Diagnostic Exam

Topic III: Properties of Electrical Materials

. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .

1. A 100 m long copper wire (with a resistivity of 4. A tungsten filament has a full-current temperature of
1:75
108 m) connects a 120 V, 30 A load. The 2000  C. The resistivity of the filament material at 20  C
maximum voltage drop is 5 V. Most nearly, what is is 5.6
108 m, and the average temperature coeffi-
the minimum cross-sectional area required for the wire? cient of resistance is 0.0045/  C. Most nearly, what is the
resistivity of the tungsten filament at 2000  C?
(A) 0.16 mm2
(A) 5.0
107 m
(B) 1.0 mm2
(B) 5.5
107 m

Electrical Mats.
Properties of
(C) 5.0 mm2
(C) 2.5
106 m
(D) 11 mm2
(D) 7.2
105 m
2. The dielectric material in the capacitor shown has a
permittivity of 24"0 (that is, the permittivity is 24 times 5. The coil shown has an inductance of 4 mH.
that of a vacuum).

200 mm I
+
80 V
25 mm
N
200 mm μr

What is most nearly the capacitance?

What would need to increase by 10 in order to increase
(A) 3.4
1010 F the inductance to 40 mH?
(B) 6.8
1010 F (A) current
(C) 3.4
107 F (B) mean flux path length
(D) 6.7
106 F (C) number of turns
(D) cross-sectional area of the iron core
3. A silicon wafer is doped with arsenic at room temper-
ature (300K). For silicon, the intrinsic band gap between
the valence and conduction is 1.12 eV. Most nearly, how 6. The diffusion of defects through a crystal is
much is the activation energy reduced by the arsenic? described by
(A) 0.049 eV (A) Boyle’s law
(B) 0.63 eV (B) Fick’s law
(C) 1.1 eV (C) Dalton’s law
(D) 1.2 eV (D) Gibbs’ rule

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 DE VIII-2 F E E L E C T R I C A L A N D C O M P U T E R R E V I E W M A N U A L

7. An op amp is integrated into an amplification circuit VCC = 15 V

as shown.
0.001 μF 2 kΩ

10 MΩ
IC
RB IB
0.001 μF
–
+ IE
vin vout +
VBB = 5 V

100 Ω
Disregarding the effects of phase change on the output
voltage, the voltage gain at an input frequency of 100 Hz
is most nearly
(A) 1.0 The collector-base current ratio is 100, the temperature
(B) 1.5 is 27  C, and the base-emitter voltage is 0.4 V. The value
of the biasing resistor, RB, that results in a small-signal
(C) 2.0 transconductance of 0.5 S at the quiescent point is most
(D) 2.5 nearly
(A) 2 k
8. An op amp circuit receives a sinusoidal signal and a (B) 5 k
steady-state DC signal as shown.
(C) 30 k
2 MΩ
(D) 40 k
250 kΩ
2 sin ωt V 10. A large-signal AC equivalent circuit of a common-
1 MΩ drain n-channel depletion MOSFET amplifier is shown.
VDC = 3 V – The output voltage is taken across the load resistor, RL.
output
+ The load resistance is 33.3 k, and the source resistance,
Rin, is 180 k.
The MOSFET in the circuit is biased into saturation at a
The voltage at the output is most nearly gate source voltage of 4.5 V and a threshold voltage of
(A) sin(!t  180  ) 0.8 V. The conductivity factor of the MOSFET is
100 A/V2.
(B) 2 sin(!t  180  )  3 V
(C) 16 sin(!t  180  )  6 V VDD
Rin = 180 kΩ D
(D) 16 sin !t + 6 V
G S
+
+
9. A small-signal equivalent circuit is used to predict vin RL = 33.3 kΩ
the active-region performance of a bipolar junction tran- vout
–
sistor connected in a common-emitter biasing configura-
tion as shown. –

For a small-signal equivalent circuit, assume the output

resistance is effectively infinite. Using small-signal
analysis, what is most nearly the voltage gain, vout/vin,
of this amplifier?
(A) 0.93
(B) 0.96
Electronics

(C) 0.99
(D) 1.0

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 DE XII-2 F E E L E C T R I C A L A N D C O M P U T E R R E V I E W M A N U A L

5. A digital circuit is shown. 7. A digital circuit is shown.

1 V
1 input 1 Q
0 W X 3
output

input

4
2
input

What are the values of V and X, respectively? This circuit performs the function of a(n)
(A) V = 0, X = 0 (A) SR flip-flop
(B) V = 0, X = 1 (B) JK flip-flop
(C) V = 1, X = 0 (C) D flip-flop
(D) V = 1, X = 1 (D) T flip-flop

8. A digital circuit is shown.

6. A digital circuit is shown.
A B C
inputs
X Y Z
Digital Systems

1 1 1

S S S
Q J 1 Q J 1 Q J 1
C C C CLK
Q K 1 Q K 1 Q K 1
output no. 1 R R R
C
1 1 1

This circuit performs the function of a(n)

(A) synchronous down-counter
(B) synchronous up-counter
(C) asynchronous down-counter
(D) asynchronous up-counter

9. The initial state of a synchronous, falling-edge-

triggered JK flip-flop is 1. J and K are binary input
S variables that take on values of 0 or 1. J starts at 1,
output no. 2 and K starts at 0. Changes in J and K are both shown
relative to the clock pulses.
This circuit performs the function of a
1
(A) 2-bit comparator J 0

(B) decoder
(C) full-adder 1
K 0
(D) full-subtractor
clock

The sequence of states of the flip-flop after the clock’s

four pulses is
(A) 1-0-1-0
(B) 0-0-0-0
(C) 0-1-0-1
(D) 1-0-1-1

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 T R I G O N O M E T R Y 5-3

Using Eq. 5.2 and Eq. 5.3, What is the approximate height of the flagpole?

Mathematics
1 pffiffiffi (A) 10 m
cos 45
¼ x=r ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 2=2
2 (B) 22 m
1 (C) 82 m
tan 45
¼ y=x ¼ ¼ 1
1 (D) 300 m

The answer is (C). Solution

The two observations lead to two triangles with a com-
5. GENERAL TRIANGLES mon leg, h.
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .

