Integrated Livestock-Fish Farming Systems
Integrated Livestock-Fish Farming Systems
Produced by: Fisheries and
Aquaculture Department
Title: Integrated livestockfish farming
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1. Introduction
Aquaculture is the fastest growing food production sector in the World with annual growth in
excess of 10 percent over the last two decades. Much of this development has occurred in
Asia, which also has the greatest variety of cultured species and systems. Asia is also
perceived as the ‘home’ of aquaculture, as aquaculture has a long history in several areas of
the region and knowledge of traditional systems is most widespread. Furthermore, the
integration of livestock and fish production is best established in Asia.
In this initial section we introduce the rationale for the study and provide definitions of
integrated livestockfish farming. We then examine the current status and future importance of
livestock and fish production being integrated rather than being developed further as
specialized, separate activities. Their sustainability and importance in a broader context are
then considered.
1.1 Rationale of the Study
Livestockfish production systems develop to satisfy needs if they fit into the resource base or
environment, and if they are socially and economically viable. Macrolevel factors may also
have a significant influence and there are environmental implications, both on and offfarm, for
the development of sustainable systems (Figure 1).
The current status of livestockfish systems reflects their evolution in response to changing
circumstances: the past history of current systems is not generally appreciated; nor is their
future potential apparent.
The rationale for this study is to interpret Asian, especially East and Southeast Asian
experience in integrated systems through analysis of their evolution and current status and to
consider their relevance for livestockfish planning in Africa and Latin America.
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FIGURE 1
The development of sustainable aquaculture systems involves consideration of
production technology, social and economic aspects, and environmental aspects
Source: AIT (1994)
1.2 Definitions of Integrated Farming
Integrated farming is commonly and narrowly equated with the direct use of fresh livestock
manure in fish culture (Little and Edwards, 1999). However, there are broader definitions that
better illustrate potential linkages. Indeed, the term ‘integrated farming’ has been used for
integrated resource management which may not include either livestock or fish components.
Our focus is the integration of livestock and fish, often within a larger farming or livelihood
system. Although housing of livestock over or adjacent to fish ponds facilitates loading of
wastes, in practice livestock and fish may be produced at separate locations and by different
people yet be integrated. Chen et al. (1994) distinguished between the use of manures
produced next to the fishpond and elsewhere on the same farm. A wider definition includes
manures obtained from offfarm and transported in bags, e.g. poultry manure, or as a slurry in
tanks, such as for pig and large ruminant manure.
Integrated farming involving aquaculture defined broadly is the concurrent or sequential linkage
between two or more activities, of which at least one is aquaculture. These may occur directly
onsite, or indirectly through offsite needs and opportunities, or both (Edwards, 1997). Benefits
of integration are synergistic rather than additive; and the fish and livestock components may
benefit to varying degrees (Figure 2). The term “waste” has not been omitted because of
common usage but philosophically and practically it is better to consider wastes as “resources
out of place” (Taiganides, 1978).
1.3 Potential Linkages Between Livestock and Fish
Production
The main potential linkages between livestock and fish production concern use of nutrients,
particularly reuse of livestock manures for fish production. The term nutrients mainly refers to
elements such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) which function as fertilizers to stimulate
natural food webs rather than conventional livestock nutrition usage such as feed ingredients,
although solid slaughterhouse wastes fed to carnivorous fish fall into the latter category. There
are also implications for use of other resources such as capital, labour, space and water
(Figure 3). A variety of factors affect potential linkages between livestock and fish production
(Box 1.A).
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Both production and processing of livestock generate byproducts that can be used for
aquaculture. Direct use of livestock production wastes is the most widespread and
conventionally recognized type of integrated farming. Production wastes include manure, urine
and spilled feed; and they may be used as fresh inputs or be processed in some way before
use.
