BREEDING HERD

RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR SWINE

Gestation Nutrition and Management

When designing a feeding program for gestating sows, remember overall goals
for the nutrition program: 1) prepare sows to be in proper body condition at farrowing; 2)
maximize reproductive performance (farrowing rate and litter size); and 3) meet the
daily nutrient requirements at the lowest cost possible (measured as cost per sow per
day).
Problems with overfeeding gestating sows include unnecessary expense,
potential problems with impaired mammary development, and reduced feed intake in
lactation. Over-conditioned sows used to be the main problem on many swine farms,
but in recent years, thin sows have become a more prevalent problem. Too little body
tissue reserves can reduce reproductive performance and increase sow mortality. Low
backfat reserves also can be an animal welfare concern because thin sows have a
greater chance of developing shoulder sores.
The success of a limit-feeding program depends on controlling the intake of
each gilt or sow. Care must be taken to see that each female gets her daily allocation.
Individual sow feeding stalls are an effective device for controlling boss sows. If sows
are group fed, it is imperative that feed be spread across a large area to reduce fighting
and ensure that all animals consume their feed allotment. In group housing systems,
many managers will increase the specified feed allowance per sow by 10 to 15% to
account for wastage and boss sows consuming more than their feed allowance.

How should sow feeding levels be determined during gestation?

Most agree on the importance of having sows in the correct body condition at
farrowing. There is some disagreement, however, on whether ideal backfat level at
farrowing should be 16 to 18 mm or 18 to 21 mm. The most important point is to have
as few sows as possible under 15 mm or over 24 mm of last rib fat depth at farrowing.
Nutritionists, veterinarians, and barn managers disagree on the best way to set feeding
levels to make sure this happens.
Backfat scanning on commercial farms has convinced us that body condition
score is a poor predictor of actual backfat levels. The best correlation found between
backfat and condition score on any farm that we have measured is an r 2 of 0.23,
suggesting that body condition score only explains about 23% of the variation in backfat
depth. If body condition score is used to set feeding levels, feed usage should be
tracked and backfat at farrowing should be monitored periodically to try to reduce wide
swings in herd backfat thickness. If more than 75% of the sows are between 15 and 24
mm at farrowing, you are doing a good job of setting feeding levels during gestation.
Because of frustration with poor results with body condition scoring on many
farms, we have tested and implemented a method to feed sows based on backfat and
body weight estimates using concepts proposed by Dr. Frank Aherne. These methods
are presented in the following section. Regardless of whether you feed sows based on
body weight and backfat or on body condition score, it is important to understand sow
energy requirements and energy level of the gestation diet to determine feeding range
for your production system.

How much feed do gestating sows require?

The maintenance requirement of the sow accounts for the majority of the feed
requirement. Thus, an estimate of body weight is extremely important to accurately feed
the sow. Because weighing individual sows is not feasible on many farms, we have
established weight categories that can be estimated by using a flank measurement.
This measurement is taken immediately in front of the back legs from the point of one
flank over the back of the sow to the point of the other flank. The flank measurement is
much easier to obtain, especially when sows are housed in gestation crates. Because of
the importance of body weight in determining daily feed allotment, it is essential that a
high percentage of sows are measured for their body weight estimate. The daily feed
requirement for sows to maintain body weight increases approximately 0.3 lb for every
50 lb increase in sow weight for sows fed a corn-soy diet. The sows’ maintenance
requirement will increase as sows gain weight during gestation.
The next biggest component of the gestation feed requirement is the amount of
weight or backfat that you want the sow to gain. If you feed sows the maintenance level,
they will maintain body weight, but lose backfat. Sows require approximately ¼ lb of
feed daily above the maintenance requirement for a small gestation weight gain and to
maintain backfat. The daily feed requirement increases approximately 0.4 to 0.5 lb per
day for every 3 mm increase in desired backfat gain during gestation. Backfat can be
measured at breeding with one of several ultrasound machines. The Renco®
([Link]) machine is used on some farms because of the relatively low
cost. Real-time ultrasound is used by many farms that own these machines for
pregnancy detection. Individuals conducting ultrasound measurements must be trained
how to use the machine and where to take the measurement. Sows are scanned at the
last rib approximately 4 in. (10 cm) off the midline. We recommend scanning the sow on
both sides and averaging the values to determine backfat.
The last component of the gestation feed requirement is fetal and uterine gain.
Fetal gain increases exponentially in late gestation and thus, feeding levels should be
increased by 1 to 2 lb per day during the last two weeks of gestation to meet this need.
The daily energy requirement for fetal and uterine gain (330 kcal) during the rest of
gestation can be met by a relatively low amount of feed (0.25 lb).
The feed (energy) requirements for maintenance, weight or backfat gain, and
fetal growth are then combined to determine the total daily feed requirement.

How to set feeding levels using sow weight and backfat?

Once a week, the person responsible for setting feeding levels scans sows for
backfat and determines the weight category for sows bred during the previous week.
The backfat is written on the sow card, and the feeding level is adjusted using a table
customized for the farm based on the energy density of their diet and volume of the feed
boxes.
At approximately 7 weeks after mating, sows that visibly appear to be very thin
are marked and scanned to determine if backfat gains are on target. Approximately 10
to 15% of the sows will have to be scanned at this time. If the sows are not reaching
targets, feed intake is increased by 1.0 lb per day. Sows remain on their feeding level
until day 100 of gestation. On day 100, the feeding level is increased by 2 lb per day for
the last 2 weeks before farrowing.
The procedure is relatively simple and easy to implement. The three main
issues critical to be successful with this feeding method are: 1) A person must be
trained to scan and estimate weight; 2) you must know the energy level of the gestation
diet; and 3) you must know the accuracy of the feed drops over the expected range in
feed allowances. More details on procedures and the calculation spreadsheet can be
found at the Web site: [Link] under the swine extension sow feeding tools
link.
Is the pattern of feed intake important during gestation?
Feeding levels in particular stages of gestation have been shown to influence
gilt productivity and offspring performance. The periods when excessive feed intake is
most detrimental are immediately after breeding (day 0 to 2) and from day 75 to 90 of
gestation for gilts. High levels of feed intake after breeding can reduce embryo survival
in gilts. Providing gilts high levels of feed from day 75 to 90 of gestation can increase fat
deposition in the mammary gland and reduce milk production. From a practical
perspective, feeding pattern is less important than providing a total energy level over the
entire gestation period that prevents excessive fat gain or inadequate body reserves at
farrowing. There is no data available to suggest high feed intake from day 0 to 2 and
from day 75 to 90 will be as detrimental in gestating sows as it is in gilts.

Should gestating sows be fed once or twice a day?

Although research on this subject is limited, feeding sows once versus twice a
day doesn’t appear to change production parameters. Thus, the choice of feeding
frequency is up to the individual producer. Some cite improved sow satiety and
decreased ulcer potential as the reason for choosing twice a day feeding. Others argue
that feeding twice a day increases sow agitation and noise levels in the barn. An
advantage with twice a day feeding is that synthetic amino acids can be used without
worrying about the reduced utilization that occurs when sows are fed once a day.
However, a concern with feeding twice a day is that most gestation boxes are relatively
large and difficult to set accurately at the low feeding levels required with twice a day
feeding.

Do gestating sows need to be fed every day or can they be fed every other day?
Interval feeding during gestation is a possible alternative to limit-feeding. Often
interval feeding is used in group housing systems. Interval feeding is accomplished by
feeding the sows every other or every third day. Of course, the amount fed is adjusted
accordingly. For an example, instead of feeding 4 pounds each day during gestation, 8
pounds is fed every 2 days. With interval feeding, it is necessary to have sufficient
feeder space. Research results have shown that a minimum of 2 to 6 hours out of every
72 hours is an adequate feeding time. Interval feeding is not recommended for gilts or
during the last two weeks before farrowing.

Do the genetics or parity of the sow influence feed requirements?

Sow genotype doesn’t have a major impact on the feed requirements for
maintenance or fetal gain. However, different genetic lines of sows can vary in milk
production and lactation feed intake. Sows with high levels of milk production and low
lactation feed intake will require higher levels of feed during the subsequent gestation
period to recover the weight and backfat lost during lactation. If the sows are fed with
the weight and backfat procedure, feeding levels will automatically be adjusted to meet
the requirement of different genetics.
Similarly, older sows require higher levels of feed intake to meet their
maintenance requirement because they are heavier than younger sows. If feed levels
are adjusted as sows become heavier, the higher feed requirements for older parities
will automatically be met.

What dietary amino acid levels should be fed to gestating sows?

Make similar calculations to those for energy to determine the requirement for
amino acids. The individual amino acid requirements are influenced greatly by expected
lean tissue gain during pregnancy. A mature sow gaining 45 pounds from breeding to
farrowing requires less than 9 grams per day of lysine, similar to NRC (1988)
requirement. Younger gilts bred at 285 lb with an expected gain of 65 lb would require
11 grams per day of lysine. As the expected weight gain increases, the lysine need may
increase to as high as 14 grams per day in some first parity gilts. However, these levels
can be achieved with a relatively low dietary lysine levels (0.60 to 0.65% total or 0.50 to
0.55% true ileal digestible (TID) lysine for most sows), depending on the level of feed
intake.
If a farm uses parity segregation, two different gestation diets can be used. The
gestation diet for first parity sows can be formulated to a higher lysine level (0.65% total
lysine or 0.55% TID lysine), and the diet for older sows can be formulated to a lower
lysine level (0.55% total lysine or 0.45% TID lysine). Excessive protein intake during
gestation unnecessarily increases feed cost. In one trial, high protein intake during
gestation actually reduced feed intake during lactation.
Because threonine requirements are higher for maintenance than many other
amino acids, L-threonine must be added if L-lysine HCl is used in the diet. Research
has shown that in sows fed one time per day, synthetic amino acids like L-lysine HCl
are only used at about 50% efficiency.

What are the vitamin and mineral recommendations during gestation?