The term general triangle refers to any triangle, includ- C

ing but not limited to right triangles. Figure 5.7 shows a
general triangle. 


Figure 5.7 General Triangle
b h

B
2543 3711
c a B A D
17 m

A C Find angle
in triangle ADC.

b
37
110 þ 90
þ
¼ 180

..............................................................................................................................
¼ 52
490
Equation 5.7: Law of Sines
Find angle  in triangle BAC.
a b c 25
430 þ 90
þ ð52
490 þ Þ ¼ 180

¼ ¼ 5:7
sin A sin B sin C
 ¼ 11
280
Description
Use the law of sines on triangle BAC to find side b.
For a general triangle, the law of sines relates the sines
of the three angles A, B, and C and their opposite sides, sin 11
280 sin 25
430
a, b, and c, respectively. ¼
17 m b
b ¼ 37:11 m
Example
The vertical angle to the top of a flagpole from point A Find the flagpole height, h, using triangle ADC.
on the ground is observed to be 37
110 . The observer
h
walks 17 m directly away from the flagpole from point A sin 37
110 ¼
to point B and finds the new angle to be 25
430 . b
h ¼ b sin 37
110
C ¼ ð37:11 mÞsin 37
110
¼ 22:43 m ð22 mÞ
The answer is (B).

..............................................................................................................................
Equation 5.8 Through Eq. 5.10: Law of
2543 3711 Cosines

B A D
a2 ¼ b2 þ c2  2bc cos A 5:8
17 m
b2 ¼ a 2 þ c2  2ac cos B 5:9
c2 ¼ a 2 þ b2  2ab cos C 5:10

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 D I F F E R E N T I A L E Q U A T I O N S 8-3
..............................................................................................................................
Equation 8.9 Through Eq. 8.14: Roots of the From Eq. 8.9,
Characteristic Equation

Mathematics
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
a 2  4b a ±
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi r 1;2 ¼
2
a ± a2  4b qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r 1;2 ¼ 8:9
2 ð8Þ ± 2 ð8Þ2  ð4Þð16Þ
¼
2
y ¼ C 1 er 1 x þ C 2 er 2 x 8:10
¼ 4; 4

y ¼ ðC 1 þ C 2 xÞer 1 x 8:11 Because a2 = 4b, the characteristic equation has double

roots. With r = 4, the solution takes the form
y ¼ ex ðC 1 cos x þ C 2 sin xÞ 8:12
y ¼ ðC 1 þ C 2 xÞerx

 ¼ a=2 8:13
¼ ðC 1 þ C 2 xÞe4x

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi The answer is (B).

4b  a2
¼ 8:14
2
3. LINEAR NONHOMOGENEOUS
Description DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH
CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
The roots of the characteristic equation are given by the
quadratic equation, Eq. 8.9. In a nonhomogeneous differential equation, the sum of
derivative terms is equal to a nonzero forcing function of
If a2 4 4b, then the two roots are real and different, and the independent variable (i.e., f (x) in Eq. 8.1 is non-
the solution is overdamped, as shown in Eq. 8.10. zero). In order to solve a nonhomogeneous equation, it is
If a2 = 4b, then the two roots are real and the same (i.e., often necessary to solve the homogeneous equation first.
are double roots), and the solution is critically damped, The homogeneous equation corresponding to a nonho-
as shown in Eq. 8.11. mogeneous equation is known as the reduced equation or
complementary equation.
If a2 5 4b, then the two roots are imaginary and of the
..............................................................................................................................
form ( + i) and (  i), and the solution is under-
damped, as shown in Eq. 8.12. Equation 8.15: Complete Solution to
Nonhomogeneous Differential Equation
Example
yðxÞ ¼ y h ðxÞ þ y p ðxÞ 8:15
What is the general solution to the following homoge-
neous differential equation?
Description
The complete solution to the nonhomogeneous differen-
y 00  8y 0 þ 16y ¼ 0 tial equation is shown in Eq. 8.15. The term yh(x) is the
complementary solution, which solves the complemen-
(A) y ¼ C 1 e4x tary (i.e., homogeneous) case. The particular solution,
(B) y ¼ ðC 1 þ C 2 xÞe4x yp(x), is any specific solution to the nonhomogeneous
Eq. 8.1 that is known or can be found. Initial values are
(C) y ¼ C 1 e4x þ C 2 e4x used to evaluate any unknown coefficients in the com-
(D) y ¼ C 1 e2x þ C 2 e4x plementary solution after yh(x) and yp(x) have been
combined. The particular solution will not have any
unknown coefficients.
Solution
..............................................................................................................................
Find the roots of the characteristic equation.
Table 8.1: Method of Undetermined
Coefficients
r 2  8r þ 16 ¼ 0
a ¼ 8 Table 8.1 Method of Undetermined Coefficients

b ¼ 16 form of f (x) form of yp(x)

A B
Aex Bex ; a 6¼ r n
A1 sin !x þ A2 cos !x B 1 sin !x þ B 2 cos !x

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Description The time constant, , is the amount of time a homoge-