Use of wastes in static water fishponds imposes limitations in terms of both species and
intensity of culture. Stimulation of natural food webs in the pond by organic wastes can support
relatively low densities of herbivorous and omnivorous fish but not a large biomass of
carnivorous fish. These biological processes are also temperature dependent. The optimal
temperature range is between 2532°C although wastefed aquaculture in subtropical and
temperate zones where temperatures rise seasonally has also been successful. Processing
wastes through organisms such as earthworms and insect larvae that feed on them and
concentrate nutrients to produce ‘live feeds’ is an alternative approach to raising fish needing
high levels of dietary animal protein. Livestock processing can also provide a wide variety of
wastes that vary from dilute washing water to high value meat and bloodmeal that can be used
as high value fish feeds or feed ingredients. If enough of these types of feeds are available,
high density and intensive production of carnivorous fish species can be supported.
Aquaculture may also provide inputs and other benefits to livestock production. A variety of
aquatic plants e.g. duckweeds and the aquatic fern Azolla have proven potential as livestock
feeds; and invertebrates such as snails and crustaceans can be used for poultry feeds.
BOX 1.A
Checklist of key issues affecting linkages between livestock and fish production
Is there demand for fish species capable of feeding on natural foods generated
by fertilization using livestock wastes?
Are the livestock monogastrics or ruminants?
Can the wastes be cost effectively collected?
Will legislation require processing of wastes before use for fish culture?
Do livestock wastes have a high opportunity cost?
Will low ambient temperatures (<18°C) restrict wastefed aquaculture?
Is fish culture already established based on conventional feeds and systems?
FIGURE 2
Potential outcomes of livestockfish integration
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Our study focuses on the integration of fish and livestock. The use of cultured fish or fish
products as livestock feeds, although currently uncommon, holds promise and is reviewed.
Other, more minor beneficial linkages between fish and livestock production include use of fish
culture water for drinking/bathing livestock and cooling livestock housing. Nutrients contained
in culture water and sediments may be used to produce arable crops for livestock. The viability
of these options depends on a variety of factors, including the types of livestock and fish that
can be raised profitably and the production systems used.
1.4 Relevance of Integrated Farming
The integration of fish and livestock production is probably closer today, and more important
than ever before (FAO, 2000). On a global basis most cultured freshwater fish are produced in
Asia in semiintensive systems that depend on fertilizer nutrients. Moreover, with increasing
need for multipurpose use of water resources, community water bodies used for watering
livestock are increasingly stocked with fish seed and their management intensified. Several
studies of smallholder aquaculture in Bangladesh, India, Thailand and Viet Nam indicate that
livestock wastes are the most commonly used input. Fish yields may not be optimized for a
variety of reasons but livestock wastes purposely used in ponds, or draining into them, support
the production of most cultured fish in Asia.
FIGURE 3
Main and secondary linkages in livestockfish integration (P = processing)
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An analysis of China, the ancestral home of aquaculture, indicates that whilst intensive
practices based on formulated pelleted feed are developing rapidly, much of the vast increase
in China’s recent inland aquaculture production is linked to organic fertilization, provided by the
equally dramatic growth of poultry and pig production. Trends in those parts of Asia which are
undergoing rapid industrialization and urbanization suggest that livestockfish systems can
retain a relative advantage over intensive aquaculture for production of lowcost carps and
tilapias. A strong link to the use of livestock wastes remains even when highquality
supplementary feeds are available and widely used.
A major issue is the potential competition for, and relative efficiency of the use of, limited
amounts of feeds between livestock and farmed fish. This has both local and global
implications. Supplementary feeds, such as ricebran and oil cakes, which are traditionally fed
to livestock, are often in demand for feeding fish. Continued growth in demand for livestock and
fish has raised alarm bells over the sustainability of feed supplies and the impacts of such
growth on the environment.
1.5 Sustainability Issues at Micro and MacroLevels
Sustainability may be considered at global, national, regional, community and household level
and from a variety of perspectives. Sustainability as defined by an ecologist, may be very
different to that by an economist, but most can support the essence of that in the Brundtland
Report (WCED, 1987) which incorporates social and economic as well as environmental
concerns. Important questions relate to the role of integration of aquaculture with livestock to
improve sustainability of food production in socially and economically advantageous ways
while safeguarding or improving the environment. For this to occur, the roles of culture and
institutions both have to be considered also since they are major forces for change or
conservatism. A major issue of this book is how integration, rather than specialization and
separation, of livestock and fish production can enhance sustainability at all levels and
perspectives.
