Charter of the United Nations 3.

To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of

an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting
and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for
Preamble all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and

We the Peoples of the United Nations Determined 4. To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of
these common ends.
to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our
lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and Article 2

to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in
human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large Article 1, shall act in accordance with the following Principles.
and small, and
1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all
to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations its Members.
arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be
maintained, and 2. All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits
resulting from membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed
to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, by them in accordance with the present Charter.

And for these Ends 3. All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in
such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not
endangered.
to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good
neighbors, and
4. All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or
use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any
to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and
state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United
Nations.
to ensure by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that
armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and
5. All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it
takes in accordance with the present Charter, and shall refrain from giving
to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and assistance to any state against which the United Nations is taking preventive
social advancement of all peoples, or enforcement action.

Have Resolved to Combine our Efforts to Accomplish these Aims 6. The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the
United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be
Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.
assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers
found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the 7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United
United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic
known as the United Nations. jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such matters
to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice
CHAPTER I the application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII.

PURPOSES AND PRINCIPLES CHAPTER II

Article 1 MEMBERSHIP

The Purposes of the United Nations are: Article 3

1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take The original Members of the United Nations shall be the states which, having
effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization
peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the at San Francisco, or having previously signed the Declaration by United
peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the Nations of January 1, 1942, sign the present Charter and ratify it in
principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of accordance with Article 110.
international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the
peace; Article 4

2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the 1. Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states
principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other which accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the
appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace; judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these
obligations.
2. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will Article 11
be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the
recommendation of the Security Council. 1. The General Assembly may consider the general principles of cooperation
in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the
Article 5 principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments, and may
make recommendations with regard to such principles to the Members or to
A member of the United Nations against which preventive or enforcement the Security Council or to both.
action has been taken by the Security Council may be suspended from the
exercise of the rights and privileges of membership by the General Assembly 2. The General Assembly may discuss any questions relating to the
upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The exercise of these maintenance of international peace and security brought before it by any
rights and privileges may be restored by the Security Council. Member of the United Nations, or by the Security Council, or by a state which
is not a Member of the United Nations in accordance with Article 35,
Article 6 paragraph 2, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make
recommendations with regard to any such questions to the state or states
concerned or to the Security Council or to both. Any such question on which
A Member of the United Nations which has persistently violated the action is necessary shall be referred to the Security Council by the General
Principles contained in the present Charter may be expelled from the Assembly either before or after discussion.
Organization by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the
Security Council.
3. The General Assembly may call the attention of the Security Council to
situations which are likely to endanger international peace and security.
CHAPTER III
4. The powers of the General Assembly set forth in this Article shall not limit
ORGANS the general scope of Article 10.

Article 7 Article 12

1. There are established as the principal organs of the United Nations: a 1. While the Security Council is exercising in respect of any dispute or
General Assembly, a Security Council, an Economic and Social Council, a situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter, the General
Trusteeship Council, an International Court of Justice, and a Secretariat. Assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard to that dispute or
situation unless the Security Council so requests.
2. Such subsidiary organs as may be found necessary may be established in
accordance with the present Charter. 2. The Secretary-General, with the consent of the Security Council, shall
notify the General Assembly at each session of any matters relative to the
Article 8 maintenance of international peace and security which are being dealt with
by the Security Council and shall similarly notify the General Assembly, or
The United Nations shall place no restrictions on the eligibility of men and the Members of the United Nations if the General Assembly is not in session,
immediately the Security Council ceases to deal with such matters.
women to participate in any capacity and under conditions of equality in its
principal and subsidiary organs.
Article 13
CHAPTER IV
1. The General Assembly shall initiate studies and make recommendations
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY for the purpose of:

Composition a. promoting international cooperation in the political field and encouraging

the progressive development of international law and its codification;

Article 9
b. promoting international cooperation in the economic, social, cultural,
educational, and health fields, and assisting in the realization of human rights
1. The General Assembly shall consist of all the Members of the United and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex,
Nations. language, or religion.

2. Each member shall have not more than five representatives in the General 2. The further responsibilities, functions and powers of the General Assembly
Assembly. with respect to matters mentioned in paragraph 1(b) above are set forth in
Chapters IX and X.
Functions and Powers
Article 14
Article 10
Subject to the provisions of Article 12, the General Assembly may
The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters within the recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any situation,
scope of the present Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any regardless of origin, which it deems likely to impair the general welfare or
organs provided for in the present Charter, and, except as provided in Article friendly relations among nations, including situations resulting from a
12, may make recommendations to the Members of the United Nations or to violation of the provisions of the present Charter setting forth the Purposes
the Security Council or to both on any such questions or matters. and Principles of the United Nations.
Article 15 Procedure

1. The General Assembly shall receive and consider annual and special Article 20
reports from the Security Council; these reports shall include an account of
the measures that the Security Council has decided upon or taken to The General Assembly shall meet in regular annual sessions and in such
maintain international peace and security. special sessions as occasion may require. Special sessions shall be
convoked by the Secretary-General at the request of the Security Council or
2. The General Assembly shall receive and consider reports from the other of a majority of the Members of the United Nations.
organs of the United Nations.
Article 21
Article 16
The General Assembly shall adopt its own rules of procedure. It shall elect its
The General Assembly shall perform such functions with respect to the President for each session.
international trusteeship system as are assigned to it under Chapters XII and
XIII, including the approval of the trusteeship agreements for areas not Article 22
designated as strategic.
The General Assembly may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems
Article 17 necessary for the performance of its functions.