Recommended daily allowances for vitamins and minerals can be controversial
because relatively little information is available on some vitamins and trace minerals to
make recommendations. Our suggested vitamin and mineral levels are shown in
amount per day and amount per ton in Table 4. These recommendations are met by
using the KSU vitamin and trace mineral premix or base mix recommendations listed on
our Web site at [Link]. Diets in Table 5 will meet the suggested vitamin and
mineral requirements when fed at the recommended levels.

How critical is water intake in gestation?

Like all areas of production, clean, fresh water should be made available at all
times. While this suggestion seems simple, it can be a source of concern if water is not
an area of focus. Plugged nipples, poorly designed water troughs, or incomplete filling
of troughs because of feed blockage can all lead to inadequate water intake in
gestation. A part of the daily schedule on sow farms should be to ensure that all sows
have access to feed and water.

Should my diets include chromium and L-carnitine?

Some vitamins and minerals that aren’t typically added to growing-finishing pig
diets have been shown to improve sow reproductive performance. Nutrients that fit this
description include biotin, choline, folic acid, and recently, chromium (trace mineral) and
L-carnitine.
The FDA has allowed the use of chromium in gestation and lactation diets (200
ppb), and there are several sources available for use. Examples include chromium
tripicolinate, chromium yeasts, chromium propionate and chromium nicotinate.
Chromium has been found to improve the utilization of glucose by facilitating binding of
insulin to its receptors. Studies have observed increased farrowing rate or number of
pigs born to sows fed chromium in gestation and lactation. With the reduction in cost of
chromium over time, its inclusion is frequently economically justified. As with all
additives, evaluation of the cost and potential benefit (possibly involving on-farm
evaluation) need to be considered.
Carnitine is a vitamin-like compound primarily responsible for transporting fatty
acids across the mitochondrial membrane. Recent research has observed
improvements in wean-to estrus interval, farrowing rate and(or) number of pigs born
alive. Because carnitine has been observed to affect fat utilization, whereas chromium
affects glucose metabolism, additive improvements in sow performance have been
observed when used together in sow diets. More recently, feeding L-carnitine to
gestating sows has been shown to influence fetal growth factors leading to increased
birth weight, and growth rate of the offspring.

Lactation Nutrition and Management

It is well known that lactating sows need maximum intake of a good quality diet
to optimize sow and litter performance. However, either intentionally or unintentionally,
many lactating sows are limited in feed intake. Low feed intake in lactation results in
decreased milk production and excessive sow weight/backfat loss that can impair
subsequent reproductive performance. Therefore, the three main goals of the nutrition
program for lactating sows are: 1) maximize intake of a properly formulated diet; 2)
match the amino acid and other nutrient levels to the level of feed intake that is
achieved; and 3) maintain a reasonable feed cost per weaned pig.

Should sows be full fed or restricted during lactation?

It is recommended that during lactation sows be full-fed in order to obtain
maximum milk production. A lactating sow will normally consume 9 to 15 pounds per
day. This intake will depend on diet composition, sow’s body condition, previous
gestation feed intake, water availability, and environmental temperature of the farrowing
facilities. For maximum milk production, it is recommended that the sow be maintained
in an environment of 60° to 70°F. At higher temperatures, a reduction in feed intake will
be evident.

What is the best way to maximize the feed intake of lactating sows?
The most practical method of increasing energy intake is to increase total feed
consumption. While most nutritionists and veterinarians agree that maximal intake
throughout lactation is the desired goal, considerable debate exists on the method to
achieve maximum intake. The debate concerns how quickly feed intake should be
increased in early lactation. Some advocate feeding extremely low levels of feed (2 lb or
less) before and immediately after farrowing. Field experience indicates that extremely
low intake during this period limits the producer’s ability to increase feed intake rapidly
during early lactation. In extreme cases, the extended period of low intake around
farrowing can create ulcers. After the long period without feed, sows often overeat if
provided free access. This can result in sows going off feed or a noticeable dip in intake.
To compensate for this dip, 5 to 10 days into lactation, people prescribe limit feeding as
a cure instead of correcting the management practice that caused the problem — the
extended period of little or no feed intake prior to and immediately after farrowing.
Therefore we recommend that immediately before farrowing, feed sows at least 4 lb per
day, and after farrowing, step up feed allowance to ad libitum within three days of
farrowing.
Many different feeding methods will work to obtain maximum feed intake. The
most important facet of any feeding method is to ensure that the sow always has access
to feed. A new procedure many producers are adopting is the use of ad libitum sow
feeders. This may involve retro-fitting existing farrowing barns with feed lines and drop
boxes. Some have installed a feed line in the farrowing house and simply extended
PVC tubing from the feed line to the feeder for ad libitum access to feed. There are also
specifically designed ad libitum sow feeders that can be used. If automatic feeding
systems are not available, we recommend that lactating sows should be fed three or
four times per day to ensure that fresh feed is always available. We suggest using the
procedure, which is outlined below, to maximize sow feed intake:
 Morning Feeding — All sows are fed 1 scoop (4 pounds) if small amount of
feed is left in the feeder, and 2 scoops if the feeder is empty.
Late Morning Feeding — Feed a second time later in the morning or
immediately after lunch using the same scheme (1 scoop if a small amount of feed
remains and 2 scoops if the feederis empty). If no feed has been consumed since
morning, examine the sow to determine if she has a fever, retained pig, or other
detectable reason for being off feed.
Afternoon/Evening Feeding — A similar scheme is used for the
afternoon/evening feeding, but use judgment if there is some feed left in the feeder.
Sows that have had good appetites before this feeding, but still have greater than 2 lb of
feed remaining should receive one scoop. Sows that have eaten all or that have 2 lb or
less of previously provided feed should receive two scoops, and again if the feed has
not been touched since the last feeding, investigate to see if there is a detectable
reason for the sow being off feed. During the summer when sows tend to eat more feed
in the evening, managers may want to consider adding an extra scoop in the afternoon
feeding.
The only deviation from this pattern is for day 0 to 2 after farrowing. During this
time, the decision is to give zero or one scoop at each meal. Sows should not receive
two scoops at a single feeding during this period.
A key to this method of feeding is developing a communication method
between various employees to gauge an individual sow’s appetite for the previous 2 or
3 meals. Communication aids in deciding how long the sow has been off feed. Various
methods are used including daily feed intake recording. For example a clothespin can
be clipped on the feeder or at different locations to indicate either good or poor intake.
Changing the position of the farrowing card is another way to indicate poor appetite in
previous meals.

How do I determine the appropriate dietary lysine level for my sow lactation
diets?
To customize lactation diets based on sow productivity, dietary lysine level can
be calculated if a producer knows the average litter weaning weight and sow feed intake
averaged over the entire lactation period. Daily litter weight gain can be calculated by
dividing litter weaning weight by lactation length. Sows require approximately 11.9
grams of lysine per pound of daily litter weight gain.
If the previous lactation diet being fed on the farm is higher in lysine than the
recommended level, it may be possible to reduce the dietary lysine level without
sacrificing performance. If the previous lysine level being fed is lower or the same as the
recommendation, the producer may want to increase the lysine (protein) level and
reexamine performance records to determine whether litter weaning weight increases.
This relatively simple approach allows the sow lactation diet to be customized to an
individual farm.

What about other amino acids?

Considerations of other essential amino acids critical to lactation performance
that may become limiting include; isoleucine, methionine, threonine, and valine. More
research is needed to determine estimate requirements of these amino acids; however,
results to date indicate these amino acids must be carefully considered in diet
formulation to prevent costly limitations during lactation. In practical diet formulation, we
formulate to meet the lysine requirement of the sow and attempt to maintain threonine,
valine, isoleucine, and methionine as high as possible without incurring excess cost.
Usually, this is accomplished by limiting use of synthetic lysine in these diets. Practical
ratios that can be used when formulating diets for gestating and lactating sows.
Should the lactation diet contain added fat?
Adding fat to the lactation diet is an effective means of increasing the fat
content of the milk and improving litter weaning weight, but it will not benefit sow
reproductive performance. It is important to remember that dietary fat is preferentially
used by the mammary gland and results in production of “high fat” milk rather than
being used by the sow as an energy source. Use of high dietary fat levels during
lactation will improve litter weaning weights, but may actually impair subsequent
reproductive performance by reducing the number of LH peaks in early lactation.
Therefore, although some added fat (0 to 5%) may be beneficial to improving litter
performance, high levels of added dietary fat (greater than 5%) should not be used as a
remedy for poor lactation feed intake.
Producers should take all steps possible to increase lactation feed intake
whether fat is added to the diet or not. As a general guideline, if it is economical to add
fat to the late nursery diets, it will be economical to use 3 to 5 percent fat in the sow
lactation diet.

Do vitamin and mineral requirements change for lactation?

Producers can use similar levels of added dietary vitamins and minerals for
both gestation and lactation. While the daily requirement for vitamins and minerals
increases approximately 1.5 to 3 times in lactation compared to gestation, feed intake is
higher in lactation, thus the need for additional fortification above the gestation diet is
not necessary. Our suggested vitamin and mineral levels are shown in amount per day
and amount per ton in Table 6. Suggested diets in Table 10 will meet the suggested
vitamin and mineral requirements when fed at recommended levels.

What grain particle size should be used?

In lactation, research clearly shows that nutrient utilization, milk production, and
weaning weights decrease with increasing particle size. Also, if grain particle size is too
fine, ulcers may develop, which may jeopardize performance and/or sow health. We
recommend that lactation sow diets have grain particle size ranging from 600 to 800
microns, similar to growing-finishing pigs. However, little evidence suggests that larger
particle sizes in gestation adversely affect sow performance. While the ideal particle
size has not been identified, it is a practical recommendation that grain particle size may
be slightly greater in gestation than in lactation.

Should all sows receive the same lactation diet?