BOX 1.B
A widely used definition of sustainability
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“Sustainable development is that which meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”
Source: WCED (1987)
1.5.1 MICROLEVEL
The interpretation and measurement of sustainability have become focal points of rural
development. In a smallholder farmer’s world, key parameters of sustainability have been
identified as high levels of species diversity, nutrient cycling, capacity (total production) and
economic efficiency (Lightfoot et al., 1993; Bimbao et al., 1995; Dalsgaard et al., 1995). At the
microlevel, watershed, community, farm, plot and pond may be used as a basis for assessing
sustainability, but the role of people is central to development.
Most poor rural people do not rely entirely on their own land to sustain them. Typical livelihoods
are complex and depend on a variety of resources, many of which are offfarm (Ellis, 1992). At
the heart of the issue of ‘sustainability’ are peoples’ livelihoods (Box 1.C). Holistic thinking is
required to analyse and describe livelihoods with a focus on peoples’ relative strengths rather
than ‘needs’. Building up assets is a core component of empowerment (Figure 4). How the
inclusion of intensified management of aquatic resources can support, or detract, from this
process is indicated in Table 1.1.
People base their livelihoods on a range of assets in addition to financial capital that include
natural, human, physical and social capital. A pentagon can represent these five types of asset
or capital although in practice there is overlap between them (Figure 4). Understanding trends in
peoples’ assets over time can indicate if positive or negative developments are occurring, and
if livelihoods are deteriorating or improving. The approach can be applied on a community,
group or household level to inform and guide the development process. Knowing about the
assets of different wealth and social groups in the same community can allow better targeting
of poorer people and monitoring of changes that occur. The impacts of shocks of various types,
and how assets are used to reduce vulnerability, are important aspects of assessing
livelihoods.
Forging links between ecosystem theory and farming system analysis (Dalsgaard et al., 1995)
can be useful, provided that the results are placed within a broader framework of sustainability
issues. A range of different system attributes has been identified that provides measures of
how livestock and fish can improve sustainability of farming systems (Table 1.2). As sub
systems within the wider farming system (Edwards et al., 1988), fish culture and livestock can
improve nutrient recycling and concentration. This feature is important in both nutrientrich, peri
urban systems and nutrientpoor, rural situations (Little and Edwards, 1999). Diversity, stability
and capacity can all be enhanced through inclusion of livestock and fish on farms, as can both
economic efficiency and the scope for future change or ‘evolvability’.
BOX 1.C
Livelihoods defined
"A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social
resources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable
when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance
its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the
natural resource base".
Source: Carney (1998)
The greater ecological similarity of low external input than intensive systems to natural
ecosystems reduces adverse environmental impacts (Kautsky et al., 1997). But very low input
systems, especially in nutrientpoor environments, may not adequately support livelihoods,
driving poor people to ever more extractive and unsustainable practices offfarm. Small external
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nutrient injections may enhance performance or help to regenerate degraded agroecosystems
(Kessler and Moolhuijzen, 1994). The productivity and stability of farming systems in
Machakos, Kenya, improved considerably as incomes from offfarm employment were
reinvested in agroforestry, livestock and horticulture. Intensification of livestock and soil
management have also reduced land degradation in heavily populated parts of Uganda
(Lindblade et al., 1998). Integration of livestock and fish at a community or watershed level
may have more potential than householdlevel in some situations.
FIGURE 4
Asset pentagon to analyse sustainable rural livelihoods
Source: Carney (1998)
TABLE 1.1
How the integration of fish culture into smallholder crop/livestock systems affects asset
accumulation and livelihoods
Possible impacts of introduction of intensified aquatic resource
Capital management
assets
Positive Negative
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further diversify livelihood Extra labour burden and change
strategies in use of nutrient resources
Improved nutrition enhances could reduce physical and
physical and mental health mental health
Framework for role of capital assets in sustainable livelihoods adapted from Scoones (1998)
and Carney (1998)
TABLE 1.2
How livestock and fish improve the sustainability of farming systems
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1.5.2 MACROLEVEL
Sustainability viewed at a macrolevel may include global, national, regional and watershed
contexts. The expected dramatic increases in global trade following recent WTO agreements
are expected to have wide ranging impacts on the nature of food production and viability of
farming systems. Agribusiness is positive about the effects such measures will have on
sustainability of food product (Box 1.D) but other groups fear a rapid undermining of poorer
national economies and marginalization of smallholders with little market leverage.
