Spread Spectrum Modulation

Concept of spared spectrum

As we know the goal of spread spectrum is to provide the protection to

transmitted signal against jammer. The jammer emits its finite power directed

towards receiver to distort the detection process. Later, we shall find how much

protection a spread spectrum can give for finite power of jammer. Let us reconsider

the conventional communication system where a base band signal after being

multiplied by a carrier is translated to passband signal occupying certain band

depending upon the carrier frequency. Here, this does not have any protection as

any intruder can decipher the message simply by tapping the signal and multiplying it

by its carrier frequency (which may easily be known by intruder). In spread spectrum

technique, we multiply the passband signal with certain code called PN sequence (to

be discussed next), thus spreading the power in a wideband. If any intruder wants to

detect the signal, then, it will have to use such a wideband to tap the signal, which is

generally difficult. Seccondly, it requires the exact information about this code (or

key) which is difficult to track as it keeps changing with the time. Thus, we have

provided protection to the signal by multiplying the passband signal with spreading

code. In other technique, known as frequency hopping, we, in stead of spreading the

passband signal in a large BW, we hop the passband in the given wideband in a

predetermined order which is known only to the desired receiver. Thus, hopping the

passbad signal in a given wide BW, provides protection to the signal as any

undesired element must know this predetermined order in which the signal band

is hopping. This will further be discussed latter part of this chapter.

 Fig. 1

Fig. 2

In spread spectrum, a signal (Let us say, binary wave) is multiplied with PN

sequence (to be discussed later) which has a very large bandwidth. Hence, the

spectrum of resulting signal will occupy a very large BW. Since total power remains
fixed, thus, PSD of signal falls down and its level goes near noise level which has

spread in the complete range of frequency. Hence, it appears that signal has hidden

itself or submerged into an ocean of large BW spectrum of noise. Since the PN

noise has got very wide BW and hence, this transmitted signal blends itself into this

AWGN noise background so as to remain undetected by Jammer.

One more justification can be given as to why spread spectrum is wide. We

know that from convolution theory if we multiply the two signal in time domain, then

they will be convolved in frequency domain. Now b ( t ) is narrowband and c (t )

is wideband PN Sequence. The multiplication of both the signals in time-domain

results in convolution of their frequency counterpart given as

b ( t ) . c ( t ) ↔ B ( f )∗G ( f ) (1)

So, convolution of narrow band with the wideband signal results in wideband signal.

Therefore, we can divide the complete process of spreading and dispreading of

signal into three steps given as

Figure 1: Spreading and de-spreading

m ( t )=b ( t ) c ( t ) (2)

r ( t ) =m ( t )+i ( t )=b ( t ) c ( t )+i ( t )

This is the received signal r ( t ) . Now, for detection purpose, just reverse process

takes place i.e. r ( t ) should, first, be multiplied by c (t ) .Hence, we have

z ( t )=r ( t )×c ( t )

=[ b ( t ) c ( t )+i ( t ) ] c ( t ) =b ( t ) c 2 ( t )+i ( t ) c ( t )

z ( t )=b ( t ) +i ( t ) c ( t ) (3)

We see that b ( t ) is a narrow band signal and i ( t ) is a wideband signal (as

i ( t ) c ( t ) is also a kind of spread spectrum on i ( t ) ). Hence, low pass filter should

be used to filter out b (t ) . Here we note that c (t ) is a PN sequence having

2
amplitude+1 and -1. Hence, c ( t )=1 .

If we look to the frequency domain counter-part, then, the steps are as follows.

Step 1: Convolve B(f) with C(f).

Step 2: Add I(f) to this signal and hence R(f)=B(f)*C(f)+I(f).

Step 3: Convolve R(f) with C(f), i.e. R(f)*C(f)=B(f)*C(f)*C(f)+I(f)*C(f).

Step 4: Noting that C ( f ) * C ( f ) | C ( f ) |  ( f ) , we have

2

R( f )  C ( f ) | C ( f ) |2 B( f )   ( f )  I ( f )  C ( f )
 | C ( f ) |2 B( f )  I ( f )  C ( f )
          
Baseband Signal Passband Signal

X ( f )∗δ ( f −nf S ) =X ( f −nf S )

We have used the convolution property in the above

equation. This is illustrated in Fig. 3. The receiver to detect the baseband signal from

the received spread signal is designed as follows.

 Figure 2: De-spreading and correlator

NOTE

(i) Here it is equally important to realize that both PN Sequence generator at

TX and RX should be in perfect synchronization, otherwise even a single

chip mismatch could render the product to be zero.