1. The General Assembly shall consider and approve the budget of the CHAPTER V
Organization.
THE SECURITY COUNCIL
2. The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the Members as
apportioned by the General Assembly.
Article 23
3. The General Assembly shall consider and approve any financial and
budgetary arrangements with specialized agencies referred to in Article 57 1. The Security Council shall consist of fifteen Members of the United
and shall examine the administrative budgets of such specialized agencies Nations. The Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist
with a view to making recommendations to the agencies concerned. Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the
United States of America shall be permanent members of the Security
Council. The General Assembly shall elect ten other Members of the United
Voting Nations to be non-permanent members of the Security Council, due regard
being specially paid, in the first instance to the contribution of Members of
Article 18 the United Nations to the maintenance of international peace and security
and to the other purposes of the Organization, and also to equitable
1. Each member of the General Assembly shall have one vote. geographical distribution.

2. Decisions of the General Assembly on important questions shall be made 2. The non-permanent members of the Security Council shall be elected for a
by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. These questions term of two years. In the first election of the non-permanent members after
shall include: recommendations with respect to the maintenance of the increase of the membership of the Security Council from eleven to
international peace and security, the election of the non-permanent members fifteen, two of the four additional members shall be chosen for a term of one
of the Security Council, the election of the members of the Economic and year. A retiring member shall not be eligible for immediate re-election.
Social Council, the election of members of the Trusteeship Council in
accordance with paragraph 1(c) of Article 86, the admission of new Members 3. Each member of the Security Council shall have one representative.
to the United Nations, the suspension of the rights and privileges of
membership, the expulsion of Members, questions relating to the operation Functions and Powers
of the trusteeship system, and budgetary questions.
Article 24
3. Decisions on other questions, Composition including the determination of
additional categories of questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority,
shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting. 1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United Nations, its
Members confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the
maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in carrying
Article 19 out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their
behalf.
A Member of the United Nations which is in arrears in the payment of its
financial contributions to the Organization shall have no vote in the General 2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act in accordance
Assembly if the amount of its arrears equals or exceeds the amount of the with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. The specific powers
contributions due from it for the preceding two full years. The General granted to the Security Council for the discharge of these duties are laid
Assembly may, nevertheless, permit such a Member to vote if it is satisfied down in Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and XII.
that the failure to pay is due to conditions beyond the control of the Member.
3. The Security Council shall submit annual and, when necessary, special
reports to the General Assembly for its consideration.
Article 25 Article 32

The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security
decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter. Council or any state which is not a Member of the United Nations, if it is a
party to a dispute under consideration by the Security Council, shall be
Article 26 invited to participate, without vote, in the discussion relating to the dispute.
The Security Council shall lay down such conditions as it deems just for the
participation of a state which is not a Member of the United Nations.
In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of international
peace and security with the least diversion for armaments of the world's
human and economic resources, the Security Council shall be responsible CHAPTER VI
for formulating, with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee referred to
in Article 47, plans to be submitted to the Members of the United Nations for PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES
the establishment of a system for the regulation of armaments.
Article 33
Voting
1. The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger
Article 27 the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a
solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial
1. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote. settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful
means of their own choice.
2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by
an affirmative vote of nine members. 2. The Security Council shall, when it deems necessary, call upon the parties
to settle their dispute by such means.
3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an
affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the Article 34
permanent members; provided that, in decisions under Chapter VI, and
under paragraph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from The Security Council may investigate any dispute, or any situation which
voting. might lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to
determine whether the continuance of the dispute or situation is likely to
Procedure endanger the maintenance of international peace and security.

Article 28 Article 35

1. The Security Council shall be so organized as to be able to function 1. Any Member of the United Nations may bring any dispute, or any situation
continuously. Each member of the Security Council shall for this purpose be of the nature referred to in Article 34, to the attention of the Security Council
represented at all times at the seat of the Organization. or of the General Assembly.

2. The Security Council shall hold periodic meetings at which each of its 2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may bring to the
members may, if it so desires, be represented by a member of the attention of the Security Council or of the General Assembly any dispute to
government or by some other specially designated representative. which it is a party if it accepts in advance, for the purposes of the dispute, the
obligations of pacific settlement provided in the present Charter.
3. The Security Council may hold meetings at such places other than the
seat of the Organization as in its judgment will best facilitate its work. 3. The proceedings of the General Assembly in respect of matters brought to
its attention under this Article will be subject to the provisions of Articles 11
and 12.
Article 29
Article 36
The Security Council may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems
necessary for the performance of its functions.
1. The Security Council may, at any stage of a dispute of the nature referred
to in Article 33 or of a situation of like nature, recommend appropriate
Article 30 procedures or methods of adjustment.

The Security Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the 2. The Security Council should take into consideration any procedures for the
method of selecting its President. settlement of the dispute which have already been adopted by the parties.

Article 31 3. In making recommendations under this Article the Security Council should
also take into consideration that legal disputes should as a general rule be
Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security referred by the parties to the International Court of Justice in accordance with
Council may participate, without vote, in the discussion of any question the provisions of the Statute of the Court.
brought before the Security Council whenever the latter considers that the
interests of that Member are specially affected.
Article 37 Article 43

1. Should the parties to a dispute of the nature referred to in Article 33 fail to 1. All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the
settle it by the means indicated in that Article, they shall refer it to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make
Security Council. available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special
agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including
2. If the Security Council deems that the continuance of the dispute is in fact rights of passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining international
likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, it peace and security.
shall decide whether to take action under Article 36 or to recommend such
terms of settlement as it may consider appropriate. 2. Such agreement or agreements shall govern the numbers and types of
forces. their degree of readiness and general location, and the nature of the
Article 38 facilities and assistance to be provided.