First parity sows require special consideration when formulating lactation diets.
Typically, feed intake level is about 20% less than the herd average. Thus, if the
average sow is consuming 12 lb per day, the first parity sows will average about 10 lb
per day. Using Table 8, first parity sows would require approximately 0.20% higher
lysine lactation diet to maintain the same level of litter weaning weight. Researchers
also have demonstrated that first parity sows require higher lysine for maximum
reproductive performance than required for maximal milk production.
When all sows are housed in the same facility, management is faced with a
choice. They must either provide higher amino acid levels than required by the
multiparity sows in order to meet requirements of young sows, or formulate closer to the
requirements of the older sows and not meet the requirements of the young sows. In
most situations, the choice is to formulate closer to the requirements of the young sows
and oversupply nutrients to the older sows. An advantage of segregated parity flow is
that old sows can be fed diets formulated closer to their nutrient requirements in
gestation and lactation, resulting in reduced feed cost.
What about adding laxatives to the lactation diet?
Feed ingredients with high fiber content such as soy hulls, beet pulp, oats,
wheat bran, and wheat midds may be used as laxatives to keep sows from becoming
constipated. However, they also reduce the energy density of the diet and limit sow
energy intake and may increase diet cost. To our knowledge there is no data to suggest
a beneficial improvement in sow performance by adding a laxative to the diet. If
laxatives must be used, topdressing individual sows would be the preferred method.
This could be done by having a bag of soyhulls or wheat midds in the farrowing complex
for individually topdressing a sow’s feed. Chemical laxatives, such as magnesium-,
potassium-, or sodium-sulfate, are also an option for controlling constipation problems.
The recommended level of magnesium sulfate (Epsom Salts) is 10 to 20 pounds per ton
or topdressing about 1 to 2 tablespoons per feeding.

Can the gestation and lactation diets be the same?

We discourage the use of the same diet for both gestation and lactation. In
smaller swine operations, it may not be practical to use two different diets for the sow
herd. The lactation diet, if properly formulated, can be fed at the rate of 4 to 6 pounds
per sow per day during gestation. Feed cost will be higher if the lactation diet is fed
during gestation and research has shown that feeding excess protein during gestation
can reduce feed intake during lactation.

Is there a simple way to determine gestation and lactation sow feed intake for a
farm?
Regardless of whether backfat and weight or body condition scoring is used to
set the daily feed allowance for each sow, it is useful to get an overall picture of
gestation feed usage for a swine farm to determine if any long-term trends towards over
or under-feeding exist. This can be done relatively easy by dividing the total feed
delivered for a specific period by the number of gestation places in the farm and the
number of days in the period. Certainly, if sow space is not fully utilized on the farm, this
measure will need to be adjusted for actual inventory, but for most farms simply
knowing the number of gestation spaces is adequate. This calculation is especially
useful in production systems with multiple sow farms to determine if one sow farm
routinely feeds more feed than another when provided the same gestation diet. In
reality, most farms should have gestation feed usage of 7.2 to 7.8 Mcal ME per sow per
day, which equates to 5.1 to 5.5 lb per day of a gestation diet containing 1.4 Mcal ME/lb
(milo-soybean meal or corn-soybean meal and soy hulls) or 4.8 to 5.1 lb of a diet
containing 1.5 Mcal ME/lb (corn-soybean meal). If feed usage for the farm is outside of
these bounds, reasons for the discrepancy should be explored.
For example, a 3,000 sow farm with 2,800 gestation crates used 1,210 tons of
feed in a 6 month period. The calculated gestation feed intake is:
Total Feed = 1,210 tons x 2,000 lb = 4.75 lb/d
Crates X Days 2,800 crates x 182 days
For lactation feed intake, calculations are similar, but two calculations are
helpful to determine actual lactation feed intake. The first calculation uses crate days
and feed delivery and estimates the lowest amount of feed disappearance per sow per
day. The second calculation relies on the number of farrowings and lactation length and
estimates the highest amount of disappearance that could have occurred. The average
of these two values should be used as the feed intake estimate.
Because these calculations rely on feed delivery, which can be sporadic, a
period of 4 to 6 months should be the shortest period used for the calculations. A six
month rolling average is a good way to view feed intake when using this method.
 For example, over a 6-month period, a 3,000-sow farm, with 450 farrowing
crates, farrows 3,615 litters with an average litter weaning weight of 101 lb at 19 days
of age. During this 6-month period, 419 tons of lactation feed were delivered to the farm.
The first method using crate days estimates feed disappearance as:
Total Feed = 419 tons x 2,000 lb = 10.2 lb/d
Crates X Days 450 crates x 182 days
The second method using number of lactating days estimates feed
disappearance as:
Total Feed = 419 tons x 2,000 lb = 12.2 lb/d
Litters X Lactation 3,615 x 19 d Length
The first method should underestimate average lactation feed intake because
of days that crates are empty or contain prefarrowed sows that are eating lactation feed.
The second method over estimates lactation feed intake because the feed to
prefarrowing sows is counted as feed fed to lactating sows. The true daily lactation feed
intake should be somewhere between 10.2 and 12.2 lb.

Gilt Nutrition and Management

Research has shown that growth rate of developing gilts should neither be too
slow or too fast. The goal for many different sow lines is to have a 300 lb gilt at 210
days of age (eligible for breeding). To achieve this goal, developing gilts can be fed
diets similar to normal grow-finish diets except calcium and phosphorus levels should
be greater to increase bone mineralization. In some cases the added fat typically used
in finisher diets can be decreased or eliminated from the diet. For at least the last 30
days before breeding, gilts should also receive the vitamins normally added to only sow
diets (biotin, folic acid, pyridoxine, chromium, and carnitine). Thus, after gilts reach
approximately 220 lb the sow add pack should be added to the diet or gilts should be
switched to the gestation diet. These diets can be used in either a five- or three-phase
program following the feed budgets.

Boar Nutrition and Management

Naturally mated or on-farm boars that are collected, can be fed a grain-
soybean meal diet fortified similarly to a gestation diet. The daily feeding rate should be
changed to reflect differences of season, condition, and boar workload. Boars under
heavy use should be fed 6 pounds per head per day of that diet to provide enough
protein and energy to maintain body condition and proper sperm production. Avoid
underfeeding micronutrients and protein when limit-feeding boars (less than 4 pounds
per day) with the sow gestation diet. Formulate a separate diet for boars in a boar stud.
Due to the relatively low cost of the boar diet and the importance of boar sperm
production in the stud, we fortify the boar diet with higher levels of protein and vitamins.
We must caution that few trials have been conducted to determine nutrient
requirements of boars.
Similar to the gestating sow, a factorial approach can be used to determine
boar energy requirements. These requirements include components for maintenance,
weight gain, semen production, and mating activity. The flank toflank measurement
used for gestating sows appears to accurately predict weight of boars as well. An
accurate weight estimate can also be useful in determining medication dosages for
boars.
 GROWING–FINISHING PIG
RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction
Feed is the largest cost center in pork production. Over 70 percent of the feed
cost is accrued during the grow-finish phase. Additionally, feeding diets above or below
the amino acid requirements will have a greater impact on performance and profitability
than in any other phase of production. Thus, correct diet formulation in the finisher
phase is critical.

What is a systematic way to approach designing a nutritional program for grow–

finish pigs?
The first component of the nutritional program is diet formulation. The diet
formulation keys in the finisher are to:
1. determine the most economical energy level;
2. determine the lysine:calorie ratio to use for the genetics and production
situation;
3. determine the ratio for the other amino acids;
Formulation has progressed from using total amino acids to formulating using
true ileal digestible (TID) amino acid values.
4. determine the available phosphorus level;
again available P concentrations should be set relative to the energy density of
the diet using a available P to energy ratio.
5. set levels of vitamins, trace minerals, calcium, salt, and other ingredients.
Next, a feed budget is determined according to the feed efficiency projected for
the group to facilitate delivery of the correct phases. Finally, performance of the grow–
finish group is monitored to make sure that projected growth performance targets are
being achieved.
Determining the optimal energy level will depend on many criteria including the
relative cost of grains, fat sources, and byproducts. Another criterion that must be
considered is the relative importance and value of ADG and impact of energy level on
growth rate in the production situation. If growth rate is improved by increasing the
dietary energy level, margin over feed cost should dictate the correct energy level in the
diet instead of feed cost per unit of gain. In many situations, increasing dietary energy
will increase ADG, but it will also increase feed cost per unit of gain. If ample facility
space is available, such that pigs will reach the optimal market weight before they must
exit the building, optimal feed cost per unit of gain should dictate the energy level.
However, if facility space is not available to allow pigs to reach the optimal market
weight, margin over feed should dictate the optimal energy level. In most production
systems, adequate facility space is not available during the hot summer months. Thus,
dietary energy levels higher than those required to minimize feed cost are often
economical.

Why is the lysine requirement expressed as a lysine to calorie ratio instead of a

dietary percentage?
The lysine requirement is expressed as a ratio instead of dietary percentage
because as the energy density of the diet increases either feed intake decreases and
(or) growth rate increases. Therefore, when feed intake decreases with more energy
dense diets, a higher dietary lysine percentage is required to maintain a similar lysine
intake (grams/day). If energy density results in increased growth rate while feed intake
remains constant, more lysine is required for the increased growth. Both scenarios
require higher dietary lysine percentages but the amount of lysine needed per calorie of
energy remains relatively constant. Thus, the lysine to calorie ratio is used to ensure the
right amount of lysine is provided in diets that vary in energy density.

AMINO ACID LEVELS

What are TID amino acids?
The term “TID” refers to the true ileal digestiblility of the feed ingredient. True
ileal digestibility values are calculated from measuring the digestibility of feed samples
collected at the end of the ileum. By collecting samples here, microbial use or
contributions of amino acids are avoided. The digestibility is then corrected for
endogenous amino loss, usually as amino acids in sloughed intestinal cells digestive
enzymes. True ileal digestibility values are a more precise method of determining the
actual uptake of the various amino acids and because of greater precision using true
ileal digestibility values, diets used in the guide are based on true ileal digestible (TID)
values.