neous system (i.e., one with a zero forcing function, x(t))
Mathematics

Two methods are available for finding a particular solu-

would take to reach ðe  1Þ=e, or approximately 63.2%
tion. The method of undetermined coefficients, as pre-
of its final value. This could also be described as the
sented here, can be used only when f (x) in Eq. 8.1 takes
time required to grow to within 36.8% of the final value
on one of the forms given in Table 8.1. f ðxÞ is known as
or as the time to decay to 36.8% of the initial value. The
the forcing function.
system gain, K, or amplification ratio is a scalar con-
The particular solution can be read from Table 8.1 if the stant that gives the ratio of the output response to the
forcing function is one of the forms given. Of course, the input response at steady state.
coefficients Ai and Bi are not known—these are the
undetermined coefficients. The exponent s is the small- Equation 8.16 describes a step function, a special case of
est non-negative number (and will be zero, one, or two, a generic forcing function. The forcing function is some
etc.), which ensures that no term in the particular solu- value, typically zero ðA ¼ 0Þ until t ¼ 0, at which time
tion is also a solution to the complementary equation. the forcing function immediately jumps to a constant
s must be determined prior to proceeding with the solu- value. Equation 8.19 gives the step response, the solu-
tion procedure. tion to Eq. 8.16.
Example
Once yp(x) (including s) is known, it is differentiated to
obtain dyp(x)/dx, d2yp(x)/dx2, and all subsequent deriv- A spring-mass-dashpot system starting from a motion-
atives. All of these derivatives are substituted into the less state is acted upon by a step function. The response
original nonhomogeneous equation. The resulting equa- is described by the differential equation in which time, t,
tion is rearranged to match the forcing function, f (x), is given in seconds measured from the application of the
and the unknown coefficients are determined, usually by ramp function.
solving simultaneous equations. dy
þ 2y ¼ 2uð0Þ ½yð0Þ ¼ 0
The presence of an exponential of the form erx in the dt
solution indicates that resonance is present to some
extent. How long will it take for the system to reach 63% of its
final value?
.............................................................................................................................. (A) 0.25 s
Equation 8.16 Through Eq. 8.20: First-Order (B) 0.50 s
Linear Nonhomogeneous Differential
Equations with Constant Coefficients, with (C) 1.0 s
Step Input (D) 2.0 s
Solution
dy
 þ y ¼ K xðtÞ 8:16
dt ( ) To fit this problem into the format used by Eq. 8.16, the
A t<0 coefficient of y must be 1. Dividing by 2,
xðtÞ ¼ 8:17
B t>0 dy
0:5 þ y ¼ tuð0Þ
yð0Þ ¼ K A 8:18
dt
    ¼ 0:50 s
t
yðtÞ ¼ K A þ ðK B  K AÞ 1  exp 8:19
 
The answer is (B).

t KB  KA
¼ ln 8:20
 KB  y

Variation
dyðtÞ
b1 þ b0 yðtÞ ¼ uðtÞ ½uðtÞ ¼ unit step function
dt
Description
As the variation equation for Eq. 8.16 implies, a first-
order, linear, nonhomogeneous differential equation
with constant coefficients is an extension of Eq. 8.1.
Equation 8.16 builds on the differential equation of
Eq. 8.1 in the context of a specific control system sce-
nario. It also changes the independent variable from x to
t and changes the notation for the forcing function used
in Eq. 8.1.

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 T R A N S F O R M S A N D C O N V O L U T I O N T H E O R Y 9-3

Description Description

Mathematics
Every mathematical function, f (t), has a Laplace trans- Table 9.4 gives common Laplace transforms.
form, written as F(s) or L(s). The transform is written
in the s-domain, regardless of the independent variable Example
in the original function. The variable s is equivalent to a What is the Laplace transform of the step function f (t)?
derivative operator, although it may be handled in the
equations as a simple variable. Equation 9.7 converts a f ðtÞ ¼ uðt  1Þ þ uðt  2Þ
function into a Laplace transform. 1 2
(A) þ
Generally, it is unnecessary to actually obtain a func- s s
s 2s
tion’s Laplace transform by use of Eq. 9.7. Tables of (B) e þ e
these transforms are readily available (see Table 9.4). s
2s
Example (C) 1 þ e
s
What is the Laplace transform of f ðtÞ ¼ e6t ? s 2s
e e
1 (D) þ
(A) s s
sþ6
1 Solution
(B)
s6 The notations u(t1) and u(t2) mean that a unit step
(C) e 6 + s input (a step of height 1) is applied at t ¼ 1, and
another unit step is applied at t ¼ 2. (This function
(D) e6 + s could be used to describe the terrain that a tracked
robot would have to navigate to go up a flight of two
Solution stairs in a particular interval.) Table 9.4 contains
The Laplace transform of a function, F(s), can be calcu- Laplace transforms for various input functions, includ-
lated from the definition of a transform. ing steps. For steps at t ¼ 0, the Laplace transform is
Z 1 1
1/s. However, in this example, the steps are encountered
eðsþ6Þt  1 at t ¼ 1 and t ¼ 2. Superposition can be used to calcu-
Fðe6t Þ ¼ eðsþ6Þt dt ¼  ¼ 0  
0 s þ 6 0 sþ6 late the Laplace transform of the summation as the sum
of the two transforms. Use the last entry in Table 9.4,
1 with f ðt  Þ ¼ 1.
¼
sþ6
(This problem could have been solved more quickly by       es e2s
F s ¼ F uðt  1Þ þ F uðt  2Þ ¼ þ
using a Laplace transform pair table, such as Table 9.4.) s s
s 2s
The answer is (A). e þe
¼
s
..............................................................................................................................
Table 9.4: Laplace Transform Pairs The answer is (B).
..............................................................................................................................
Table 9.4 Laplace Transforms
Equation 9.8: Inverse Laplace Transform
f ðtÞ FðsÞ
Z þj1
ðtÞ; impulse at t ¼ 0 1 1
f ðtÞ ¼ FðsÞest dt 9:8
uðtÞ; step at t ¼ 0 1=s 2pj j1
t½uðtÞ; ramp at t ¼ 0 1=s2
et 1=ðs þ Þ Description
t
te 1=ðs þ  Þ 2 Extracting a function from its transform is the inverse
e t
sin t =½ðs þ Þ þ   2 2 Laplace transform operation. Although Eq. 9.8 could be
h i used and other methods exist, this operation is almost
et cos t ðs þ Þ= ðs þ Þ2 þ  2 always done using a table, such as Table 9.4.
n1 ..............................................................................................................................
d n f ðtÞ d m f ð0Þ
sn FðsÞ  å sn  m  1 dt m Equation 9.9: Initial Value Theorem
dt n m¼0
Z t
f ðÞd ð1=sÞFðsÞ limit sFðsÞ
0 s!1
9:9
Z t
xðt  ÞhðtÞd H ðsÞXðsÞ Description
0
s
f ðt  Þuðt  Þ e FðsÞ Equation 9.9 shows the initial value theorem (IVT).