Without prejudice to the provisions of Articles 33 to 37, the Security Council 3. The agreement or agreements shall be negotiated as soon as possible on
may, if all the parties to any dispute so request, make recommendations to the initiative of the Security Council. They shall be concluded between the
the parties with a view to a pacific settlement of the dispute. Security Council and Members or between the Security Council and groups
of Members and shall be subject to ratification by the signatory states in
accordance with their respective constitutional processes.
CHAPTER VII
Article 44
ACTION WITH RESPECT TO THREATS TO THE PEACE, BREACHES OF
THE PEACE, AND ACTS OF AGGRESSION
When the Security Council has decided to use force it shall, before calling
upon a Member not represented on it to provide armed forces in fulfillment of
Article 39 the obligations assumed under Article 43, invite that Member, if the Member
so desires, to participate in the decisions of the Security Council concerning
The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the the employment of contingents of that Member's armed forces.
peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make
recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance Article 45
with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and
security.
In order to enable the United Nations to take urgent military measures
Members shall hold immediately available national air-force contingents for
Article 40 combined international enforcement action. The strength and degree of
readiness of these contingents and plans for their combined action shall be
In order to prevent an aggravation of the situation, the Security Council may, determined, within the limits laid down in the special agreement or
before making the recommendations or deciding upon the measures agreements referred to in Article 43, by the Security Council with the
provided for in Article 39, call upon the parties concerned to comply with assistance of the Military Staff Committee.
such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desirable. Such
provisional measures shall be without prejudice to the rights, claims, or Article 46
position of the parties concerned. The Security Council shall duly take
account of failure to comply with such provisional measures.
Plans for the application of armed force shall be made by the Security
Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee.
Article 41
Article 47
The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of
armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call
upon the Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These 1. There shall be established a Military Staff Committee to advise and assist
may include complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council's military
sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the
the severance of diplomatic relations. employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of
armaments, and possible disarmament.
Article 42
2. The Military Staff Committee shall consist of the Chiefs of Staff of the
permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives. Any
Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 Member of the United Nations not permanently represented on the
would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such Committee shall be invited by the Committee to be associated with it when
action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore the efficient discharge of the Committee's responsibilities requires the
international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, participation of that Member in its work.
blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the
United Nations.
3. The Military Staff Committee shall be responsible under the Security
Council for the strategic direction of any armed forces placed at the disposal
of the Security Council. Questions relating to the command of such forces
shall be worked out subsequently.
4. The Military Staff Committee, with the authorization of the Security Council Article 53
and after consultation with appropriate regional agencies, may establish
regional subcommittees. 1. The Security Council shall, where appropriate, utilize such regional
arrangements or agencies for enforcement action under its authority. But no
Article 48 enforcement action shall be taken under regional arrangements or by
regional agencies without the authorization of the Security Council, with the
1. The action required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council for exception of measures against any enemy state, as defined in paragraph 2
the maintenance of international peace and security shall be taken by all the of this Article, provided for pursuant to Article 107 or in regional
Members of the United Nations or by some of them, as the Security Council arrangements directed against renewal of aggressive policy on the part of
may determine. any such state, until such time as the Organization may, on request of the
Governments concerned, be charged with the responsibility for preventing
further aggression by such a state.
2. Such decisions shall be carried out by the Members of the United Nations
directly and through their action in the appropriate international agencies of
which they are members. 2. The term enemy state as used in paragraph 1 of this Article applies to any
state which during the Second World War has been an enemy of any
signatory of the present Charter.
Article 49
Article 54
The Members of the United Nations shall join in affording mutual assistance
in carrying out the measures decided upon by the Security Council.
The Security Council shall at all times be kept fully informed of activities
undertaken or in contemplation under regional arrangements or by regional
Article 50 agencies for the maintenance of international peace and security.

If preventive or enforcement measures against any state are taken by the CHAPTER IX
Security Council, any other state, whether a Member of the United Nations or
not, which finds itself confronted with special economic problems arising from
the carrying out of those measures shall have the right to consult the INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CO-OPERATION
Security Council with regard to a solution of those problems.
Article 55
Article 51
With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-being which are
Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations based on
collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the
United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to United Nations shall promote:
maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in
the exercise of this right of self-defense shall be immediately reported to the a. higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic
Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and and social progress and development;
responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any
time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore b. solutions of international economic, social, health, and related problems;
international peace and security. and international cultural and educational co-operation; and

CHAPTER VIII c. universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental
freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.
REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
Article 56
Article 52
All Members pledge themselves to take joint and separate action in
1. Nothing in the present Charter precludes the existence of regional cooperation with the Organization for the achievement of the purposes set
arrangements or agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the forth in Article 55.
maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for
regional action, provided that such arrangements or agencies and their Article 57
activities are consistent with the Purposes and Principles of the United
Nations.
1. The various specialized agencies, established by intergovernmental
agreement and having wide international responsibilities, as defined in their
2. The Members of the United Nations entering into such arrangements or basic instruments, in economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and
constituting such agencies shall make every effort to achieve pacific related fields, shall be brought into relationship with the United Nations in
settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such accordance with the provisions of Article 63.
regional agencies before referring them to the Security Council.
2. Such agencies thus brought into relationship with the United Nations are
3. The Security Council shall encourage the development of pacific hereinafter referred to as specialized agencies.
settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such
regional agencies either on the initiative of the states concerned or by
reference from the Security Council.