How do you determine lysine requirements for various operations and

genotypes?
Lysine requirements can be determined using several methods. First, the lysine
requirement can be adapted from research data of others. Universities, such as Kansas
State University, feed companies, or genetic companies can be good sources of
standard lysine recommendations for a particular genetic line. Because the pigs used in
the research to develop these recommendations may not have the same level of growth
performance, feed intake and protein deposition rates due to differences in health
status, exact genetic background, housing, etc, caution must be used in applying the
recommendations to a different production system. In many cases, however, these
recommendations are the best data available for the situation. For example, the amino
acid recommendations were developed using PIC genetics in commercial grow-finish
research facilities.
A second method to develop the lysine recommendations is by collecting the
necessary weight and ultrasound information in the production system. Using this
method, lysine requirement curves can be determined for the particular genetics and
production system. However, outside expertise and precision is required for this
method. Additionally, unless the measurements start very early and are collected well
past the normal market weights, the lysine requirements at the beginning and end of the
growing period can be over or under estimated.
A third method is to assume that pigs require 20 g of TID lysine per kg of ADG
(9 g/lb of gain). By establishing a growth and feed intake curve, the recommended
lysine percentage can be calculated for any phase. The biggest problem with this
method is that several assumptions must be made that don’t always hold true. However,
this simple rule of thumb can be used to help set initial amino acid levels to test in
titration experiments.
The fourth method is to conduct experiments in research barns within the
production system. This is the most accurate method, but also is the most expensive.
The production system has to have access to research barns that are similar to their
normal production barns for this option. If research barns are available, conducting
lysine titration trials for each 50 lb weight range allows calculation of a lysine
requirement curve.

How is ultrasound information used to determine lysine requirements?

In order to develop farm-specific lysine recommendations with ultrasound
information, growth curve data can be translated into nutrient requirements based on
the concepts of Dr. Allan Schinckel at Purdue University. Briefly, the procedure involves
weighing and obtaining ultrasound measurements for backfat and loin area at
approximately 5 to 6 points during the growth period between 50 and 280 pounds. The
ultrasound and weight measurements are used to determine the amount of body protein
and lipid at each weight. Daily protein and lipid accretion curves are then calculated.
The daily TID lysine requirement in grams per day can then be calculated from daily
body protein accretion (P) using constant from NRC (1998), which indicates that 0.12 g
of TID lysine are required for each gram of protein accretion. The constant 0.12
contains two factors including the lysine content of protein (6.5 to 7.5%) and the
efficiency of lysine utilization (54 to 65%). The maintenance requirement (0.036 ×
Weight, kg. 75) also must be considered. Thus, the TID lysine requirement (g/d) is
calculated as: (0.036 × Weight, kg. 75) + 0.12 x protein accretion, g/d.
Daily energy intake driving the observed growth is then calculated from the
daily protein and lipid accretion with an allowance for the maintenance energy
requirement. The grams of lysine intake can then be divided by the daily energy intake
to derive a lysine to calorie ratio that can be converted to a dietary percentage based on
the dietary energy concentration. The dietary percentage can be converted into a curve
based on body weight. The curve can be used to determine a dietary lysine percentage
for each phase.

What happens if pigs are fed above or below their lysine requirement?
If pigs are fed diets above their lysine requirement, feed cost will be increased.
In the finisher phase, pigs tend to become slightly leaner as lysine levels exceed the
requirement. Thus, lean premiums may increase and offset a portion, but not all, of the
increased feed cost. In the grower periods, feed cost is increased without any beneficial
return.
If pigs are fed diets below their lysine requirement, growth rate will decline and
feed efficiency will become poorer. The reduction in growth performance is greater in
the finisher phase than in the grower phase. Thus, feeding diets below the lysine
requirement is more detrimental in the finisher period than in the grower period.

How do you determine the requirements for the other amino acids?
After the dietary lysine percentage is determined, levels for other essential
amino acids are determined by using a ratio for each amino acid relative to lysine. This
ratio of amino acids is often called an “ideal amino acid pattern.” Considerable debate
exists on the appropriate ideal amino acid pattern to use for grow–finish pigs. The
pattern also can be expressed on a total amino acid basis, apparent digestible basis, or
true digestible basis. The patterns listed in Table 1 were adapted from work at several
universities.

Can I use more than 3 pounds of synthetic lysine per ton of feed?
In practical terms, the use of an ideal amino acid pattern determines the
amount of synthetic lysine that can be used in a grain-soybean meal based diet. Under
most practical conditions when a maximum of 3 pounds of synthetic lysine is used,
lysine will be the limiting amino acid. When using alternative feed ingredients or very
high or low protein diets, the individual situation must be analyzed. In many of these
cases, less synthetic lysine should be used in the diets unless other synthetic amino
acids also are added.
In certain situations, it may be desirable to use high levels of synthetic amino
acids in the diet to decrease nitrogen excretion. Using 3 pounds of L-lysine HCl per ton
to replace soybean meal in the diet will decrease nitrogen excretion by 20 percent.
Higher levels of synthetic lysine in combination with other synthetic amino acids (usually
DL-methionine and L-threonine) can be safely used in the diets and nitrogen excretion
can be decreased by over 40 percent. However, producers should not expect an
improvement in pig performance. A review of the numerous trials conducted in this area
reveal the following facts. First, reducing the crude protein content of the diet by adding
synthetic amino acids will not result in superior performance to an intact protein source,
such as soybean meal. Second, although the evidence is not conclusive, using high
levels of synthetic amino acids in some cases results in increased back fat compared to
feeding intact protein sources. Following the amino acid ratios in Table 1 increases the
success rate with the use of synthetic amino acids.

How much L-lysine HCl can be added to a cornsoybean meal diet with a synthetic
threonine and methionine source before growth performance is reduced?
With our current knowledge, the maximum amount of L-lysine HCl that should
be used in conjunction with L-threonine and a methionine source is 7 lb/ton in the early
grower phase and 4.5 lb/ton in the late finisher phase in corn-soybean meal diets.

DIETARY FAT ADDITIONS

How do I determine whether to use other ingredients in my milo- or corn-soybean
meal based diets?
Several other ingredients may be used in traditional grain-soybean meal based
diets to decrease cost. Each of these ingredients must be evaluated individually
following the guidelines in the fact sheet, General Nutrition Principles for Swine,
MF2298. Besides determining the economics of the ingredients based on their impact
on diet cost, careful consideration must be made as to whether the ingredient influences
growth rate. If growth rate is decreased, the impact on margin over feed must be
considered in the economic analysis.

How do I determine whether to add fat to my milo- or corn-soybean meal based

diets?
Assuming the fat is of acceptable quality, the economics of using added fat can
be evaluated by calculating the diet cost with and without added fat. The percentage
improvement needed to pay for the increased diet cost when adding fat is calculated by
the following equation:
Added fat diet cost – Without added fat diet cost
Added fat diet cost
The expected improvement in the ratio of feed to grain (F/G) is 2 percent for
every 1 percent added dietary fat. Therefore, if the percent improvement needed to
justify the added fat diet cost is greater than the expected improvement in F/G, feeding
the added dietary fat is economically justified on a feed efficiency basis. As an example,
if the cost of a diet without added fat is $136/ton and the cost per ton with 5 percent
added fat is $148, the F/G improvement needed to justify the higher priced added fat
diets is (148–136)/148=8.1 percent. The added fat diet is economical to feed based on
8.1 percent being less than the expected improvement in F/G (10% for a diet with 5%
added fat).

What about the influence of dietary fat additions on ADG or backfat?

This equation for determining the economics of dietary fat additions is based on
feed efficiency and does not take into account the impact of added dietary fat on ADG
or the influence on backfat and carcass lean content. Most research suggests that the
impact on ADG is greater during the grower and early finisher phase with little impact on
ADG of pigs greater than 200 pounds. Some recent research has indicated that pigs
have a greater response to fat in the late finisher period if they were being fed a diet
without added fat prior to that time. Thus, the growth response to fat may vary based on
previous diet as well as genetics and production system.
In addition to variable response in ADG, the value of the additional ADG is not
the same in all situations. For example, the economic value of ADG is higher when
finishing space is limited than when there is a shortage of pigs. In the first scenario, an
extra pound from increased ADGis worth the margin over feed cost (market price minus
feed cost). In the second scenario, extra pounds are only worth the savings in fixed
costs.
Previous research has indicated that feeding added dietary fat increases
carcass backfat and reduces carcass leanness. Other recent research indicates the
impact on backfat and carcass lean is negligible with high-lean pigs in the summer time.
Other considerations not accounted for in the equation are additional costs for the
equipment and utility expenses to handle added dietary fat. An economic value also has
not been determined for the impact of added dietary fat on dust control.
Adding fat to the diet also will increase the softness of the fat. Fat softness is
often determined by measuring the iodine value. If the fat is too soft, the meat products
are less acceptable for the high value export market. Soft fat in the belly also causes
slicing problems. Vegetable oils have more negative impact on fat softness than more
saturated fat sources, such as choice white grease and tallow. Thus, iodine value of the
diet and projected iodine value of the carcass also must be considered when making
the decision on added fat level in the diet.

What are some general guidelines for added dietary fat usage?
1. Fat will be more economical in the grower diets than in finisher diets because
grower diets are more expensive and increasing the energy density of the diet improves
ADG more in grower pigs than finisher pigs.
[Link] purchased competitively, fat from animal sources (choice white grease
or high quality tallow) will almost always be economical in early grower diets.
3. Due to their high cost, fat from vegetable sources (soybean oil or corn oil)
are rarely economical to add to the diet.
[Link] producers add fat to the diet for dust control even when not economical
for growth performance.
[Link] value of the carcass (fat softness) will increase as dietary fat addition
increases with more unsaturated fats (oils) having more impact than saturated fat
sources, such as choice white grease or tallow.

Is there a software tool available to determine the whether fat is economical?

The link to a fat economic calculator can be found at: [Link]. By
entering the corn, soybean meal, fat and market hog prices an expected economic
response to adding fat can be determined for each dietary phase.

CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS

What are the recommendations for calcium, phosphorus, trace minerals and
vitamins?
Although some research data suggests lower available phosphorus levels can
be fed without influencing growth performance, field experience leads to these
recommendations. Feeding diets with lower levels of phosphorus has resulted in
increased trim loss in the processing plant due to vertebrae breaking during the
stunning process. These recommendations are met by using the KSU vitamin and trace
mineral premix or base mix recommendations.
These recommendations can be found at: [Link].
Example Diets
How are the nutrient requirements put together into a set of diets?
Example diets for grower and finisher pigs are listed in Table 3. Note that as fat
is added to the diet, the TID lysine level is increased in order to maintain a constant
lysine to calorie ratio. These diets are formulated for terminal market pigs. If gilts are
destined for the breeding herd, higher levels of calcium and phosphorus should be fed.

What about adding other ingredients to the diets?

With the help of someone skilled in diet formulation and nutrition, several
ingredients can be added to grow-finish diets without reducing grow-finish pig
performance. Guidelines for inclusion rates for many ingredients are provided in the fact
sheet, General Nutrition Principles for Swine, MF2298. Diet examples with ingredients,
such as dried distiller grain with solubles, can be found at: [Link].

How should diets be adjusted when Paylean® is used?

The diet containing Paylean® should contain approximately 0.3% TID lysine
above that required by a pig of the same weight without Paylean®. In corn-soybean
meal based diets, the lysine level can be increased by increasing the soybean meal
level or with increased amino acids (lysine, threonine, and methionine) and soybean
meal. Vitamins and minerals do not have to be increased and amino acid ratios for the
110 lb pig can be used.

FEED BUDGETS
How can I assure that pigs are being delivered the right amount of diet for each
weight range?
Feed budgets are used to ensure the right amounts of each diet are delivered
to each group of pigs. These budgets are based on a feed efficiency of 2.96 from 50 to
280 lb, which is equivalent to a F/G of 2.8 from 50 to 250 lb. As fat is added to the diet,
the quantity of feed required for each phase is decreased such that overall feed
efficiency is improved to 2.73 in the example (equivalent to 2.58 from 50 to 250 lb).
With a feed budget, feed deliveries can be tracked from one central location,
such as the feed mill. The person in the finishing barn does not have to guess the
weight of the pigs for determining which diet to order. The diet to be delivered to the
group of pigs is automatically determined by the feed budget.
Use of feed budgeting has resulted in more accurate phase feeding by not over
or under delivering diets for each phase. The tracking of feed deliveries from one central
location has also lead to improved accuracy of feed records.

How do I alter the feed budget to different weights or feed efficiencies?

A feed budget which assumes a feed efficiency of 3.0 from 50 to 250 pounds. If
feed efficiency is consistently higher or lower for a particular system, the budget can be
scaled up or down to account for the change. A KSU Feed Budget Spreadsheet is also
available at: [Link]. The spreadsheet can be used to easily adjust a feed
budget based on overall close out feed efficiency and customized weight breaks.
To use the determine the average weight of the group of pigs when placed in
the barn and find the cumulative amount of feed on the feed budget chart. Next, find the
cumulative amount of feed at the end of the weight break. Determine the difference and
multiply by the number of pigs in the room. For example, grower 1 diet is fed from 50 to
80 pounds and a group of pigs are initially placed on feed at 55 pounds. The cumulative
feed intakes to 55 and 80 pounds are 81 and 141 pounds, respectively. Therefore, this
phase requires 60 pounds (141 – 81) of feed per pig or 18 tons for a 600-pig group. The
subsequent phases are then calculated in the same manner.
How is a customized feed budget developed for a specific production system?
The feed budget chart shown in Table 5 or the KSU Feed Budget Spreadsheet
will fit most production systems ([Link]). With the advent of many large
production systems that have similar feeding programs, genetics, and buildings, feed
budgets developed specifically for a production system may be desirable. The basic
approach is to randomly select six groups for each gender and track feed deliveries to
the group. In addition, a random sampling of pens (three or four) in the group are
weighed to determine the average pig weight of the group. Feed is inventoried on each
weigh day and cumulative feed intake determined. The groups are followed as long as
possible with the removal of as few of the pigs as possible. A minimum of 5 data points
is needed to develop the curve. A curve can then be fit to the data and an equation
derived to determine the cumulative feed intake. This can be easily accomplished by
making an X–Y scatterplot in a spreadsheet and using the trendline function to obtain
the equation for the curve. The customized budget for each phase can then be
calculated by subtracting the cumulative intake at two different points.
Because feed is delivered to an individual group, the average curve is
developed from a subsampling of groups within the production system. The
development of feed budgets takes into account both the feed required for growth and
feed disappearance due to wastage and can be customized for application to specific
production systems.

What is the best way to determine the weight break for each phase?
Several factors are used to determine appropriate weight breaks. The nutrient
requirements are rapidly changing during the grower and early finisher phases.
Therefore, lower feed budget amounts result in diets more closely matching the nutrient
needs of the pigs. Another method is to use weight breaks that budget similar amounts
of feed for each break. Thus, the weight ranges decrease, as the pigs grow heavier. A
major advantage of doing this is that it is easy to remember the amount needed for each
phase. Monitoring of the budgets is simplified for personnel. Other factors commonly
used to determine the budget are based on the size of feed bins, delivery
compartments, and the size of batches at the mill.

FEED EFFICIENCY COMPARISONS AND TARGETS

What is the best biologic measure to monitor if detailed financial records are not
available?
Feed efficiency is the best factor to measure because it directly impacts cost
per pound of gain. However, several factors that improve feed efficiency also can
increase cost so the lowest feed efficiency may not always be the lowest cost.

How do I compare feed efficiency among different groups?

Several factors impact feed efficiency. Expected feed efficiency will be
influenced by the entry weight and market weight of the pigs, gender of the pigs,
genotype, energy level of the diet, and whether the diets are pelleted. In order to
compare feed efficiency among groups, adjustment factors for these major items must
be used. Adjustment factors have been developed for entry weight and market weight of
the pigs, energy level of the diet, and whether the diets are in pellet or meal form.
Therefore, variation among close outs can be accounted for by these factors and may
aid in detecting differences among groups for other factors, such as feed wastage.
The following equation can be used to compare different groups with different
ending weights and market weights:
Adjusted F/G = observed F/G + (50 – entry wt ) ×
.005 + (250 – market wt) × .005)
 This equation adjusts all groups to a common entry weight of 50 pounds and
market weight of 250 pounds. Further adjustments can be made to compare groups
with different grain sources, dietary energy levels, and pelleted or meal diets.
The adjustment for energy level uses an adjustment for grain source and fat
level in the diet (grain factor – (fat level × 2)), where the grain factor is 1 for corn and
1.02 for milo and fat level is the percent fat in the diet. The adjustment for pelleting is
(1– pellet factor), where the pellet factor is the percentage improvement in feed
efficiency due to pelleting.
The factors can be included in one formula to compare all of the factors at the
same time:
Adjusted F/G =
(observed F/G + (50 – entry wt)
× .005 + (250 – market wt) × .005))
/ [Grain factor – (fat level × 2))
× (1 – pellet factor)]
As an example, a group of pigs with an entry weight of 40 lb and exit weight of 240
lb being fed a 5% added fat, corn-soybean meal based diet in a meal form has an adjusted
feed efficiency of 3.00 with an observed feed efficiency of 2.60. (2.60 + (50–40) × .005 +
(250 – 240) × .005) / (1 – .05 × 2) × (1– 0)) = ((2.60 + .05 + .05) / (.9 × 1) = 3.00.
With this equation, groups can be monitored and compared. Consider the following
example. Is a F/G of 3.0 from another group of pigs fed milo-based diets without added fat
from 60 to 260 pounds better or worse than the previous example of an observed F/G of
2.60 from a corn-soybean meal based diet with 5 percent added fat from 40 to 240 pounds?
Using the equation indicates the group fed milo-based diets has an adjusted F/G of 2.84
due to the lower energy level of the milo, no added fat, and heavier starting and ending
weight. This is lower than the adjusted F/G of 3.00 for the group fed the corn diets.
Therefore, the group fed milo-based diets had a better biologic feed conversion and less
feed wastage than the group fed corn-based diets.
These factors are used to adjust between groups to compare expected biologic
performance among groups. Economics may dictate that feed cost may be less expensive
for pigs fed a milobased diet with no added fat compared to pigs fed a corn-based diet with
added fat even though the group fed the milo diets has a higher F/G.

When examining cost per pound of gain in the finishing phase do feed processing
charges have a big impact on cost?
Yes, accurate accounting of feed processing charges is necessary for accurate
cost comparisons among different closeout groups. A processing charge of $12.50 per ton
will add approximately $3.75 to the cost of producing a pig. This is equivalent to $0.019 per
pound of gain. Similarly, a processing charge of $15 per ton will add $4.50 to the cost of
producing a pig, which is equivalent to $0.022 per pound of gain.

Conclusion
Grower–finisher feeds represent the largest share of feed cost in a farrow-to-finish
operation. Therefore, decisions to change or modify finishing diets must be made based on
economics. Modern production systems have resulted in large groups of similar age and
weight pigs which allow for more efficient feed deliveries, phase feeding, and split-sex
feeding. Some simple tools to allow farm specific diet formulation and feed budgeting are
now available to more efficiently reduce feed cost and improve growth performance in the
grower-finisher phase of production.
 STARTER PIG
RECOMMENDATIONS

What are the key concepts in starter diet formulation?

A successful nursery feeding program contains several components, but the
most important are as follows:
1. Start with as heavy and as old a pig as feasible.
2. Adjust pigs to the lowest cost diets (usually growing–finishing diets) as
quickly as possible after weaning to reduce total cost.
3. Newly weaned pigs are in an extremely energy deficient state. Thus,
maximizing feed intake is important.
4. Remember biology of pig when formulating diets.
5. Provide the proper management to start pigs promptly on feed and water
and continually adjust feeders to optimize feed efficiency.
Understanding these main concepts is the key to designing nutritional
programs for newly weaned pigs. The concepts are relatively simple and can be applied
in a variety of situations around the world.

How do these concepts influence diet formulation?