(ii) The price we are paying for improved protection against interference is the

increased transmission BW and increased system complexity. However, if

security is our prime concern then these thing can be compromised.

Consider the general case of communication system in which message signal is

occupying only certain narrow BW and it is added with AWGN noise.

 Figure 3: Spreading and De-spreading

Hence, signal can easily be detected using suitable receiver. Now If the signal is

spreaded by multiplying with PN sequence, the situation looks like as shown in

Figure 3(a). It may be noted that if the signal b(t) is multiplied in time-domain with

C(t), then, in frequency domain, this signal will be convolved with PN sequence as

shown in Figure 3(a). Hence, signal spectrum has spread in a wide range spectrum

and after being added with AWGN noise, as shown in Figure 3(b), it appears that it

has hidden itself into the noise background just like grasshopper camflouges itself in

a grass. Had the grasshopper been different from grass color, it could easily be

detected. Further, in Figure 3(c), this signal plus noise is being multiplied with the de-

spreading code and resultant signal will consist of base-band signal (low BW) plus

noise (Wide BW) as given in (3). Using Low pass filter, this baseband signal can

easily be filtered out.

Direct-sequence spread spectrum with Coherent BPSK

 Figure 4: DS-Spread Spectrum with Modulation

Here, we note that in the receiver stage, there are two-stage modulations. First stage

is to bring from pass band signal to baseband signal. Hence at (6), we get the

distorted version of spread sequence m ( t ) . To get the distorted version of binary

wave, this is to be multiplied by PN sequence. The reason for using LPF in first stage

demodulation is that even m(t ) which is also equal to c (t ) b ( t ) is also a

baseband signal (or low pass signal), though, it has got wide spectrum, yet it is

centered at zero. Hence, LPF is required.

Here, we note a very important point. The spreading is followed by modulation (Like

BPSK, QPSK). Now these two operations can also be interchanged to each other.

The reason is that these two operations (i.e. spreading and modulation) are linear

processes. This is shown as follows:

Let m1 ( t ) =b1 ( t ) c1 ( t ) and m2 ( t ) =b2 ( t ) c ( t )

Hence,

m ( t )=[ b1 ( t )+ b2 ( t ) ] c ( t )

=b 1 ( t ) c (t ) +b 2 ( t ) c ( t )
¿ m1 ( t ) +m2 ( t ) (1)

In a similar way, x 1 ( t )=m1 ( t ) Cos ω c t and x 2 ( t )=m 2 (t ) Cos ωc t

⇒ x ( t ) =[ m1 ( t ) +m 2 ( t ) ] Cos ω c t =m1 ( t ) Cos ωc t +m2 ( t ) Cos ωc t =x 1 ( t )+ x 2 ( t )

Hence, it proves that spreading and modulation both are linear process. Now, we

know that linear process can be interchanged without affecting the result. Hence it is

concluded that these two processes can be interchanged. In a similar way, it can be

shown that at receiver side, dispreading and demodulation both the process can also

be interchanged.

Hence, the resultant block diagram is as follows

Fig. 5

Here corresponding equations are

y (t )=x ( t ) + j ( t ) (2)
Here, let us ignore the presence of noise as we are concerned about Jammer’s

interference and hence we are trying to see the effect of Jammer’s interference only.

u ( t ) = y ( t ) .c ( t )

  x(t )  j (t )  c  t   x  t  c  t   j  t  c  t 
  s  t  c 2  t   j  t  c  t  

=s ( t )+ j (t ) c ( t ) (3)

2
Here, c ( t )=1

Here note that Jammer interference j ( t ) is a pass band signal. Now, if j (t) be

multiplied with c (t ) , the resulting term j ( t ) c ( t ) will also be passband. Now, S ( t )

is baseband. Hence, s ( t ) could easily be filtered out using low pass filter.

Soft capacity and Multiuser Communication

 Figure 6: Multiuser Communication

Total Signal at Rx 1’ is given as (ignoring AWGN noise)

r(t )=m1 (t )+m2 (t )+.. .+mn (t ) (4)

After multiplying with de-spreading code C1(t), the Rx1 output is

r ' 1 (t )=[ b1 (t )C 1 (t )+b2 (t )C 2 (t )+. .. .+b n (t )Cn (t ) ] C 1 (t )

=b1 (t )+b2 (t )C 2 (t )C 1 (t )+. .. .+b n (t )Cn (t )C 1 (t )

In general, the output of ith receiver is given as

¿ j ≠i ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
n (5)

The first term is original desired message signal and second part is due to

contribution of cross-correlation term. Ideally, this second term should be zero. Since

most of the PN sequence codes are not perfectly orthogonal, and hence, second
term will be non-zero and will keep increasing linearly with increase of the number of

users (called soft capacity). This will degrade the performance of the system as SNR

will go down. This non-zero cross correlation value is the main constraint which limits

the increase in the number of users. Thus, we see the role of PN sequence in above

discussion. The next section deals with in details the concept and generation of PN

sequence.