4. This Article in no way impairs the application of Articles 34 and 35.

Article 58 4. It may call, in accordance with the rules prescribed by the United Nations,
international conferences on matters falling within its competence.
The Organization shall make recommendations for the coordination of the
policies and activities of the specialized agencies. Article 63

Article 59 1. The Economic and Social Council may enter into agreements with any of
the agencies referred to in Article 57, defining the terms on which the agency
The Organization shall, where appropriate, initiate negotiations among the concerned shall be brought into relationship with the United Nations. Such
states concerned for the creation of any new specialized agencies required agreements shall be subject to approval by the General Assembly.
for the accomplishment of the purposes set forth in Article 55.
2. It may coordinate the activities of the specialized agencies through
Article 60 consultation with and recommendations to such agencies and through
recommendations to the General Assembly and to the Members of the
United Nations.
Responsibility for the discharge of the functions of the Organization set forth
in this Chapter shall be vested in the General Assembly and, under the
authority of the General Assembly, in the Economic and Social Council, Article 64
which shall have for this purpose the powers set forth in Chapter X.
1. The Economic and Social Council may take appropriate steps to obtain
CHAPTER X regular reports from the specialized agencies. It may make arrangements
with the Members of the United Nations and with the specialized agencies to
obtain reports on the steps taken to give effect to its own recommendations
THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL and to recommendations on matters falling within its competence made by
the General Assembly.
Composition
2. It may communicate its observations on these reports to the General
Article 61 Assembly.

1. The Economic and Social Council shall consist of fifty-four Members of the Article 65
United Nations elected by the General Assembly.
The Economic and Social Council may furnish information to the Security
2. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3, eighteen members of the Council and shall assist the Security Council upon its request.
Economic and Social Council shall be elected each year for a term of three
years. A retiring member shall be eligible for immediate re-election. Article 66

3. At the first election after the increase in the membership of the Economic 1. The Economic and Social Council shall perform such functions as fall
and Social Council from twenty-seven to fifty-four members, in addition to the within its competence in connection with the carrying out of the
members elected in place of the nine members whose term of office expires recommendations of the General Assembly.
at the end of that year, twenty-seven additional members shall be elected. Of
these twenty-seven additional members, the term of office of nine members
so elected shall expire at the end of one year, and of nine other members at 2. It may, with the approval of the General Assembly, perform services at the
the end of two years, in accordance with arrangements made by the General request of Members of the United Nations and at the request of specialized
Assembly. agencies.

4. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one 3. It shall perform such other functions as are specified elsewhere in the
representative. present Charter or as may be assigned to it by the General Assembly.

Functions and Powers Article 67

Article 62 1. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one vote.

1. The Economic and Social Council may make or initiate studies and reports 2. Decisions of the Economic and Social Council shall be made by a majority
with respect to international economic, social, cultural, educational, health, of the members present and voting.
and related matters and may make recommendations with respect to any
such matters to the General Assembly, to the Members of the United Procedure
Nations, and to the specialized agencies concerned.
Article 68
2. It may make recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect for,
and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all. The Economic and Social Council shall set up commissions in economic and
social fields and for the promotion of human rights, and such other
3. It may prepare draft conventions for submission to the General Assembly, commissions as may be required for the performance of its functions.
with respect to matters falling within its competence.
Article 69 e. to transmit regularly to the Secretary-General for information purposes,
subject to such limitation as security and constitutional considerations may
The Economic and Social Council shall invite any Member of the United require, statistical and other information of a technical nature relating to
Nations to participate, without vote, in its deliberations on any matter of economic, social, and educational conditions in the territories for which they
particular concern to that Member. are respectively responsible other than those territories to which Chapters XII
and XIII apply.
Article 70
Article 74
The Economic and Social Council may make arrangements for
representatives of the specialized agencies to participate, without vote, in its Members of the United Nations also agree that their policy in respect of the
deliberations and in those of the commissions established by it, and for its territories to which this Chapter applies, no less than in respect of their
representatives to participate in the deliberations of the specialized agencies. metropolitan areas, must be based on the general principle of good-
neighborliness, due account being taken of the interests and well-being of
the rest of the world, in social, economic, and commercial matters.
Article 71
CHAPTER XII
The Economic and Social Council may make suitable arrangements for
consultation with non-governmental organizations which are concerned with
matters within its competence. Such arrangements may be made with INTERNATIONAL TRUSTEESHIP SYSTEM
international organizations and, where appropriate, with national
organizations after consultation with the Member of the United Nations Article 75
concerned.
The United Nations shall establish under its authority an international
Article 72 trusteeship system for the administration and supervision of such territories
as may be placed thereunder by subsequent individual agreements. These
1. The Economic and Social Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, territories are hereinafter referred to as trust territories.
including the method of selecting its President.
Article 76
2. The Economic and Social Council shall meet as required in accordance
with its rules, which shall include provision for the convening of meetings on The basic objectives of the trusteeship system, in accordance with the
the request of a majority of its members. Purposes of the United Nations laid down in Article 1 of the present Charter,
shall be:
CHAPTER XI
a. to further international peace and security;
DECLARATION REGARDING NON-SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES
b. to promote the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of
Article 73 the inhabitants of the trust territories, and their progressive development
towards self-government or independence as may be appropriate to the
particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and the freely
Members of the United Nations which have or assume responsibilities for the expressed wishes of the peoples concerned, and as may be provided by the
administration of territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full terms of each trusteeship agreement;
measure of self-government recognize the principle that the interests of the
inhabitants of these territories are paramount, and accept as a sacred trust
the obligation to promote to the utmost, within the system of international c. to encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for
peace and security established by the present Charter, the well-being of the all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion, and to encourage
inhabitants of these territories, and, to this end: recognition of the interdependence of the peoples of the world; and