Start with as heavy and as old a pig as feasible. Recent research has shown
that increasing weaning age through 21 days linearly increases growth rate and reduces
mortality from weaning to market. In these studies, wean-to-finish growth performance
and productivity (as measured by ADG, mortality, off-test weight per day of age, and
weight sold per pig weaned) improved as weaning age increased from 12 to 21 and
15.5 to 21.5 days of age. Linear improvements in growth and mortality rate largely
occurred in the initial 42 days post-weaning period, with some ongoing growth
improvements in finishing performance. These studies suggest increasing weaning age
up to 21.5 days can be an effective production strategy to improve wean-to-finish
growth performance in a multi-site production system.

Adjust pigs to lowest cost diets as quickly as possible after weaning. The main
purpose of the nutritional program in the nursery is to adjust the pig to dry feed and
prepare them for the grow–finish stage. If we adjust pigs to the ingredients used in the
grow–finish diets too slowly, feed cost can be prohibitive. Thus, a balance between
excellent performance and low diet cost must be reached.
The strategic use of soybean meal provides an example of how this concept
influences ingredient selection for starter diets. Our common grow–finish diets are grain-
soybean meal-based diets. Because these are our lowest cost diets, our goal is to
adjust pigs to them as quickly as possible. Strategic use of soybean meal allows us to
rapidly adjust pigs to high levels of soybean meal after weaning. An alternate approach
would be to delay exposure to soybean meal until pigs are older to prevent any possible
hypersensitivity reaction. When exposure to soybean is reduced or delayed, typically
this requires greater use of specialty ingredients like dried whey, fish meal, spray-dried
blood meal, and spray-dried animal plasma. This approach can result in excellent
performance in the nursery, but pigs then have to be slowly acclimated to soybean meal
in later diets, and feed costs are dramatically increased.

Importance of feed intake. Newly weaned pigs cannot consume enough feed to meet
their energy needs for protein deposition. They are in a highly energy dependent state.
Thus, any increase in energy intake results in improvements in growth rate and lean
deposition. Comprehension of this concept will lead to an understanding of the varying
response to diet complexity in different situations.
 Feed intake (and, thus, energy intake) is highly dependent on environmental
factors. If feed intake is compromised due to disease, environment, management, or
other factors, complex diets can help serve as an aid to increase consumption. Lactose,
spray-dried animal plasma, and other palatable ingredients typically used in these
complex diets will increase feed intake of early weaned pigs. However, if feed intake is
excellent due to improved environment and removal of disease pressure, the amount of
these complex diets can be reduced.
Key points in understanding the interaction of diet complexity and feed intake
are: (1) feed intake drives growth performance in early weaned pigs; (2) complex diets
improve feed intake for the first few weeks after weaning; and (3) diet complexity can
and should be reduced rapidly as impact on feed intake declines with age.
Studies have shown that increased feed intake in the postweaning period will
increase nursery growth rate, but also that this weight advantage is maintained and in
some instances increased in the finishing phase compared with pigs with poor feed
intake after weaning. Studies also show that increased feed will dramatically reduce the
risk of enteric disease in the nursery phase.

Remember the biology of the pig. The rapidly changing biology of the young pig must
be considered in selecting sources and levels for amino acids, carbohydrates and fat.
Main considerations for the young pig should be their: (1) high level of protein
deposition; (2) low level of feed intake; (3) high lactase and low amylase, maltase,
sucrase and lipase activities at birth; and (4) limited ability to utilize fat.
The newly weaned pig has a tremendous capacity for protein deposition in
relation to the level of feed intake. Thus, diets must be formulated with high levels of
amino acids. Removal of disease pressure with segregated early weaning also
increases the amino acid requirements of the young pig by increasing the level of
protein deposition.
Because feed intake is limited, a highly digestible carbohydrate source is
advantageous, both to stimulate feed intake and due to the relatively high net energy
value. The high lactase enzyme levels at birth and high digestibility of lactose make
crystalline lactose or one of several lactose sources (dried whey, deproteinized whey,
whey permeate, etc.) an excellent carbohydrate source for young pigs. As long as the
diet contains a basal level of lactose, several other carbohydrate sources can be used
for the remainder of the diet with acceptable performance. When using a cereal grain as
a main carbohydrate source (corn, sorghum, wheat, barley, or oat products), finely
grinding these ingredients (650 to 750 microns) is important to improve digestibility and
pellet quality. An important point in formulating diets for very young pigs (< 10 days) is
their limited ability to digest sucrose at birth. Thus, sugar should not be used in diets for
pigs less than 10 days of age.
The low feed intake of young pigs often leads nutritionists to feed high levels of
fat to increase the energy density of the diet. Unfortunately, fat utilization is limited in the
pig before approximately 35 days of age. Poor utilization of dietary fat is not well
understood and may be due to a combination of factors including low digestibility during
the initial period after weaning and limited ability to catabolize fat from body stores.
However, added dietary fat is extremely important from a feed manufacturing standpoint
because it helps lubricate the pellet mill die, and, thus, improves pellet quality of starter
diets that contain high levels of milk products. The bottom line is that fat utilization
increases with age, and fat should be used strategically in the first diets after weaning
as an aid in pelleting rather than as a main energy source. As enzyme systems mature
within the body and fat metabolism improves, fat can serve as an increasingly important
energy source.
What type of phase feeding program is recommended for nursery pigs?
We recommend matching the phase feeding program to the weight of pigs at
weaning for your operation (Table 1). Most swine operations would use a four-phase
program for nursery pigs. However as pigs become heavier or older at weaning, the
amount of the most complex diets fed after weaning can be reduced. In some cases
with exceptionally heavy pigs at weaning (> 15 lb) or perhaps for the very heaviest pigs
within the weaning group, the Transition and/or SEW diet could be eliminated from the
feeding program. Adhering to the expected feed usage guidelines will help minimize
overfeeding of expensive starter diets. If wean-to-finish facilities are used because of
the potential greater use of floor feeding and feed wastage, these feed allowances may
need to be increased slightly.
By phase feeding, we can match the baby pig’s nutrient requirements and
digestive capabilities with the most economical diet possible, yet get maximum
performance in the nursery. Although the SEW and Transition diets are extremely
expensive, the low amount of feed used and excellent feed efficiency make the cost of
these diets justifiable. Phase feeding of the SEW and Transition diets are often done on
an individual pen basis while Phase 2 and 3 are budgeted to the average weight of the
entire group.
Suggested diets for the phase feeding program are listed in Tables 4, 5, and 6.
Detailed specifications for these diets can be found at [Link].

What lysine level should be used in each diet?

Research has demonstrated that the amino acid requirements for segregated
early weaning (SEW) pigs of modern genotypes are higher than previous expectations.
True ileal digestible (TID) lysine recommendations in Table 2 have been developed
from several experiments.

What about other amino acids?

Other amino acids also must be maintained in the proper ratio to lysine to
achieve optimal performance. For example, research at Kansas State University has
shown that the correct methionine:lysine ratio is as important as the total lysine level in
the diet.

What are the key ingredients in each diet?

