Gas) Capacitors and capacitance d strength E and state its unit and state its unit @ tions involving C density D and state its unit ‘and draw the circuit diagram symbol pad onl distinguishing between ep, ¢, and © ons involving D = © ‘a parallel plate capacitor, C and state its unit types of capacitor 6.1 Introduction to capacitors A capacitor is an electrical device that is used to store electrical energy. Next to the resistor, the capacitor is the most commonly encountered component in electri~ cal circuits. Capacitors are used extensively in electrical and clectronic cicuits, For example, capacitors are used tosmooth rectified ac. outputs, they are used in telecom- munication equipment — such as radio receivers — for ‘ning to the required frequency, they are used in time delay circuits, in electrical filters, in oscillator circuits, and in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medical ‘body scanners, fo name but a few practical applications. coer £08, A(n = 1) @ involving capacitors connected in parallel and in series ray stored ina capacitors given by W = $ CV? jules needed when discharging capacitors Cee e a) Figure 6.1 represents two parallel metal plates, A and B, charged to different potentials, If an electron that has a negative charge is placed between the plates, a force Atte ttettetee tee IID igure 6.1 Blecwostaic fieldCapacitors and capacitance 53 ‘ill ct on the electron tending to push it away fom the negative plate B towards the positive plate, A, Similarly, positive charge would he acted on by a force tending to move it toward the negative plate, Any region such as that shown between the plates in Figure 6.1, in which an clecric charge experiences a force is called an elee- trostati field. The direction of the field is defined as that of the force acting on a positive charge placed in the field In Figure 6.1, the direction othe force is from the positive plate tothe negative plate Such a field may be represented in magnitude and direction by lines of electric force drawn between the charged surfaces. The closeness of the lines isan indie tion of the field strength. Whenever a p.d. is established ‘between two points, an electric field will always exist. Figure6.2(a) shows atypical field pattern fo an isolated point charge, and Figure 62(6) shows the field pattem {or adjacent charges of opposite polaiy. Electric lines of force (often called electric fux lines) are continu- ous and star and finish on point charges. Also, the lines cannot cross each other. When a charged body is placed close to an uncharged body, an induced charge of oppo- Site sign appears on the surface of the uncharged body. This is because lines of force from the charged body terminate on its surface The concept of field lines or lines of force is used to illustrate the properties of an electri feld. However, @ Figure 6.2 (a) Isolated point charge: (b) adjacent charges of | ‘opposite polarity it should be remembered that they are only aids to the imagination The force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged bodies is proportional to the mag- nitude oftheir charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them, or 40 e @ where constant k © 9x 10° in air ‘This is known as Coulomb's law. Hence the force between two charged spheres in air with their centres 16mm apart and each carrying a charge of +1.6).C is given by: (16 x 10-5? (6x10 = 90 newtons CRM crn Racal Figure 6.3 shows two parallel conducting plates sep- arated from each other by ait. They ate connected to ‘opposite terminals of a battery of voltage V volts an force =k 2B ~ (9 x 10") force KBE (9 10%) i 7 Figure 6.3 ‘There is therefore an electric field in the space between the plates. Ifthe plates are close together, the electric lines of force will be staight and parallel and equally spaced, except near the edge where fringing will occur (see Figure 6.1). Over the area in which there is negligible fringing, v Electric field strength, # = 5 voltsmetre where d isthe distance between the plates. Electric field strength is also called potential gradient. claca 54 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology Static electric fields arise from electric charges, elec ric field lines beginning and ending on electric charges. ‘Thus the presence of the field indicates the presence of | equal positive and negative electric charges on the two plates of Figure 6.3. Let the charge be +0 coulombs on one plate and — @ coulombs on the other. The property of this par of plates which determines how much charge corresponds to a given p.d. between the plates is called their capacitance: ‘tanec 2 capacitance ¢ = § ‘The unit of capacitance is the farad F (or more usually MF = 10-§F or pF = 10-!?F), which is defined as the capacitance when a p.d. of one volt appeats across the plates when charged with one coulomb. Every system of electrical conductors possesses cap: itance. For example, there is capacitance between the conductors of overhead transmission lines and also between the wires of a telephone cable. In these exam- ples the capacitance is undesirable but has to be accep- (ed, minimized or compensated for. ‘There are other situations where capacitance is a desirable property Devices specially constructed to possess eapacitance are called capacitors (or condensers, as they used to be called). In its simplest form a capacitor consists of ‘woplates which are separated by an insulating material known asa dielectric. A capacitorhas the ability to store a quantity of static electricity ‘The symbols for a fixed capacitor and a variable capacitor used in electrical circuit diagrams are shown in Figure 6.4. ‘The charge Q stored in a capacitor is given by o= where J is the current in amperes and ¢ the time in seconds. x1 coulombs — Fired capacitor oo Variable capactor Figure 64 Problem 1. (@) Determine the pd. across a4 capacitor when charged with Sm. (b) Find the charge on a SOpF capacitor when the voltage applied to itis 2kV. mC=5 x10 C @ 5x107 5x10 x10 250V o 1.25kV (6) C=S0pF=50x 10-1? F, V=2kV=2000V 5x2 - Q= cv =50x 107? <2000= 5% =01x 10-% Problem 2. A direct current of 4 A flows into a previously uncharged 20 4F capacitor for 3ms. Determine the p.d. between the plates. 