Global trends in resource use for livestock and fish production, trade and consumption are
important for understanding constraints at the farm, or even plot or pond level. One example of
how macro and microlevel sustainability issues can interact, and be affected by institutions, is
the changing basis of pig and fish production in the Red River Delta of Northern Viet Nam (Box
1.E).
Pig and poultry production using modern systems have been challenged as unsustainable in
the long term on a global basis because of dependence on concentrates, which are based on
nonrenewable, fossilfuels (Preston, 1990). Examples exist where modern systems, following
‘shocks’, have collapsed. These include oil exporting countries where oil price decline, and
associated revenues made imported concentrates and poultry production uneconomic. Cuba
saw major disruption in its imported, concentratebased livestock industry as Soviet Union
support was withdrawn and favourable terms of trade shifted. Even if concentrate feeds can be
used economically, and the wastes productively reused for aquaculture, there may be
inequities in the system that prove unsustainable in the longer term. Thus, an analysis of
current systems using sustainability indicators can lead to the development of relevant
research agendas. Given its complexity, some advocate the use of consensus indicators of
sustainability in aquaculture production (Caffey and Kazmierczak, 1998).
BOX 1.D
Agribusiness view on sustainability
It is generally accepted that intensification of livestock and fish production is required
as low production levels do not meet people’s needs. The major issue is the level of
intensification that can support overall sustainable development.
The feed and pharmaceutical industries make the following claims:
Aspects of intensification that support sustainable development:
intensive agriculture allows livelihoods to be sustained through increased
production to satisfy needs, without the need to further encroach on the natural
environment with losses to biodiversity;
removal of political and trade barriers that artificially support agriculture and
lead to expensive surpluses:
high yield agriculture can protect the environment by reducing soil erosion e.g.
use of minimum tillage, intensified ruminant production can reduce
greenhouse gases, and
without veterinary medicines, livestock in Europe would need to increase from
between 25 percent to 89 percent to maintain existing production levels.
The need for alternatives to the narrow range of feed ingredients used in most concentrates has
been identified as urgent, especially for the tropics where little research has been conducted so
far (Preston, 1990). In China, the substitution of semiintensive aquaculture integrated within
farming systems by intensive, feedlot production has been advocated on the grounds of
improved productivity and reduced negative environmental impacts (Box 1.F). The analysis,
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though flawed, does identify a general tendency towards intensification of aquaculture. This
may have particularly large impacts since intensive aquaculture is relatively more profligate
than livestock in its use of feed resources and is more polluting. The major species raised
intensively (salmonids and shrimp) are fed diets high in fishmeal (Naylor et al., 1999) and often
have large impacts on the local environment. Potentially the intensification of semiintensive
culture of carps an tilapias will have even greater impacts on the environment through raising
demand for such feeds (Naylor et al., 1999).
BOX 1.E
Challenges to sustainable farming in the Red River Delta, Viet Nam
In this region of historically high population density, both traditional farming systems
and the ‘green revolution’ have failed to sustain livelihoods alone. Sustainable central
and local level institutions have been critical to the maintenance of irrigation and
flood prevention structures essential to maintain productivity in this area
characterized by climatic perturbations1. Government policy changes towards a
market system with increased availability of inorganic fertilizers, livestock feeds and
breeds and fish farming systems are highly productive, use many external inputs and
recycle intensively but recent studies indicate that sustainability is threatened by a
declining capacity as soils become acidic2. Shortages of organic inputs, and excess
inorganic fertilization, may exacerbate these problems. Traditional household pig
production is valued for its role in asset accumulation and provision of organic
manure for field crops. Certain developments may further undermine the
sustainability of the system by reducing the availability of pig manure for application
to the land:
Government policy change towards support for industrial pig production,
leading to concentration of the national herd among fewer, larger producers,
and
increase in aquaculture leading to a demand for more inputs, including pig
manure.