SEW diet (weaning to 11 pounds). The high amino acid fortification of the SEW
diet necessitates multiple protein sources to meet the young pig’s nutritional needs.
Several of the following protein sources often are used in combination in the SEW diet
to meet the amino acid requirements and to stimulate feed intake: spray-dried animal
plasma, fish meal, dried whey, whey protein concentrate, spray-dried blood meal,
soybean meal, and further processed soy products.
Although spray-dried animal plasma is expensive, it is necessary to stimulate
maximal feed intake in the period immediately after weaning. Most studies show a linear
response in daily gain with increasing animal plasma, thus, most nutritionists include 4
to 7 percent animal plasma in the SEW diet, depending on the other protein source
combinations included in the diet.
Spray-dried blood meal and spray-dried blood cells have very high lysine
content (7.5 to 8.5 percent) and, thus, can be used in the SEW diet in small quantities
as a concentrated amino acid source. However, spray-dried blood meal, blood cells,
and animal plasma are relatively low in the amino acids methionine and isoleucine. Due
to these deficiencies, it is critical that synthetic methionine is added to the SEW diet for
optimal performance. Because, at this time, synthetic isoleucine is not economically
available, the isoleucine:lysine ratio limits the amount of blood meal that can be added
to the diet.
A high quality fish meal or whey protein concentrate often is used as an
additional protein source to encourage feed intake and achieve the correct amino acid
levels. Dried skim milk is still being used in this diet in some instances.
However, research has indicated that the skim milk can be replaced with much
lower cost protein sources without sacrificing performance. In fact, some trials have
found improved feed intake when removing skim milk from the diet.
The source and level of soy protein in diets for early weaned pigs has been a
controversial subject among swine nutritionists. Some nutritionists believe soybean
meal should not be included in the first diet after weaning to prevent an allergic reaction
to the unprocessed soy protein. These nutritionists typically will use a further refined soy
protein such as soy protein concentrate, isolated soy protein or extruded soy protein
concentrate to replace the soybean meal portion of the diet. If a refined soy product is
used in the diet, several research trials have demonstrated an advantage to the moist
extruded soy products compared to soy products that have not been moist extruded.
Other nutritionists take a different approach. They believe that exposing the
young pig to increasing levels of soybean meal in each nursery diet will allow them to
overcome the hypersensitivity to soy protein more quickly without causing a long-term
reduction in pig performance. In the SEW diet, the levels of soybean meal should not
exceed 12% of the diet. The second approach also is substantially less expensive than
the first.
The appropriate level and source of soy protein for the SEW pig is not well
researched. We choose to recommend approximately 12% soybean meal in the SEW
diet as a means of acclimating the young pig to soy protein. We also believe that early
exposure to soy protein may be more beneficial than negative. Pigs are born with an
immature immune system. Over the first few weeks of life, the immune system is
acclimatized to distinguish between native and foreign proteins. If exposed to foreign
proteins, such as soy protein, at a very young age, the immune system will recognize
them as native. The early exposure allows us to include soybean meal at higher levels
in subsequent diets without reducing growth performance.
Research shows that there is a linear increase in daily gain with increasing
lactose concentrations in the diet. The SEW diet should contain 23 to 25 percent
lactose. High levels of lactose are beneficial; however, care must be taken during
processing as high levels of milk products increase the difficulty of pelleting the diet. A
high quality, edible-grade dried whey is the most common source of lactose. Dried whey
contains approximately 70 percent lactose. Research has shown that high quality whey
permeate (80 percent lactose) or crystalline lactose (100 percent lactose) can replace
the lactose in the diet provided by dried whey. These other lactose sources become
increasingly important due to their lower cost relative to edible-grade dried whey. When
replacing dried whey in the diet, care must be taken to determine the replacement of
amino acids provided by whey as well as the lactose. The protein in whey is a high
quality protein that must be replaced with another high quality protein source.
The appropriate source of the remainder of the carbohydrate source is another
area of controversy. The controversy concerning carbohydrates is whether corn or
further processed grains like roasted corn or oat products should serve as the main
grain source. Finely ground oat products (oat groats, oat flour) can improve stool
consistency and pig appearance. The appearance of the pigs when feeding oat
products is often misleading because producers assume the pigs are doing “better”.
However, research indicates there are no differences in pig performance when
comparing oat flour to corn ground to 600 microns. Oat products are often two to three
times the cost of corn. Thus, we recommend corn as the main grain source in the SEW
diet. Wheat, milo, or other grains also can serve as the main grain source in the SEW
diet.
The appropriate fat level in the SEW diet depends on the level of milk products
in the diet and the skill of the pellet mill operator. As mentioned above, diets containing
high levels of milk products are difficult to pellet. If the diet did not contain any added fat,
the friction in the pellet die can become too great and denature the protein in the milk
products. Typically, 5 or 6 percent added fat is sufficient to lubricate the pellet die. A
high quality fat source, such as choice white grease, soybean oil or corn oil, should
serve as the main fat source. Choice white grease is the most economical of these fat
sources. Coconut oil is another excellent fat source for the young pig, but is simply too
expensive to use in the diet. Tallow, restaurant greases, and poor quality yellow grease
should not be used in the diet for early weaned pigs.
Growth-promoting levels of antibiotics are normally included in the SEW diet.
Growth promoting levels of zinc (zinc oxide at 3,000 ppm) are often added to the SEW
diet. When zinc oxide is used for growth promotion, high levels of copper sulfate should
not be used in the diet. Sources of zinc, other than zinc oxide or zinc sulfate do not
appear to offer the same increase in daily gain as these two sources.
Studies have observed improvements in growth performance when an organic
acid is added to the SEW diet. Organic acids are thought to complement normal acid
secretion in the pig’s stomach and therefore aid in digestion. Some of the relatively low
inclusion (0.20%) acid products may be more economical than those requiring higher
inclusion rates (0.5 to 1.5%).
Transition Diet (11 to 15 pounds). The transition diet is a natural extension of
the SEW diet and contains many of the same ingredients. However, the complexity of
the diet is decreased because pigs are already consuming feed and do not need high
levels of the complex ingredients to stimulate feed intake.
The main difference between a SEW diet and the transition diet is the level of
spray-dried plasma. Plasma is added to the diet primarily to increase feed intake.
Because pigs receiving the SEW diet are adjusted to feed, the transition diet contains
only 2 to 3 percent spray-dried animal plasma compared to 4 to 7 percent in a SEW
diet.
Spray-dried blood meal or a high quality fish meal source also may serve as
major protein sources. Because the pigs were acclimated to soybean meal while being
fed the SEW diet, the transition diet can contain higher levels of soybean meal (up to 20
percent) without risk of hypersensitivity.
The lactose level in the transition diet also is decreased compared to the SEW
diet. However, it is still critical that the transition diet contain at least 18 percent lactose
for optimal pig performance. A high quality fat source (3 to 5 percent) is added to the
transition diet for the same reason as the SEW diet (improved pellet quality). As in the
SEW diet, antibiotics, an organic acid, and zinc oxide should be maintained in the
transition diet for growth promotion.
Phase 2 (15 to 25 pounds). By the time the pigs weigh 15 pounds, they
already will have consumed 2 to 8 pounds of feed depending on weaning weight.
Feeding behavior is established and, thus, lower cost, less complex diets can be fed.
The phase 2 diet is corn-soybean meal-based with dried whey (or other source of
lactose) and spray-dried blood meal or fish meal serving as the only specialty
ingredients. It is crucial that high levels of amino acids are maintained in this diet to
allow the pig to achieve its genetic potential for lean growth. With the decrease in cost
of crystalline threonine, we are now able to use up to 6 lb/ton L-lysine HCl in
combination with added methionine and threonine to maintain a high amino acid
concentration while maintaining soybean meal levels between 26 and 28 percent.
Several options for the phase 2. These different options are provided to accommodate
the different specialty ingredients and lactose sources available. As individual ingredient
prices change, alterations to these diets must be considered. Other diet examples can
be found at: [Link]. For example, removing the lactose from the phase 2
diet and replacing it with an alternative ingredient or simply with corn may reduce
growth rate, but be more profitable when the price of lactose is very high. A phase 2
supplement option can also be found at: [Link] for producers who would
prefer to not use the individual ingredients, such as a lactose source, blood meal, fish
meal, or zinc oxide in the feed mill.
Many producers make this diet on their farm and feed it in a meal form. If an
economical fat source, such as choice white grease, is available, the diet should contain
3 to 5 percent added fat. Antibiotics and zinc oxide are used as growth promoters in the
phase 2 diet. Research indicates 2,000 ppm zinc is the optimal inclusion level. Like in
the earlier diets, when zinc oxide is used for growth promotion, high levels of copper
sulfate should not be used in the diet. Generally, the use of an organic acid in the phase
2 diet will not be economically justified.
Phase 3 (25 to 50 pounds). The phase 3 diet is a simple grain-soybean meal
diet formulated to high levels of amino acids. Again like in earlier nursery diets, up to 6
lb/ton L-lysine HCl in combination with added methionine and threonine can be used to
replace a portion of the soybean meal in the diet. The phase 3 diet is the lowest cost in
the SEW program. However, because consumption of this diet is the greatest, it usually
accounts for over 50 percent of the total feed cost from weaning to 50 pounds. Thus,
phase 3 diet cost is critical. Specialty ingredients, such as blood meal, fish meal or dried
whey, are cost prohibitive. Research also has indicated use of specialty ingredients is
unnecessary for maximal performance during this stage.
The fat level of the diet will depend on the ability of the producer or feed
company to economically purchase fat. Pigs will respond with improved average daily
gain and feed efficiency with increasing levels of fat in the phase 3 diets up to
approximately 3 percent. High levels of zinc oxide or organic acids should not be used
in the phase 3 diet; however, antibiotics can serve to improve growth promotion. Some
nutritionists may choose to use up to 250 ppm of copper from copper sulfate in this diet
for growth promotion in this diet as a replacement for zinc oxide. However there is little
data to confirm its effectiveness.

How important is ingredient quality for starter pigs?

Ingredient quality can dictate the success of a nutritional program for young
pigs. Ingredients are selected for their palatability, as well as nutrient content. Simple
lab assays for nutrients often reveal very little about the quality of specialty ingredients
for starter diets. Often ingredient suppliers have to be selected from past experience
and research trials with actual feeding data, rather than on quality specifications.
Ingredients that cause the greatest quality concern due to the number of
products and suppliers are animal protein and lactose sources. Fish meal, blood meal
and animal plasma should only be purchased from a supplier using spraydrying
technology. Select menhaden fish meal is considered to be a high quality fish meal in
the United States but other excellent fish meal sources are available. Several blood
meal (cell) sources are available; however, only a few suppliers are producing spray-
dried blood meal. Currently, all animal plasma produced in the United States is spray
dried.
Differences in quality exist between various sources of dried whey. If whey is
excessively heated, it will result in a brownish color, indicating caramelization of the
sugar (lactose). This lowers the feeding value of the product. Thus, only spraydried
whey should be used in starter diets. White color is desirable, although some good
quality whey may have a pinkish or yellowish color from carry-over of the cheese color.
A granular whey particle compared with a fine particle, absence of black specs, and an
ash concentration below 9 percent are indicative of high quality dried whey. There are
several forms of dried whey products, the most commonly used include whey permeate,
deproteinized whey, and L-lactose. Other products such as partially delactosed whey,
partially demineralized whey, and partially delactosed and partially demineralized whey
can be successfully used to replace spray-dried whey. The amount of lactose and/or
minerals removed from the dried whey will affect the actual amount of protein and ash
present. The key to substituting a lactose source for dried whey is to know the lactose
concentrations and replace on an equal lactose basis, and then choose an appropriate
protein source to replace the amino acids provided by the dried whey. Delactosed whey
is not recommended for use in baby pig diets.

Are more complex diets than a SEW diet needed for pigs weighing less than 8
pounds?
When weaning pigs at a young age, a percentage of the pigs may weigh less
than 8 pounds at weaning. The SEW diet can be used for these pigs, but extra attention
must be given to ensure pigs start eating within 48 hours after weaning (methods are
described below). Using a more complex, and more expensive, diet can reduce the
amount of management input necessary for these small pigs. The key to using a diet of
this type is to limit the usage to pigs weighing less than 8 pounds to prevent feed cost
from becoming excessive.

What about compensatory gain?

Some people believe that slower growth rate in the nursery phase as a result of
feeding simple grain-soybean meal diets will be made up for in the growing–finishing
phase by compensatory gain. This is not true. Research has shown that every
additional pound a pig weighs coming out of the nursery will result in fewer days to
market.
However, in growing–finishing pigs, if growth performance is decreased for a
short period by low nutrient intake (i.e., lysine), there may be compensatory gain when
pigs are switched to an adequate diet. Therefore, the ability for compensatory gain will
depend upon the severity and duration of a deficiency, whether it is ingredient and(or)
nutrient induced, and the age of the pig when it occurs.

Should the starter diets be pelleted?