a. to ensure, with due respect for the culture of the peoples concerned, their d. to ensure equal treatment in social, economic, and commercial matters for
political, economic, social, and educational advancement, their just all Members of the United Nations and their nationals and also equal
treatment, and their protection against abuses; treatment for the latter in the administration of justice without prejudice to the
attainment of the foregoing objectives and subject to the provisions of Article
80.
b. to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations
of the peoples, and to assist them in the progressive development of their
free political institutions, according to the particular circumstances of each Article 77
territory and its peoples and their varying stages of advancement;
1. The trusteeship system shall apply to such territories in the following
c. to further international peace and security; categories as may be placed thereunder by means of trusteeship
agreements:
d. to promote constructive measures of development, to encourage research,
and to cooperate with one another and, when and where appropriate, with a. territories now held under mandate;
specialized international bodies with a view to the practical achievement of
the social, economic, and scientific purposes set forth in this Article; and b. territories which may be detached from enemy states as a result of the
Second World War, and
c. territories voluntarily placed under the system by states responsible for 3. The Security Council shall, subject to the provisions of the trusteeship
their administration. agreements and without prejudice to security considerations, avail itself of
the assistance of the Trusteeship Council to perform those functions of the
2. It will be a matter for subsequent agreement as to which territories in the United Nations under the trusteeship system relating to political. economic,
foregoing categories will be brought under the trusteeship system and upon social, and educational matters in the strategic areas.
what terms.
Article 84
Article 78
It shall be the duty of the administering authority to ensure that the trust
The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become territory shall play its part in the maintenance of international peace and
Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on security. To this end the administering authority may make use of volunteer
respect for the principle of sovereign equality. forces, facilities, and assistance from the trust territory in carrying out the
obligations towards the Security Council undertaken in this regard by the
administering authority, as well as for local defense and the maintenance of
Article 79 law and order within the trust territory.

The terms of trusteeship for each territory to be placed under the trusteeship Article 85
system, including any alteration or amendment, shall be agreed upon by the
states directly concerned, including the mandatory power in the case of
territories held under mandate by a Member of the United Nations, and shall 1. The functions of the United Nations with regard to trusteeship agreements
be approved as provided for in Articles 83 and 85. for all areas not designated as strategic, including the approval of the terms
of the trusteeship agreements and of their alteration or amendment, shall be
exercised by the General Assembly.
Article 80
2. The Trusteeship Council, operating under the authority of the General
1. Except as may be agreed upon in individual trusteeship agreements, Assembly, shall assist the General Assembly in carrying out these functions.
made under Articles 77, 79, and 81, placing each territory under the
trusteeship system, and until such agreements have been concluded,
nothing in this Chapter shall be construed in or of itself to alter in any manner CHAPTER XIII
the rights whatsoever of any states or any peoples or the terms of existing
international instruments to which Members of the United Nations may THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
respectively be parties.
Composition
2. Paragraph 1 of this Article shall not be interpreted as giving grounds for
delay or postponement of the negotiation and conclusion of agreements for Article 86
placing mandated and other territories under the trusteeship system as
provided for in Article 77.
1. The Trusteeship Council shall consist of the following Members of the
United Nations:
Article 81
a. those Members administering trust territories;
The trusteeship agreement shall in each case include the terms under which
the trust territory will be administered and designate the authority which will
exercise the administration of the trust territory. Such authority, hereinafter b. such of those Members mentioned by name in Article 23 as are not
called the administering authority, may be one or more states or the administering trust territories; and
Organization itself.
c. as many other Members elected for three-year terms by the General
Article 82 Assembly as may be necessary to ensure that the total number of members
of the Trusteeship Council is equally divided between those Members of the
United Nations which administer trust territories and those which do not.
There may be designated, in any trusteeship agreement, a strategic area or
areas which may include part or all of the trust territory to which the
agreement applies, without prejudice to any special agreement or 2. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall designate one specially
agreements made under Article 43. qualified person to represent it therein.

Article 83 Functions and Powers

1. All functions of the United Nations relating to strategic areas, including the Article 87
approval of the terms of the trusteeship agreements and of their alteration or
amendment, shall be exercised by the Security Council. The General Assembly and, under its authority, the Trusteeship Council, in
carrying out their functions, may:
2. The basic objectives set forth in Article 76 shall be applicable to the people
of each strategic area. a. consider reports submitted by the administering authority;

b. accept petitions and examine them in consultation with the administering

authority;
c. provide for periodic visits to the respective trust territories at times agreed Article 94
upon with the administering authority; and
1. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with the
d. take these and other actions in conformity with the terms of the trusteeship decision of the International Court of Justice in any case to which it is a party.
agreements.
2. If any party to a case fails to perform the obligations incumbent upon it
Article 88 under a judgment rendered by the Court, the other party may have recourse
to the Security Council, which may, if it deems necessary, make
The Trusteeship Council shall formulate a questionnaire on the political, recommendations or decide upon measures to be taken to give effect to the
economic, social, and educational advancement of the inhabitants of each judgment.
trust territory, and the administering authority for each trust territory within the
competence of the General Assembly shall make an annual report to the Article 95
General Assembly upon the basis of such questionnaire.
Nothing in the present Charter shall prevent Members of the United Nations
Voting from entrusting the solution of their differences to other tribunals by virtue of
agreements already in existence or which may be concluded in the future.
Article 89
Article 96
1. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall have one vote.
1. The General Assembly or the Security Council may request the
2. Decisions of the Trusteeship Council shall be made by a majority of the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on any legal
members present and voting. question.

Procedure 2. Other organs of the United Nations and specialized agencies, which may
at any time be so authorized by the General Assembly, may also request
advisory opinions of the Court on legal questions arising within the scope of
Article 90 their activities.