Changes in demand are also occurring:
market for more and leaner pork, increasing demand for balanced feeds i.e.
concentrates and modern strains of pig, and
increase in demand for tilapia3, which has become dominant in other parts of
Asia where commercial, feedlot livestockfish occurs.
Source: 1 Adger (1999); 2 Patanothai (1996); 3 Binh (1998)
Difficulties in maintaining feeds or disposing of wastes will probably be only part of the problem
of sustaining intensive livestock and fish systems on a macrolevel scale. Control of pathogens
may prove a more important constraint and pose greater threats to human populations (see
6.1.4). Densities of pigs exceed 9 000 animals km2 in parts of Western Europe as economies
of scale and demand for cheap pork favour intensified production close to concentrated
markets. The cost of disease epidemics such as classical swine fever, and the difficulties in
their control at such levels of density, are prompting a rethink and new legislation (MacKenzie,
1998). Similar experiences are occurring with intensively raised fish such as the Atlantic
salmon and black tiger shrimp. Control of pathogens through isolation is particularly problematic
because of the need for water exchange in intensive systems.
High input, export driven agriculture (agronomy, animal husbandry and aquaculture) is more
likely to be nondiverse (monoculture), highly extractive and polluting (little recycling) and
unstable in the face of environmental change. Moreover, its economic efficiency can be
drastically affected by the vagaries of global markets. Smaller livestock units spread more
evenly, based on local production of feeds and disposal of wastes, are likely to improve the
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sustainability of the livestock and associated farming systems.
Intensification is important, however, to ensure that smaller scale systems are economically
viable and sustainable. Improvements in productivity at the local level have also been shown to
be important globally. Low productive ruminants have been implicated in the increase in
greenhouse gases, which could undermine sustained food production worldwide (see 4.2.1).
BOX 1.F
A decline in integrated farming in China?
Rapid increases in production of cultured freshwater fish have occurred in China
since 198586, the time of the Chen et al., study1. Economic growth both created
demand and the resource base to support an estimated 400 percent increase in
production between 1985 and 1995. It has been estimated that by 1996, 40 percent of
total production was based on ‘aquafeeds’, complete and incomplete feeds from small
and large feed mills2. This infers that the other 60 percent (6.56 tonnes) were still
dependent on ‘no inputs’ or ‘organic farming’. This level of production is nearly 250
percent of that recorded in 1985, suggesting that integrated farming, far from being
redundant, has expanded massively.
Since these systems are based primarily on waste from livestock production, which
has also soared, any reduction in recycling in fish culture might further impact the
wider environment that is rapidly deteriorating. Although aquaculture itself is
acknowledged as partly responsible for the general decline in surface water quality
that threatens further expansion, they2 suggest that traditional manurebased
integrated systems are the ‘most significant’ contributors. This is at odds with any
other comparison of nutrient accounting which conclude that in semiintensive pond
culture, most nutrients are retained within sediments that can be removed
occasionally and utilized locally3.
The expected rate of pond expansion2 (13 percent annually) suggests that even as
availability of improved feeds encourages intensification, semiintensive practices will
dominate in the foreseeable future. Lack of selfsufficiency in food grains and protein
concentrate could moderate tendencies towards intensive, feedonly based fish
culture systems in China. Demand for ‘fed’ fish species is increasing rapidly but of
the major species in the category tilapia, as a filter feeder, is known to be very cost
effectively raised through fertilization and feeding4. Filter feeding carps still represent
38 percent of total production and registered an annual increase of 13 percent in
19962. These levels of growth are more sustainable than those recorded for high
priced luxury species (>4080 percent year1) such as eels and turtles for which
markets are quickly saturated and production costs highly sensitive to imported feed
ingredients.
Source: 1 Chen et al. (1994); 2 Cremer et al. (1999); 3 Edwards (1993); 4 Diana et al. (1996)
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