Pseudo-noise sequence

What is Pseudo-noise sequence? It is the periodic sequence of binary wave which

appears like random binary wave. Its appearance as binary random wave but not

exactly equal to random wave results in the word like pseudo noise “.

How is it generated? It is generated using the shift register with some kind of

feedback combinational logic circuit which decides the kind and period of PN

sequence.

Consider the following feed back shift register:

Fig. 7: PN Sequence generator

This is shift-register with length m. We first choose the some initial state of shift

register then, after clock is applied, logic circuit computes the output which will shift
the content of first FF when clk is applied . In this way , this process goes on till the

same state of FF is repeated . At the best, the number of possible state of shift

m
register is 2 −1 where m is the number of FF in shift register. Here, 1 is

subtracted because we have excluded one possible state of all zero. If the initial

state of shift register is all zero then next state will also be zero. In this way only this

zero loop will go on till infinite so, this situation is avoided.

If the state of the FF is given as { s1 ( k ) , s2 ( k ) . .. . s m ( k ) } where k ≥0

Then, as per definition of shift register, the state of j

th
FF at ( k +1 )th clock, is

given by

S j (k +1 )=SJ−1 ( k )

k≥0
1≤ j≤m (6)

Hence, PN sequence is the output of last F-F (that is, mth FF) of shift Register.

Note:

 A feedback shift Register is said to be Linear when the feedback logic

consists entirely of Modulo-2 adders.

m
 A period of shift Register will always be less that or equal to 2 −1 . When

m
the period is exactly 2 −1 , the PN sequence (obtained at output of m th FF)

is called a Maximal-Length Sequence or simply m-sequence. It may be

m
noted that the period of PN sequence may be less that 2 −1 depending on

the type of combination logic used. Hence, there are only specific number of
 combinational logic circuits that corresponds to maximal-length PN sequence.

The list of such Filter will be given in next section.

Example: 1 Consider the following shift

Register for m=3. Find the PN sequence assuming initial state of the shift register to

be (i) 100. (ii) 111.

Modulo 2
Adder

Output, PN
1 2 3 Sequence
S0 S1 S2

Fig. 8

Hence the following is the list of all state of the shift register:

Clock Sate of Shift

register
1. 100
2. 110
3. 111
4. 011
5. 101
6. 010
7 001
8. 100
…..

Hence the output PN sequence is 0011101=7 bits. We see that this is equal to

23 −1=7 . For initial state 111, the PN sequence is obtained as 1110100. This
signal waveform is as shown in Fig. 9. We note that the waveform repeats itself after

seven chips. This duration is called period of PN sequence. Here chip is the duration

of the individual pulse of this waveform. Thus, we note this example that there are

seven chips in one PN sequence period. Fig. 10 shows the spread sequence which

is obtained by multiplying the message (101) signal with the PN sequence. Here, we

have assumed Tb=NTc. After understanding how a PN sequence is generated, we

are going to discuss that the some PN sequence satisfies some properties of run-

length. These sequences are known as maximal-length sequence.

Fig. 9: PN Sequence with initial state 111

Fig. 10: Plot of message bit [1 0 1], PN sequence for shift Register [3,1] with

initial state 10000 and spread sequence.

Properties of Maximal Length Sequence

1. The number of 1 is always greater than number of 0 by 1. For example in

above case, total number of 1 is equal to 4 and total number of 0 is 3.

2. Count total run-length. Run-Length means a subsequence of identical

sumbols (1 and 0) within one period.

Total number of run length of 1 bit=1/2 * Total Run Length

Total number of run length of 2 bit=1/4 * Total Run Length

Total number of run length of 3 bit=1/8* Total Run Length

For example, in above example, total Run Length=4

Hence run Length of 1 bit= 1/2*4=2

 Run Length of 2 bits=1/4*4=1

Run Length of 3 bit= 1/8*4 can not be a fraction and hence 1

3. The autocorrelation function of PN sequence is Binary valued (that is having

two levels. One value is 1 and another is –1/N). This is periodic in nature.

Considering the Fig. 6 once again, it may be noted that the capacity (number of

users) of the system depends upon the cross-correlation between the two

sequences. Moreover, it is also important to understand the auto-correlation between

two PN sequences of the same type as the PN code at the Rx of Tx-Rx system, if

slightly desynchronized, may results in loss of transmitted message.