1. The Trusteeship Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including CHAPTER XV
the method of selecting its President.
THE SECRETARIAT
2. The Trusteeship Council shall meet as required in accordance with its
rules, which shall include provision for the convening of meetings on the
request of a majority of its members. Article 97

Article 91 The Secretariat shall comprise a Secretary-General and such staff as the
Organization may require. The Secretary-General shall be appointed by the
General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. He
The Trusteeship Council shall, when appropriate, avail itself of the shall be the chief administrative officer of the Organization.
assistance of the Economic and Social Council and of the specialized
agencies in regard to matters with which they are respectively concerned.
Article 98
CHAPTER XIV
The Secretary-General shall act in that capacity in all meetings of the
General Assembly, of the Security Council, of the Economic and Social
THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE Council, and of the Trusteeship Council, and shall perform such other
functions as are entrusted to him by these organs. The Secretary-General
Article 92 shall make an annual report to the General Assembly on the work of the
Organization.
The International Court of Justice shall be the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations. It shall function in accordance with the annexed Statute Article 99
which is based upon the Statute of the Permanent Court of International
Justice and forms an integral part of the present Charter. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any
matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international
Article 93 peace and security.

1. All Members of the United Nations are ipso facto parties to the Statute of Article 100
the International Court of Justice.
1. In the performance of their duties the Secretary-General and the staff shall
2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may become a party not seek or receive instructions from any government or from any other
to the Statute of the International Court of Justice on conditions to be authority external to the Organization. They shall refrain from any action
determined in each case by the General Assembly upon the which might reflect on their position as international officials responsible only
recommendation of the Security Council. to the Organization.
2. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to respect the exclusively CHAPTER XVII
international character of the responsibilities of the Secretary-General and
the staff and not to seek to influence them in the discharge of their TRANSITIONAL SECURITY ARRANGEMENTS
responsibilities.
Article 106
Article 101
Pending the coming into force of such special agreements referred to in
1. The staff shall be appointed by the Secretary-General under regulations Article 43 as in the opinion of the Security Council enable it to begin the
established by the General Assembly. exercise of its responsibilities under Article 42, the parties to the Four-Nation
Declaration, signed at Moscow October 30, 1943, and France, shall, in
2. Appropriate staffs shall be permanently assigned to the Economic and accordance with the provisions of paragraph 5 of that Declaration, consult
Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and, as required, to other organs of with one another and as occasion requires with other Members of the United
the United Nations. These staffs shall form a part of the Secretariat. Nations with a view to such joint action on behalf of the Organization as may
be necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security.
3. The paramount consideration in the employment of the staff and in the
determination of the conditions of service shall be the necessity of securing Article 107
the highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity. Due regard
shall be paid to the importance of recruiting the staff on as wide a Nothing in the present Charter shall invalidate or preclude action, in relation
geographical basis as possible. to any state which during the Second World War has been an enemy of any
signatory to the present Charter, taken or authorized as a result of that war
CHAPTER XVI by the Governments having responsibility for such action.

MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS CHAPTER XVIII

Article 102 AMENDMENTS

1. Every treaty and every international agreement entered into by any Article 108
Member of the United Nations after the present Charter comes into force
shall as soon as possible be registered with the Secretariat and published by Amendments to the present Charter shall come into force for all Members of
it. the United Nations when they have been adopted by a vote of two thirds of
the members of the General Assembly and ratified in accordance with their
2. No party to any such treaty or international agreement which has not been respective constitutional processes by two thirds of the Members of the
registered in accordance with the provisions of paragraph I of this Article may United Nations, including all the permanent members of the Security Council.
invoke that treaty or agreement before any organ of the United Nations.
Article 109
Article 103
1. A General Conference of the Members of the United Nations for the
In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the purpose of reviewing the present Charter may be held at a date and place to
United Nations under the present Charter and their obligations under any be fixed by a two-thirds vote of the members of the General Assembly and
other international agreement, their obligations under the present Charter by a vote of any seven members of the Security Council. Each Member of
shall prevail. the United Nations shall have one vote in the conference.

Article 104 2. Any alteration of the present Charter recommended by a two-thirds vote of
the conference shall take effect when ratified in accordance with their
The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of its Members such respective constitutional processes by two thirds of the Members of the
legal capacity as may be necessary for the exercise of its functions and the United Nations including all the permanent members of the Security Council.
fulfillment of its purposes.
3. If such a conference has not been held before the tenth annual session of
Article 105 the General Assembly following the coming into force of the present Charter,
the proposal to call such a conference shall be placed on the agenda of that
session of the General Assembly, and the conference shall be held if so
1. The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of its Members such decided by a majority vote of the members of the General Assembly and by
privileges and immunities as are necessary for the fulfillment of its purposes. a vote of any seven members of the Security Council.

2. Representatives of the Members of the United Nations and officials of the CHAPTER XIX
Organization shall similarly enjoy such privileges and immunities as are
necessary for the independent exercise of their functions in connection with
the Organization. RATIFICATION AND SIGNATURE

3. The General Assembly may make recommendations with a view to Article 110
determining the details of the application of paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article
or may propose conventions to the Members of the United Nations for this 1. The present Charter shall be ratified by the signatory states in accordance
purpose. with their respective constitutional processes.
2. The ratifications shall be deposited with the Government of the United
States of America, which shall notify all the signatory states of each deposit
as well as the Secretary-General of the Organization when he has been
appointed.

3. The present Charter shall come into force upon the deposit of ratifications
by the Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United
States of America, and by a majority of the other signatory states. A protocol
of the ratifications deposited shall thereupon be drawn up by the Government
of the United States of America which shall communicate copies thereof to
all the signatory states.

4. The states signatory to the present Charter which ratify it after it has come
into force will become original Members of the United Nations on the date of
the deposit of their respective ratifications.