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 P R O P E R T I E S O F M A T E R I A L S 15-21

Table 15.13 Additional Endurance Limit Modifying Factors loading, such as chains, crane hooks, railroad couplings,
temperature factor, kd 1 [T ≤ 450  C] and so on, should be tough. One measure of a material’s
miscellaneous effects 1, unless otherwise toughness is the modulus of toughness, which is the strain
factor, ke specified energy or work per unit volume required to cause frac-
ture. This is the total area under the stress-strain curve.
Another measure is the notch toughness, which is evalu-
ated by measuring the impact energy that causes a
Example notched sample to fail. At 21 C, the energy required to
A 25 mm diameter machined bar is exposed to a fluctu- cause failure ranges from 60 J for carbon steels to
ating bending load in a 200  C environment. The bar is approximately 150 J for chromium-manganese steels.
made from ASTM A36 steel, which has a yield strength
of 250 MPa, an ultimate tensile strength of 400 MPa, 18. CHARPY TEST
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
and a density of 7.8 g/cm3. The endurance limit is
determined to be 200 MPa. What is most nearly the In the Charpy test (Charpy V-notch test), which is pop-
fatigue strength of the steel? ular in the United States, a standardized beam specimen
is given a 45  notch. The specimen is then centered on
(A) 95 MPa

Electrical Mats.
Properties of
simple supports with the notch down. (See Fig. 15.16.)
(B) 130 MPa A falling pendulum striker hits the center of the speci-
(C) 160 MPa men. This test is performed several times with different
heights and different specimens until a sample fractures.
(D) 200 MPa

Figure 15.16 Charpy Test

Solution
Determine the endurance limit modifying factors.
From Table 15.10, since the surface is machined, a =
4.51 MPa, and b = 0.265. From Eq. 15.40, the surface
factor is

k a ¼ aS but ¼ ð4:51 MPaÞð400 MPaÞ0:265

¼ 0:9218

Since the diameter is between 8 mm and 250 mm, the

size factor is calculated from Eq. 15.41.

0:097
k b ¼ 1:189d eff The kinetic energy expended at impact, equal to the
initial potential energy, is calculated from the height.
¼ ð1:189Þð25 mmÞ0:097 It is designated CV and is expressed in joules (J). The
¼ 0:8701 energy required to cause failure is a measure of tough-
ness. Without a notch, the specimen would experience
From Table 15.12, kc = 1 for bending stress. From uniaxial stress (tension and compression) at impact.
Table 15.13, the temperature is less than 450  C, so The notch allows triaxial stresses to develop. Most
kd = 1. ke = 1 since it was not specified otherwise. materials become more brittle under triaxial stresses
than under uniaxial stresses.
Using Eq. 15.39, the approximate fatigue strength is

19. DUCTILE-BRITTLE TRANSITION

S e ¼ k a k b k c k d k e S 0e . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .

¼ ð0:9218Þð0:8701Þð1Þð1Þð1Þð200 MPaÞ As temperature is reduced, the toughness of a material

decreases. In BCC metals, such as steel, at a low enough
¼ 160:4 MPa ð160 MPaÞ temperature the toughness will decrease sharply. The
transition from high-energy ductile failures to low-energy
The answer is (C). brittle failures begins at the fracture transition plastic
(FTP) temperature.

17. TOUGHNESS Since the transition occurs over a wide temperature

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .
range, the transition temperature (also known as the
Toughness is a measure of a material’s ability to yield and ductility transition temperature) is taken as the temper-
absorb highly localized and rapidly applied stress. A ature at which an impact of 20 J will cause failure. (See
tough material will be able to withstand occasional high Table 15.14.) This occurs at approximately 1  C for
stresses without fracturing. Products subjected to sudden low-carbon steel.

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ultimate strengths, creep strength, and semiconductor diffusion coefficient, which would occur at an infinite
properties. Most imperfections can be categorized into temperature.8 The exponent Q=ðRT Þ in Eq. 16.7 must
point, line, and planar (grain boundary) imperfections. be unitless.
As shown in Fig. 16.3, point defects include vacant
lattice sites, ion vacancies, substitutions of foreign Example
atoms into lattice points or interstitial points, and occu- The activation energy, Q, for aluminum in a copper
pation of interstitial points by atoms. Line defects con- solvent at 575  C is 1.6
105 kJ/kmol. What is most
sist of imperfections that are repeated consistently in nearly the diffusion coefficient, D, if the proportionality
many adjacent cells and have extension in a particular constant, Do, is 7
106 m2/s?
direction. Grain boundary defects are the interfaces
between two or more crystals. This interface is almost (A) 4.0
1047 m2/s
always a mismatch in crystalline structures. (B) 2.0
1020 m2/s
(C) 9.8
1016 m2/s
Figure 16.3 Point Defects (D) 2.3
105 m2/s
Electrical Mats.
Properties of

substitutional Solution
impurity atom
The absolute temperature is
interstitial
impurity atom
T ¼ 575 C þ 273 ¼ 848K

vacancy To use Eq. 16.7, the units in the exponent must cancel.
Since the universal gas constant, R, is given in units of
self-interstitial atom
joules per kmol, the activation energy, Q, must also
Frenkel defect have those units.
  
kJ J
Q ¼ 1:6
105 1000
kmol kJ
All point defects can move individually and indepen- ¼ 1:6
108 J=kmol
dently from one position to another through diffusion.
The activation energy for such diffusion generally comes The diffusion coefficient is
from heat and/or strain (i.e., bending or forming). In
the absence of the activation energy, the defect will D ¼ D o eQ=ðRT Þ
move very slowly, if at all.  
2
6 m
¼ 7
10
Diffusion of defects is governed by Fick’s laws. s

eð1:6
10 J=kmol=ð8314 J=kmolKÞð848KÞÞ
8

..............................................................................................................................
Equation 16.7: Diffusion Coefficient ¼ 9:753
1016 m2 =s ð9:8
1016 m2 =sÞ

The answer is (C).

