nonlinear
Retraction: The motion describing the coming together properties on a stress–strain curve.
action of the scapula.
Yield Point: The point on a stress–strain curve at which the
Residual Strain: The difference between the initial length of
material reaches the plastic region.
a material and the length when the material has gone
beyond its yield point.
Rotation: A movement about an axis of rotation in which
not every point of the segment or body covers the same
distance in the same time.