Article 111

The present Charter, of which the Chinese, French, Russian, English, and
Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall remain deposited in the archives of
the Government of the United States of America. Duly certified copies
thereof shall be transmitted by that Government to the Governments of the
other signatory states.

IN FAITH WHEREOF the representatives of the Governments of the United

Nations have signed the present Charter.

DONE at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of June, one
thousand nine hundred and forty-five.

Created on November 22, 1994 / Last edited on January 25, 1997

Philippines debtor can, in turn, ask other favors. Such reciprocal personal alliances have
had obvious implications for the society in general and the political system in
SOCIAL VALUES AND ORGANIZATION particular. In 1990 educated Filipinos were less likely to feel obligated to
extend help (thereby not initiating an utang na loob relationship) than were
rural dwellers among whom traditional values remained strong. Some
The great majority of the Philippine population is bound together by common observers believed that as Philippine society became more modernized and
values and a common religion. Philippine society is characterized by many urban in orientation, utang na loob would become less important in the
positive traits. Among these are strong religious faith, respect for authority, political and social systems.
and high regard for amor proprio (self-esteem) and smooth interpersonal
relationships. Philippine respect for authority is based on the special honor
paid to elder members of the family and, by extension, to anyone in a In the commercial context, suki relationships (market- exchange
position of power. This characteristic is generally conducive to the smooth partnerships) may develop between two people who agree to become
running of society, although, when taken to extreme, it can develop into an regular customer and supplier. In the marketplace, Filipinos will regularly buy
authoritarianism that discourages independent judgment and individual from certain specific suppliers who will give them, in return, reduced prices,
responsibility and initiative. Filipinos are sensitive to attacks on their own good quality, and, often, credit. Suki relationships often apply in other
self-esteem and cultivate a sensitivity to the self-esteem of others as well. contexts as well. For example, regular patrons of restaurants and small
Anything that might hurt another's self-esteem is to be avoided or else one neighborhood retail shops and tailoring shops often receive special treatment
risks terminating the relationship. One who is insensitive to others is said to in return for their patronage. Suki does more than help develop economic
lack a sense of shame and embarrassment, the principal sanction against exchange relationships. Because trust is such a vital aspect, it creates a
improper behavior. This great concern for self- esteem helps to maintain platform for personal relationships that can blossom into genuine friendship
harmony in society and within one's particular circle, but it also can give rise between individuals.
to clannishness and a willingness to sacrifice personal integrity to remain in
the good graces of the group. Strong personal faith enables Filipinos to face Patron-client bonds also are very much a part of prescribed patterns of
great difficulties and unpredictable risks in the assurance that "God will take appropriate behavior. These may be formed between tenant farmers and
care of things." But, if allowed to deteriorate into fatalism, even this their landlords or between any patron who provides resources and influence
admirable characteristic can hinder initiative and stand in the way of in return for the client's personal services and general support. The
progress. reciprocal arrangement typically involves the patron giving a means of
earning a living or of help, protection, and influence and the client giving
Social organization generally follows a single pattern, although variations do labor and personal favors, ranging from household tasks to political support.
occur, reflecting the influence of local traditions. Among lowland Christian These relationships often evolve into ritual kinship ties, as the tenant or
Filipinos, social organization continues to be marked primarily by personal worker may ask the landlord to be a child's godparent. Similarly, when favors
alliance systems, that is, groupings composed of kin (real and ritual), are extended, they tend to bind patron and client together in a network of
grantors and recipients of favors, friends, and partners in commercial mutual obligation or a long-term interdependency.
exchanges.
Filipinos also extend the circle of social alliances with friendship. Friendship
Philippine personal alliance systems are anchored by kinship, beginning with often is placed on a par with kinship as the most central of Filipino
the nuclear family. A Filipino's loyalty goes first to the immediate family; relationships. Certainly ties among those within one's group of friends are an
identity is deeply embedded in the web of kinship. It is normative that one important factor in the development of personal alliance systems. Here, as in
owes support, loyalty, and trust to one's close kin and, because kinship is other categories, a willingness to help one another provides the prime
structured bilaterally with affinal as well as consanguineal relatives, one's kin rationale for the relationship.
can include quite a large number of people. Still, beyond the nuclear family,
Filipinos do not assume the same degree of support, loyalty, and trust that These categories--real kinship, ritual kinship, utang na loob relationships,
they assume for immediate family members for whom loyalty is nothing less suki relationships, patron-client bonds, and friendship--are not exclusive.
than a social imperative. With respect to kin beyond this nuclear family, They are interrelated components of the Filipino's personal alliance system.
closeness in relationship depends very much on physical proximity. Thus two individuals may be cousins, become friends, and then cement their
friendship through godparenthood. Each of their social networks will typically
Bonds of ritual kinship, sealed on any of three ceremonial occasions-- include kin (near and far, affinal and consanguineal), ritual kin, one or two
baptism, confirmation, and marriage--intensify and extend personal alliances. patron-client relationships, one or more other close friends (and a larger
This mutual kinship system, known as compadrazgo, meaning number of social friends), and a dozen or more market-exchange partners.
godparenthood or sponsorship, dates back at least to the introduction of Utang na loob may infuse any or all of these relationships. One's network of
Christianity and perhaps earlier. It is a primary method of extending the social allies may include some eighty or more people, integrated and
group from which one can expect help in the way of favors, such as jobs, interwoven into a personal alliance system.
loans, or just simple gifts on special occasions. But in asking a friend to
become godparent to a child, a Filipino is also asking that person to become
a closer friend. Thus it is common to ask acquaintances who are of higher
economic or social status than oneself to be sponsors. Such ritual kinship
cannot be depended on in moments of crisis to the same extent as real
kinship, but it still functions for small and regular acts of support such as gift
giving.