D ¼ D o eQ=ðRT Þ 16:7

Values

R ¼ 8:314 J=kmolK

Description
7
(1) The NCEES Handbook is inconsistent in the variable it uses for
Equation 16.7 is used to determine the diffusion coeffi- the universal gas constant. R in Eq. 16.7 is the same as R defined in its
cient, D (also known as the diffusivity), expressed in units Units section and used almost everywhere in the NCEES Handbook.
of square meters per second. The diffusion coefficient is (2) There is no mathematical significance to the parentheses around
the denominator of the exponent in Eq. 16.7.
dependent on the material, activation energy, and tem- 8
(1) The NCEES Handbook uses a subscript letter o for the propor-
perature. It is calculated from the proportionality con- tionality constant, which should be interpreted as the subscript zero,
stant, Do, the activation energy, Q, the universal gas 0, normally used in references. (2) The NCEES Handbook is inconsis-
constant, R, and the absolute temperature, T.7 Since tent in the symbols used for activation energy. Q in Eq. 16.7 is the
same as Eg  Ed and Ea in Table 16.2. A common symbol used in
eQ=ðRT Þ is a number less than 1.0, the proportionality practice for diffusion activation energy is Qd, where the subscript
constant is actually the maximum possible value of the clarifies that the activation energy is for diffusion.

P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m
 E N E R G Y , W O R K , A N D P O W E R 18-7

Example Variations
A 60 000 kg railcar moving at 1 km/h is coupled to a
second, stationary railcar. If the velocity of the two cars
W
after coupling is 0.2 m/s (in the original direction of P¼
motion) and the coupling is completed in 0.5 s, what is Dt
most nearly the average impulsive force on the railcar?
(A) 520 N P ¼ Fv ½linear systems
(B) 990 N
(C) 3100 N
P ¼ T! ½rotational systems
(D) 9300 N

Solution P ¼ mDu
_
The original velocity of the 60 000 kg railcar is
  
km m P ¼ mDp
_
1000 1
v ¼  h  km 
s min
60 60 Description
min h
¼ 0:2777 m=s Power is the amount of work done per unit time. The
watt (equivalent to a joule per second) is the unit of
Use the impulse-momentum principle. power in the SI system, while horsepower is a customary

Engineering
U.S. unit. Table 18.1 can be used to convert units of

Sciences
FDt ¼ mDv power. A measure of instantaneous power can be calcu-
  lated from Eq. 18.24. An average power will be calcu-
m m
mðv2  v1 Þ ð60 000 kgÞ 0:2  0:2777 lated when the measurement period is finite, as in the
F¼ ¼ s s
t2  t1 0:5 s  0 s first variation equation.
¼ 9324 N ð9300 NÞ ½opposite original direction
For a body acted upon by a force or torque, the instan-
The answer is (D). taneous power can be calculated from the instanta-
neous force (or torque) on the body multiplied by the
instantaneous velocity of the body. This is shown in the
.............................................................................................................................. variation equations, one of which is also expressed in
Equation 18.23: Impulse-Momentum vector form in Eq. 18.24 for linear systems. Power is a
Principle for a System of Particles scalar quantity, as is any dot product of two vectors. In
most cases, power can be calculated simply by multi-
plying the magnitudes of the two vectors. The power
Zt 2 required to change the specific energy or pressure of a
åmi ðvi Þt 2
¼ åm i ðvi Þt 1 þ å Fi dt 18:23 moving fluid can be calculated by two of the variation
t1
equations. The mass flow rate, m,_ appearing in both of
these provides the time dimension, since m _ ¼ dm=dt.
Description Depending on the units chosen, a conversion factor
may be required when working with customary U.S.
åmi ðvi Þt2 and åmi ðvi Þt2 are the linear momentum at units.
time t 1 and time t 2 , respectively, for a system (i.e.,
collection) of particles. The impulse of the forces F from Table 18.1 Power Conversions*
time t 1 to time t 2 is
multiply by to obtain
t2
Z
å
4
Fi dt Btu/hr 3:968  10 horsepower
t1 Btu/hr 0.293 watts
Btu/hr 0.216 ft-lbf/sec
horsepower 745.7 watts
7. POWER
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . horsepower 33,000 ft-lbf/min
horsepower 550 ft-lbf/sec
Equation 18.24: Definition of Power watts 3.413 Btu/hr
watts 1:341  103 horsepower
dU
P¼ ¼ Fv 18:24 *
dt These are the power conversions given in the NCEES Handbook.

P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m
19 Electrostatics
. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1 introduced into the field. If the field is produced by a

2. Electrostatic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1 positive charge, the force on another positive charge
placed nearby will try to separate the two charges, and
Nomenclature therefore, the lines of force will leave the first positive
d distance m charge.
E electric field intensity N/C or V/m
F force N
Figure 19.1 Electric Field Around a Positive Charge
l distance moved m
q variable charge C positive point charge
Q constant charge C
r radius m
S surface area m2
V constant voltage or V force exerted by the
potential difference electric field on a
positive test charge
W work J
+ +

Symbols
" permittivity F/m or C2/N
m2
 electric flux V
m or N/C
m2

Electromagnetics
Subscripts
encl enclosed The electric field is a vector quantity having both mag-
E electric field nitude and direction. The orientations of the field and
L line or per unit length flux lines always coincide (i.e., the direction of the elec-
S per unit area, sheet, or surface tric field vector is always tangent to the flux lines). The
V volume total electric flux generated by a point charge is propor-
tional to the charge.
1. INTRODUCTION
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .

Electric charge is a fundamental property of subatomic Q

¼
particles. The charge on an electron is negative one "
electrostatic unit (esu). The charge on a proton is posi-
tive one esu. A neutron has no charge. Charge is mea-
sured in the SI system in coulombs (C). One coulomb is ..............................................................................................................................
approximately 6.24  1018 esu; the charge of one elec- Equation 19.1 and Eq. 19.2: Forces on
tron is 1.6  1019 C. Charges
Conservation of charge is a fundamental principle or law
of physics. Electric charge can be distributed from one
F ¼ QE 19:1
place to another under the influence of an electric field,
but the algebraic sum of positive and negative charges Q1 Q2
in a system cannot change. F2 ¼ ar12 19:2
4p"r 2

2. ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .
Values

An electric field, E, with units of newtons per coulomb or Electric flux does not pass equally well through all
volts per meter (N/C, same as V/m) is generated in the materials. It cannot pass through conductive metals at
vicinity of an electric charge. The imaginary lines of force, all and is canceled to various degrees by insulating
as illustrated in Fig. 19.1, are called the electric flux, . media. The permittivity of a medium, ", determines the
The direction of the electric flux is the same as the force flux that passes through the medium. For free space or
applied by the electric field to a positive charge air, " ¼ "0 ¼ 8:85  1012 F=m = 8.85  1012 C2/N
m2.

P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m
 A L T E R N A T I N G - C U R R E N T C I R C U I T S 24-7

Solution Figure 24.6 Admittance Triangle for a Parallel RLC Circuit

Use Eq. 24.12, Ohm’s law for AC circuits.
G
I ¼ V =Z θ

1 j B
Z leg ¼ j!L þ ¼ j!L 
j!C !C Y
0
 1
rad
1000 ð50  103 HÞ
B s C
B C
¼ jB 1 C
@ 
 A For a parallel RC circuit, the magnitude of the admit-
rad
1000 ð20  106 FÞ tance can also be found from the admittance triangle
s (see Fig. 24.6).
¼0
YRC  Y RC ffRC  G þ jB C
The current source is, in effect, short-circuited through
¼ Y RC cos RC þ jY RC sin RC
the LC branch, so the current is equal to the current
generated.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
I LC ¼ 50 sinð1000tÞ A Y RC ¼ G 2 þ B 2C

The answer is (B).

B C
tan RC ¼
G
11. PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .
A GLC circuit (i.e., a parallel RLC circuit) consists of
A parallel AC circuit consists of circuit elements con- capacitors, inductors, and resistors in parallel and can
nected so that the same voltage appears simultaneously be either a lagging or leading circuit.
across all elements. The current through each element
can be found from Ohm’s law. The total circuit imped-
ance must be found as the complex sum of individual YGLC  Y GLC ffGLC  G þ jðB C  B L Þ
admittances. It is convenient to convert all known cir- ¼ Y GLC cos GLC þ jY GLC sin GLC
cuit element impedances to rectangular admittance
form. The impedance triangle for a parallel circuit is
shown in Fig. 24.5. qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Y GLC ¼ G 2 þ ðB C  B L Þ2

Figure 24.5 Impedance Triangle for Parallel RLC Circuit

BC  BL
tan GLC ¼

Circuit Analysis/
G

Linear Systems
Y
BC − BL

ϕ Example
G What is the effective sinusoidal current, I, flowing in the
circuit shown?

For a parallel RL circuit, the magnitude of the imped-

I
ance can be found from the admittance triangle,
Fig. 24.6.
240 Vrms
YRL  Y RL ffRL  G  jB L
60 Hz ∼ R 1 kΩ L 140 mH C 160 μF
¼ Y RL cos RL þ jY RL sin RL

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Y RL ¼ G 2 þ B 2L
(A) 7.0 A
(B) 10 A
B L
tan RL ¼ (C) 14 A
G
(D) 24 A

P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m
 30-8 F E E L E C T R I C A L A N D C O M P U T E R R E V I E W M A N U A L

Solution Figure 30.10 Typical BJT Characteristics

The Zener diode passes sufficient current to limit the collector base current,
voltage across it to 5 V. The maximum breakdown current, iC IB
current is IB = 0.6 A
IB = 0.5 A
P 2W IB = 0.4 A
IZ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:4 A load line
V 5V IB = 0.3 A
IB = 0.2 A
Q-point
IB = 0.1 A blocking
The remaining 12 V  5 V ¼ 7 V appears across the characteristic
resistor. The current passing through the limiting resis-
tor is also 0.4 A. The minimum resistance is collector-emitter voltage, vCE

VS  VZ 12 V  5 V
R¼ ¼ ¼ 17:5  ð18 Þ
IZ 0:4 A
AC models describe component behavior when input
signals vary; DC models predict behavior under the
The answer is (B). influence of steady-state biasing. Small-signal models
use linear equations to predict the behavior of nonlinear
components within a narrow range of input voltages;
11. TRANSISTORS large-signal models are not so limited by signal ampli-
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .
tude, but they become inaccurate at high frequencies.
A transistor is a three-terminal (two-port) device (see Large-signal models are essentially the same as DC
Fig. 30.9) constructed from three semiconductor regions models.
(i.e., having two junctions). There are two major types
of transistors: bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and Variable notation is used to distinguish small-signal
field-effect transistors (FETs). Both types can be con- (AC) and large-signal (DC) parameters. Small-signal
structed as npn or pnp devices. quantities use lowercase variables with lowercase sub-
scripts. For example, vin represents the AC input to an
audio amplifier. Uppercase variables with uppercase
Figure 30.9 Two-Port Transistor subscripts are used for large-signal (DC) variables, such
as a bias battery, VBB. Total quantities are combi-
iin iout
nations of their small-signal and large-signal compo-
transistor nents. For example, the total input voltage to an
amplifier is v IN ¼ V IN þ v in .
vin vout The AC small-signal performance of a transistor is accu-
rately described by a hybrid parameter equivalent circuit
(h-parameter equivalent circuit). (See Fig. 30.11.) h11 is
the input impedance (in ohms) with a shorted output. h21
is the forward current transfer ratio or current gain
A typical characteristic curve for a transistor operating (unitless) with a shorted output. h12 is the reverse voltage
as a current-amplifying device is shown in Fig. 30.10. ratio (unitless) with open input. h22 is the output admit-
(The shape of the blocking characteristic curve is the tance (in siemens) with open input.
same as for a forward biased junction.) The curve is
divided into various regions, each of which represents a v 1
h11 ¼
different function. For amplification, operation is nor- i 1 v 2 ¼0
mally in the linear active region (i.e., along the load line,
centered at the quiescent point). However, some digital v 1
h12 ¼
and radio frequency applications operate in other regions. v 2 i1 ¼0

i 2
12. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODELS h21 ¼
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . i 1 v 2 ¼0