Whether to feed the SEW and(or) the transition diet as pellet or in meal form is
a controversial area. Producers and nursery managers have definite opinions on which
they prefer. While a few studies would suggest no difference between meal and pelleted
diets, the majority of studies favor pelleting these diets. Not only does this improve pig
growth performance, it dramatically improves the flow ability characteristics of the diet.
We recommend pelleting the SEW, transition and intensive care diets. A small diameter
3/32- or 1/8-inch pellet or crumble should be used for these diets. Young pigs have
difficulty swallowing larger pellets while eating at the feeder. These pigs will take a
mouthful of feed to the resting area and allow saliva to soften it before swallowing. This
process limits feed intake and increases wastage.
However, the drawback of using small diameter pellets is that friction through
the pellet die is increased which may increase heat damage of the dietary proteins and
carbohydrates.
Another disadvantage with small diameter pellets is reduced throughput
through the mill. Therefore, it is critical to supplement fat (5 to 6 percent) to pelleted
nursery diets and have skilled operators running the pellet mill.
 If meal diets are to be used, producers must realize feed wastage will be
approximately 20 percent greater and daily gain slightly lower for pigs fed meal diets
compared to those fed pelleted or crumbled diets in our experience. Producers feeding
meal diets with large amounts of specialty ingredients also must be careful not to limit
feed intake through poor feeder management. Meal diets bridge and do not feed down
and flow out of feeders easily leading to limited feed intake flow. Several dietary
adjustments can be made to help with flow ability. These include decreasing the added
fat content and using granulated sources of blood meal, animal plasma, and whey
permeate. The phase 2 and 3 diets can be fed as a meal or pellet. Feed efficiency will
be 5 to 8 percent better with a pelleted diet than with a meal diet in these stages. A
larger pellet (5/32 or 3/16 inch) can be used for these older pigs. The decision to pellet
the phase 2 and 3 diets should be based on the expected change in feed efficiency and
the potential for a slight increase in daily gain versus feed manufacturing costs.

Should I provide creep feed before weaning?

Research has shown that little creep feed will be consumed before 3 weeks of
age. Often, more creep feed is wasted than consumed before 3 weeks of age.
Therefore in the past with weaning age typically less than 18 days, it was believed
creep feeding was unnecessary. However, with the shift to older weaning ages, creep
feeding may offer some advantages. If a producer will creep feed, it is recommended
that the feed be provided on a daily basis to keep a fresh diet in front of the baby pig. If
creep feed is used, floor feeding may aid in increasing the consumption of creep feed. It
also is recommended that the same diet used as a creep feed should be fed during the
first week after weaning. Research on the effects of creep feeding on pig growth is
needed before a definitive recommendation can be made.

Should I provide a liquid feed supplement either before and (or) after weaning?
Research has shown that providing pigs a liquid feed supplement either before
or a short period after weaning will increase average daily gain. However, these studies
also show that the extra weight gain from providing a liquid supplement is not
maintained and that by the end of the nursery phase, pigs provided a liquid supplement
will weigh the same as pigs provided no supplement. We are unaware of any
explanation for this response. Therefore, because there is no weight advantage, the
decision whether to provide a liquid supplement must be made on the potential to
reduce death loss due to starvation and fall back or cull pigs leaving the nursery. The
potential to reduce death loss in the nursery will need to offset the added cost
associated with the milk replacer, the equipment needed to distribute the milk replacer,
and the added labor costs needed to maintain the equipment. It is extremely important
that the milk replacer is kept fresh and the equipment kept clean.

Should young pigs be limit fed during the first week after weaning?
Pigs should NOT be limit fed after weaning. Feed intake is critical during this
stage. Some producers believe that pigs will adapt to dry feed faster if limit fed several
times per day. The theory is that pigs should be fed several small meals similar to when
nursing the sow. However, you simply cannot feed the pigs often enough to prevent
reductions in daily gain and pig weight out of the nursery. Pigs can be offered feed
several times per day on a feeding board, but fresh feed should always be present in
the feeder.

What type of feeder or feeding board should be used?

This answer will vary on the age of pigs at weaning, type of facility, and type of
feeder used. Pigs weaned at less than 15 days of age still exhibit feeding behavior as if
nursing the sow. All pigs try to eat at the same time, and thus, feeder space must be
available to accommodate all the pigs in the pen in the immediate postweaning period.
A properly designed, non-solid partition encourages proper social interaction and
maximal feed intake, while preventing the small pigs from laying and defecating in the
feeders or becoming trapped in the partition. With traditional dry feeders, a minimum of
6 inches per feeding space for nursery feeders and at least one feeding place for every
four pigs in the pen is recommended.
Single-stage nurseries in which pigs are kept from weaning to 70 pounds may
require up to 12 inches per feeding space. Data from the University of Illinois suggests
that in wean-to-finish barns (feeders with 12 inch openings), approximately 0.80 inches
of feeder space per pig is adequate until approximately 6 weeks after weaning, then 1.6
inches of feeder space per pig is needed.
In any situation, the feeder also should be easily adjustable and facilitate the
free flow of feed with a feed agitator that can be easily manipulated by the pigs. In our
experience, feeder adjustment has a larger impact on minimizing feed wastage than
actual design. We have observed many cases of excellent feed efficiency and growth
performance with a wide variety of different feeders. Consequently, we have also
observed a wide variation in feed wastage among nurseries in a production system with
similar feeder design throughout, depending on the operator. The belief that feeders
need to be “opened up” so as not to restrict intake is not true as long as there is an
agitator that young pigs can manipulate. Keeping feeders properly adjusted actually
improves the flow of feed as well as obviously improving feed efficiency.
Feeding boards or mats can be used to help supply adequate feeding space
during the first week after weaning. The feeder board must be made of an easily
cleaned material like plastic or rubber to prevent problems with diseases, such as
coccidiosis. If used, feeding boards must be properly managed and promptly removed
from the pen after the pigs are eating readily from the feeder (3 to 4 days after
weaning). Remember to always have feed present in the feeder, even when using
feeding boards.

What type of waterer is best for young pigs?

Either nipple or cup waterers can be used for nursery pigs. Water intake is
critical in the newly weaned pig. Thus, water availability should be carefully monitored to
ensure that all pigs have access to water. If nipple waterers are used, an unguarded
center flow water nipple works well for pigs weaned less than 16 days of age to facilitate
drinking and prevent dehydration. Guarded or “bite down” nipple waters are suitable for
pigs weaned greater than 16 days of age. Regardless of the type of nipple waterer, the
correct height adjustment is essential to ensure pigs can drink easily. Cup waterers
have been demonstrated to reduce water wastage compared with nipple waterers. In
commercial facilities it is recommended to have at least two nipple waterers per pen
(unless using wet dry feeders) and up to 10 to 15 pigs per waterer. In systems using
cup waterers, it is not uncommon to only have one cup waterer per pen.

How can we encourage feed intake to prevent “starve outs” after weaning?
Teaching feeding behavior to a small number of pigs is critical. Some pigs in an
early weaning system are developmentally younger and not as quick to learn to eat.
Even highly complex and very expensive diets will not encourage all young pigs to eat.
As we attempt to reduce cost by decreasing diet complexity, techniques to manage the
problem pigs become more important. In our experience, two strategies work well for
encouraging young pigs to start eating feed. By following either of these strategies,
producers have been able to save the 1 to 2 percent of SEW pigs that can be commonly
lost to starvation with less attentive managers. The first strategy is the use of a gruel
(diet mixed with a small amount of water) to encourage pigs to eat. However, care
should be taken so that pigs do not become used to the gruel and are not encouraged
to eat dry feed. As discussed earlier in this report, the use of liquid supplements may be
another option. However, in addition to the liquid supplement, dry feed should be in the
feeder at all times and the liquid supplement allowance reduced quickly to encourage
dry feed intake. Offering liquid supplement too long after weaning will sometimes result
in a second “weaning” similar to the transition from the sow to dry feed.
The second strategy is to individually teach pigs to eat that do not learn on their
own. The procedure is described as follows. After pigs enter the nursery, they should
have feed present for them to eat. However, pigs should be allowed time to adjust to the
surroundings, waterers, and feeders before the manager worries about intervention.
The critical time period for intervention for pigs that have not started to eat after weaning
is approximately 36 to 60 hours after weaning. Pigs that are consuming feed will begin
to have round abdomens; whereas pigs that have not begun to eat will be gaunt. Pigs
that are not consuming food after 36 to 48 hours postweaning should be identified and
marked. Each pig not consuming feed should be individually encouraged to eat by
taking a small hand full of pellets, wetting them from the nipple waterer, and gently
placing the pellets in the pig’s mouth. The moist pellets stick to the tongue of the pig,
start to dissolve and are swallowed. The next step is to carefully set the pig down near
the feeder so the pig associates the food in its mouth with the feeder. For large groups
of pigs, a syringe with the tip removed also can be used to dose individual pigs with a
gruel instead of hand feeding pellets. It is important to perform these procedures gently.
Hence, these methods rely on patience and an understanding of animal behavioral
principles. As few as 20 to 30 grams of feed will provide the energy to keep the pig from
starving.
Data from France indicates that approximately 90 percent of the pigs will have
eaten by 30 hours after weaning. Therefore the most critical time to identify and
intervene to teach pigs to eat will be 30 hours after weaning.

What should the goals be for average daily gain and feed efficiency in the
nursery?
Numerous factors will influence performance in the nursery including weight
and age of the pigs entering and leaving the nursery, disease level, nutrition program,
genetic potential, and management level. The targets in Table 8 are presented as
interference levels for high performance herds and should be targets for low
performance herds. Exit weight is incorporated in the targets for average daily gain
(ADG) because it is one of the most important factors influencing mean growth rate in
the nursery. Expected feed efficiency will vary with the weight of the pigs leaving the
nursery, energy level of the diet, and whether the diets are pelleted.
The following equation uses these factors to determine target efficiency in the
nursery:
(1 + (exit wt x .011)) x (grain factor +
((.05 – fat level) x 2) x (1– pellet factor).
The factors in the equation are: exit wt = weight exiting the nursery; grain factor
= 1 for corn and 1.02 for milo; fat level = percent fat in the diet; and pellet factor =
percentage improvement in feed efficiency due to pelleting.