A dyadic bond--between two individuals--may be formed based on the

concept of utang na loob. Although it is expected that the debtor will attempt
repayment, it is widely recognized that the debt (as in one's obligation to a
parent) can never be fully repaid and the obligation can last for generations.
Saving another's life, providing employment, or making it possible for another
to become educated are "gifts" that incur utang na loob. Moreover, such gifts
initiate a long-term reciprocal interdependency in which the grantor of the
favor can expect help from the debtor whenever the need arises and the
In 1990 personal alliance systems extended far beyond the local arena, With the advent of Islam in the southern Philippines during the fifteenth
becoming pyramidal structures going all the way to Manila, where members century, separate sultanates developed on Mindanao and in the Sulu
of the national political elite represented the tops of numerous personal Archipelago. By the middle of the sixteenth century, Islamic influence had
alliance pyramids. The Philippine elite was composed of weathly landlords, spread as far north as Manila Bay.
financiers, businesspeople, high military officers, and national political
figures. Made up of a few families often descended from the ilustrados (see Spain colonized the Philippines in the sixteenth century and succeeded in
Glossary), or enlightened ones, of the Spanish colonial period, the elite providing the necessary environment for the development of a Philippine
controlled a high percentage of the nations's wealth. The lavish life-styles of national identity; however, Spain never completely vitiated Muslim autonomy
this group usually included owning at least two homes (one in Manila and on Mindanao and in the Sulu Archipelago, where the separate Muslim
one in the province where the family originated), patronizing expensive sultanates of Sulu, Maguindanao, and Maranao remained impervious to
shops and restaurants, belonging to exclusive clubs, and having a retinue of Christian conversion. Likewise, the Spanish never succeeded in converting
servants. Many counted among their social acquaintances a number of rich upland tribal groups, particularly on Luzon and Mindanao. The Spanish
and influential foreigners, especially Americans, Spaniards, and other influence was strongest among lowland groups and emanated from Manila.
Europeans. Their children attended exclusive private schools in Manila and Even among these lowland peoples, however, linguistic differences
were often sent abroad, usually to the United States, for higher education. In continued to outweigh unifying factors until a nationalist movement emerged
addition, by 1990 a new elite of businesspeople, many from Hong Kong and to question Spanish rule in the nineteenth century.
Taiwan, had developed.
Philippine national identity emerged as a blend of diverse ethnic and
In the cities, there existed a considerable middle-class group consisting of linguistic groups, when lowland Christians, called indios by the Spaniards,
small entrepreneurs, civil servants, teachers, merchants, small property began referring to themselves as "Filipinos," excluding Muslims, upland tribal
owners, and clerks whose employment was relatively secure. In many groups, and ethnic Chinese who had not been assimilated by intermarriage
middle-class families, both spouses worked. They tended to place great and did not fit the category. In the very process of defining a national identity,
value on higher education, and most had a college degree. They also shared the majority was also drawing attention to a basic societal cleavage among
a sense of common identity derived from similar educational experiences, the groups (see The Development of a National Consciousness , ch. 1). In
facility in using English, common participation in service clubs such as the revolting against Spanish rule and, later, fighting United States troops, the
Rotary, and similar economic standing. indigenous people became increasingly conscious of a national unity
transcending local and regional identities. A public school system that
Different income groups lived in different neighborhoods in the cities and brought at least elementary-level education to all but the most remote barrios
lacked the personal contact essential to the patron-client relationship. and sitios (small clusters of homes) during the early twentieth century also
Probably the major social division was between those who had a regular served to dilute religious, ethnic, and linguistic or regional differences, as did
source of income and those who made up the informal sector of the improvements in transportation and communication systems and the spread
economy. The latter subsisted by salvaging material from garbage dumps, of English as a lingua franca (see The First Phase of United States Rule,
begging, occasional paid labor, and peddling. Although their income was 1898-1935 , ch. 1).
sometimes as high as those in regular jobs, they lacked the protection of
labor legislation and had no claim to any type of social insurance (see
Employment and Labor Relations; Economic Welfare , ch. 3).

ETHNICITY, REGIONALISM, AND LANGUAGE

Historical Development of Ethnic Identities

Philippine society was relatively homogeneous in 1990, especially

considering its distribution over some 1,000 inhabited islands. Muslims and
upland tribal peoples were obvious exceptions, but approximately 90 percent
of the society remained united by a common cultural and religious
background. Among the lowland Christian Filipinos, language was the main
point of internal differentiation, but the majority interacted and intermarried
regularly across linguistic lines. Because of political centralization,
urbanization, and extensive internal migration, linguistic barriers were
eroding, and government emphasis on Pilipino and English (at the expense
of local dialects) also reduced these divisions. Nevertheless, national
integration remained incomplete.

Through centuries of intermarriage, Filipinos had become a unique blend of

Malay, Chinese, Spanish, Negrito, and American. Among the earliest
inhabitants were Negritos, followed by Malays, who deserve most of the
credit for developing lowland Philippine agricultural life as it is known in the
modern period (see Early History , ch. 1). As the Malays spread throughout
the archipelago, two things happened. First, they absorbed, through
intermarriage, most of the Negrito population, although a minority of Negritos
remained distinct by retreating to the mountains. Second, they dispersed into
separate groups, some of which became relatively isolated in pockets on
Mindanao, northern Luzon, and some of the other large islands. Comparative
linguistic analysis suggests that most groups may once have spoken a form
of "proto-Manobo," but that each group developed a distinct vernacular that
can be traced to its contact over the centuries with certain groups and its
isolation from others (see fig. 3).