Equivalent circuits (models) and parameters are used to i 1
describe the behavior of semiconductor devices. The h22 ¼
v 2 i1 ¼0
Electronics

term piecewise linear model is used when the perfor-

mance is described by different linear equations (lines)
in different regions of the curve. The specific model used
13. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
depends on the nature of the device, the circuit topol-
ogy, the operating region, the nature of the input signal, The three terminals (leads) of a bipolar junction tran-
and the signal frequency. sistor (BJT) are its base, emitter, and collector. Any of

P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m
Page 32-9
Page 33-4
Page 33-11
 33-14 F E E L E C T R I C A L A N D C O M P U T E R R E V I E W M A N U A L

A conventional block diagram can be modified to show Solution

Control Systems

the multiplicity of monitored properties in a state model,

The state equation is given by Eq. 33.33 as
as shown in Fig. 33.11. (The block I/s is a diagonal
identity matrix with elements of 1/s. This effectively is
an integration operator.) The actual physical system does _
xðtÞ ¼ AxðtÞ þ BuðtÞ
not need to be a feedback system. The form of Eq. 33.33
and Eq. 33.34 is the sole reason that a feedback diagram The output equation is given by Eq. 33.34 as
is appropriate.
yðtÞ ¼ CxðtÞ þ DuðtÞ
Figure 33.11 State Variable Diagram

U + X X Y Representing the given differentials in this format, the

I vector notation for the system is
B  s C
+
y 1 ðtÞ ¼ 3x 1
A y 2 ðtÞ ¼ 4x 1  5x_ 1 ¼ 4x 1 þ 5x 2
" # " #" # " #
x_ 1 0 1 x1 0
¼ þ uðtÞ
A state variable model permits only first-degree deriv- x_ 2 a 0 a1 x2 1
atives, so additional xi state variables are used for " # " #" # " #
higher-order terms (e.g., acceleration). y1 3 0 x1 0
¼ þ uðtÞ
System controllability exists if all of the system states y2 4 5 x2 0
can be controlled by the inputs, U. In state model " #
language, system controllability means that an arbi- 0 1
A¼
trary initial state can be steered to an arbitrary target a 0 a1
state in a finite amount of time. System observability " #
exists if the initial system states can be predicted from 0
knowing the inputs, U, and observing the outputs, Y. B¼
1
(Kalman’s theorem based on matrix rank is used to " #
determine system controllability and observability.) 3 0
C¼
4 5
Example " #
A system is governed by the following differential 0
D¼
equations. 0
x_ 2 þ a 1 x_ 1 þ a0 x 1 ¼ uðtÞ

x_ 1 ¼ x 2 Since Y = CX, the output matrix is C.

The answer is (A).

The output of the system is
y 1 ðtÞ ¼ 3x 1 ..............................................................................................................................
Equation 33.35 Through Eq. 33.37: Laplace
y 2 ðtÞ ¼ 4x 1  5x_ 1 Transform of the State Equation

The output matrix of the state-variable control system

model is sXðsÞ  xð0Þ ¼ AXðsÞ þ BUðsÞ 33:35
" #
3 0
(A) XðsÞ ¼ ðsÞxð0Þ þ ðsÞBUðsÞ 33:36
4 5
" #
a1
(B) ðsÞ ¼ ½sI  A1 33:37
a0
" #
a1 0 Description
(C)
0 a0 Equation 33.35 gives the Laplace transform of the
" # time-invariant state equation, where X(s) is given by
5 3 Eq. 33.36, and the Laplace transform of the state tran-
(D)
4 0 sition matrix is found from Eq. 33.37.

P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m
 34-2 F E E L E C T R I C A L A N D C O M P U T E R R E V I E W M A N U A L

changes the signal shape or energy, making the signal Figure 34.1 Signal Duration and Delay
less true to its intended form. Noise refers to additional
signal components that are generated by random, nat- f (t)
τ
ural effects. Examples are thermal noise generated by
the random vibration of electrons when a material is
heated, and an electromagnetic pulse created by a bolt A
of lightning. Interference refers to man-made sources
that add energy into and corrupt the signal. For
example, if two individuals transmit simultaneously
Comm./Signal

on the same frequency (known as “stepping on the threshold

Processing

other person”), a listener will receive a garbled combi- td t

nation of the two transmissions.
Information (i.e., the message) is represented in the signal
by some managed variable, usually voltage. (Without
loss of generality, voltage will be used in some of the or other higher-level message unit. Multiple levels of
subsequent descriptions.) In analog signals, voltage can message encapsulation may be used.
take on an infinite number of values within a continuous
spectrum. In digital signals, voltage can take on only two
values (1 and 0, on and off, true and false, +5 V and 0 V, 2. SIGNAL CHANNELS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .

etc.).1 Some signals can be represented by both positive

and negative voltages, while others are constrained to A communications channel is the physical medium
either positive or negative values. through which the corresponding signal is transmitted.
The channel may consist of a copper wire, a fiber optic
Voltage always has a quiet or quiescent value (usually, cable, air, water, or free space, among others. The chan-
but not always, zero), which represents the absence of nel medium determines the equipment, modulation pro-
signal. A signal is active when the voltage is recogniz- cess, and form of energy that is used to transmit the
able as nonzero. There is usually some insignificant signal. For example, transmission through air uses elec-
threshold value that the signal voltage must exceed to tromagnetic energy transmitted by antennas; transmis-
be recognized. sion through fiber optic cables uses optical energy
The length or duration of a pulse, , is the length of transmitted by lasters; transmission of sound through
time that the voltage is recognizable as nonzero.2 After the air uses pressure waves transmitted by speakers.
the initial input (disturbance) is received, the time A communications channel is directional. A channel
required for the voltage to reach a recognizable value whose transmission is limited to one direction is a sim-
is known as the rise time or response time. The time plex channel. A half-duplex channel is a channel in which
required for the voltage to peak is known as the delay the direction may be reversed. Messages can travel over
or delay time of the system, td, and is measured from the channel in two directions, but never at the same
the moment of an input or disturbance. The amplitude, time. When one person speaks over a half-duplex chan-
A, of a signal is its maximum voltage (or the maximum nel, the other person listens. A full-duplex channel allows
height or value). simultaneous message exchange in both directions. A
Figure 34.1 shows some of the signal properties for a full-duplex channel usually consists of two simplex
disturbance (e.g., deviation from the quiescent point, channels—a forward channel and a reverse channel.
and signal function), f(t).
In digital communications, the message is encoded in 3. SIGNAL DOMAINS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .

individual data bits, which may be encapsulated into Since most signals vary with time, it is natural to repre-
multibit message units. A byte, for example, consists of sent a signal as f(t), x(t), and so on. Such representa-
eight bits. Numerous bytes may be grouped into a frame tions are known as time-domain functions. By standard
convention, time-domain functions are represented by
1
Although digital signals are often described as taking on only two lowercase letters.
values, it is more appropriate to define digital signals as those that are
generated by selecting symbols from a finite set and are transmitted at A frequency-domain representation of a signal can be
a finite rate. For example, a pulse-amplitude modulated signal could found by transforming the time-domain function. The
have four levels,
3 V,
1 V, 1 V, and 3 V, representing 00, 01, 10,
and 11, with a finite pulse duration of Ts. This is a digital signal with
frequency-domain representation gives a measure of
symbols selected from a finite set of four elements being transmitted at energy content of the signal across frequency. By standard
a finite rate of 1/Ts. A similar situation exists with phase-reversal convention, frequency domain functions are represented
keying (BPSK), where there is a finite set of symbols, p(t)cos !(t) by uppercase letters. Accordingly, a frequency domain
and
p(t)cos !(t), where p(t) is a pulse of duration Ts, being trans- function may be represented as F(!), H(!), Y(!), and
mitted at a finite rate.
2
The NCEES FE Reference Handbook (NCEES Handbook) is not so on, where ! represents an angular frequency in radians
consistent in its use of the variable . In Eq. 34.4 and Eq. 34.5,  is per second. Alternatively, it may be represented as F(f ),
the signal pulse duration. In Eq. 34.12,  is the delay or time shift. H(f ), Y(f ), and so on, where f is the frequency in hertz.

P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m
 S I G N A L T H E O R Y A N D P R O C E S S I N G 34-3

4. TRANSFORMS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .
of a signal. The equivalence of a signal and its Fourier
transform can be designated as
Several common mathematical transforms are used to
analyze time functions by converting them to the fre-
quency domain. (See Fig. 34.2.) The corresponding xðtÞ $ Xðf Þ
analysis methods are referred to as frequency domain
methods. The most common transforms are: Fourier
series (used for repetitive signals and oscillating sys- Similarly, the equivalence of the time domain and fre-
tems); Laplace transforms (used for electronic circuits quency domain responses to an input signal can be

Comm./Signal
designated as

Processing
and control systems); Fourier transforms (used for non-
repetitive signals and transients); and z-transforms
(used for discrete signals and digital signal processing). hðtÞ $ H ðf Þ

Figure 34.2 Frequency Domain Methods

6. FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMS
. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
impulse
input output Many mathematical operations are needed to imple-
response
x(t ) y(t ) = h(t)x(t )
h(t ) ment a true Fourier transform. While the terms of a
(a) time domain
Fourier series might be slowly derived by integration,
a faster method is needed to analyze real-time data.
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is a computer algo-
impulse rithm implemented in spectrum analyzers (signal ana-
input output
response lyzers or FFT analyzers) and replaces integration and
X(s) Y(s ) = H(s )X(s)
H(s )
multiplication operations with table look-ups and
(b) Laplace additions.3

impulse
Since the complexity of the transform is reduced, the
input output transformation occurs more quickly, enabling efficient
response
X(jω) Y(j ω) = H(j ω)X(j ω) analysis of waveforms in real time.4
H(j ω)
(c) frequency (Fourier)
Using a spectrum analyzer requires choosing the fre-
quency band (e.g., 0–20 kHz) to be monitored. (This
impulse step automatically selects the sampling period. The
input output
response lower the frequencies sampled, the longer the sampling
X(z) Y(z ) = H(z)X(z )
H(z) period.) If they are not fixed by the analyzer, the
(d) digital (z) numbers of time-dependent input variable samples
(e.g., 1024) and frequency-dependent output variable
values (e.g., 400) are chosen.5 There are half as many
frequency lines as data points because each line con-
5. FOURIER TRANSFORMS
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . tains two pieces of information—real (amplitude) and
imaginary (phase). The resolution of the resulting fre-
Equation 34.1 and Eq. 34.2: Fourier quency analysis is
Transforms

Z þ1 frequency bandwidth
Xðf Þ ¼ xðtÞe
j2pf t dt 34:1 resolution ¼

1
no: of output variable values
Z þ1
xðtÞ ¼ Xðf Þej2pf t df 34:2

1

3
Spectrum analysis, also known as frequency analysis, signature analy-
Description sis, and time-series analysis, develops a relationship (usually graphi-
cal) between some property (e.g., amplitude or phase shift) and
A function, x(t), is converted into its Fourier transform, frequency.
X(f ), by the Fourier transform integral, Eq. 34.1. A 4
Hours and days of manual computations are compressed into
function can be extracted from its transform by per- milliseconds.
5
forming the inverse operation, Eq. 34.2. The function Two samples per time-dependent cycle (at the maximum frequency)
is the lower theoretical limit for sampling, but the practical minimum
and its transform together constitute a Fourier trans- rate is approximately 2.5 samples per cycle. This will ensure that alias
form pair. A table of Fourier transform pairs can be components (i.e., low-level frequency signals) do not show up in the
used to quickly find the transform or inverse transform frequency band of interest.

P P I * w w w . p p i 2 p a s s . c o m