1=4A; C= 20uF =20 x 10-SF; pa3ms=3 x 107s Q=n=4x3x WC 43x10 20x 10-8 Hence, the p.d. between the plates is 600.V Problem 3. A SWF capacitor is charged so that the pad, between its plates is 800 V. Calculate how Jong the capacitor ean provide an average discharge current of 2mA, x 107; V = 800V; x00, x10c = CV =5x 10-800 Q_ 4x10 T tx Hence the capacitor can provide an average discharge current of 2mA for 2s. Also, @. ‘Thus, = 2sCapacitors and capacitance 55 Now try the following exercise Exercise 16 Further problems on charge and capacitance 1. Find the charge on a 104F capacitor when the applied voltage is 250V. [25mc} 2. Determine the voltage across a 1000 pF capa- itor to charge it with 2,.C. kV] 3. The charge on the plates of a capacitor is 6mC. ‘when the potential between them is 2.4KV. Determine the capacitance of the capacitor [.5uF] 4, Forhow long must a charging current of 2A be fed to a5 uF capacitor toraise the p.d. between its plates by SOOV. (1.25ms] 5. Asteady current of 10 flows into a previously uncharged capacitor for 1.Sms when the pd. between the plates is 2kV. Find the capacitance of the capacitor. I7SuEI Se ERC ‘Unie lux is defined as emanating from a positive charge of 1 coulomb. Thus electric fx W is measured in coulombs, and for a charge of Q coulombs, the fox W=@ coulomb. Electric flux density D isthe amount of fox passing through a defined area A that is perpendicular to the direction ofthe flux: din dnsiy, = Z combat Electric ux density is aso called charge density, ‘At any point in an electric field, the electric field strength, E maintains the electric flux and produces a particular value of electric flux density D at that point, Fora field eslablished in vacuum (or for practical purposes in ait), the ratio D/E is a constant ¢9, ic where eo is called the permittivity of free space or the free space constant. The value of fy is 8.85 x 10~!?F/m, ‘When an insulating medium, such as mica, paper, plastic or ceramic, is introduced into the region of an electric field the ratio of D/E is modified D Baer where ¢,, the relative permittivity of the insulating material, indicates its insulating power compared with that of vacuum: flux density in material relative permittivity ¢, = * 98 Tax density in vacuum + has no unit. Typical values of ¢, include: air, 1.00; polythene, 2.3; mica, 3~7; glass, 5-10; water, 80; ceramies, 61000. ‘The product foe, is called the absolute permittivity, e0er ‘The insulating medium separating charged surfaces is called a dielectric, Compared with conductors, dielec- sicmaterials have very high resistivities. They are there fore used to separate conductors at different potentials, such as capacitor plates or electric power lines, Problem 4. Two parallel rectangular plates ‘measuring 20cm by 40cm carry an electric charge of 0.24C. Calculate the electric flux density. Ifthe plates ae spaced Sum apatt and the voltage ‘between them is 0.25kV determine the electric field strength, Charge 9=0.24C=0.2 x 10-6C; Area A=20cm x 40em—800cm?=800 x 10-4m? 02x10-* 02x10 Blectriclax density P= = 509 310-4 ~ 500% 108 2000 2 = 1078 = 2.5m? 800 “ Voltage V=0.25kV=250V; Plate spacing, d=Smm =5x 107m rice eld eng Y=? cov x1 Problem 5. The flux density between two plates separated by mica of relative permittivity 5 is 2uC/m?. Find the voltage gradient between the plates. claca 56 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology Flux density £9 = 8.85 x 107 Ffm; 6, = 5, 2 fof Beso, D hhence voltage gradient E = —~ 2x 10-6 B85 x Tors vm =45.2kV/im Problem 6. Two parallel plates having ap.d. of 200 between them are spaced 0.8mm apart. What is the electric field strength? Find also the flux density when the dielectric between the plates is (9) air, and (b) polythene of relative permittivity 2.3 Electric field strength E = D7 o8x10F oun (0 Reset Panny Ho dosti tx dy 2 = Et = (250 x 10° x 8.85 x 107" x 1) C/m? = 2.213 4C/m* (b)_Forpolythene, ¢- =2.3 Electric flux density D = Eeos, = (250 x 10° x 8.85 x 10-"? x 2.3) Ci? 5.0894. Chm? ‘Now try the following exercise Exe! 17. Further problems on electric field strength, electric flux density and permittivity (Where appropriate take 69 as 8.85 x 10~?F/m) 1. A capacitor uses a dielectric 0.04mm thick and operates at 30V. What is the electric field strength across the dielectric at this voltage? [750i] 2. A two-plate capacitor has a charge of 25C. If the effective area of each plate is Sem? find the clectric flux density of the electric field, [50kC/m?] 3. A charge of 1.5).C is carried on two parallel rectangular plates cach measuring 60mm by ‘80mm, Calculate the electric lux density, Ifthe plates are spaced 10mm apart and the voltage between them is 0.SKV determine the electric field strength. [312.5 uC/m2, SOkV/m} 4. The electric flux density between two plates separated by polystyrene of relative permittiv- ity 25 is 5C/m*. Find the voltage gradient between the plates. [226kV/m] 5. ‘Two parallel plates having a pd. of 250V between them are spaced 1mm apart. Deter- mine the electric field strength. Find also the electric flux density when the dielectric between the plates is (a) air and (b) mica of relative permittivity 5, [250 kV/m (a) 2.213 wC/m? (b) 11.063 .C/m*) CM oo eeker ced For a parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Figure 6.5(a), experiments show that capacitance C is proportional to the area A of a plate, inversely proportional to the plate =e Lot L__ oictecric betmoon the plate « of ralative permitivity e, © igure 65Capacitors and capacitance 37 spacing d (ie. the dielectric thickness) and depends on the nature ofthe dielectric: capacitance, c= £2 ras where ¢9 = 8.85 x 10-1? F/m (constant) ty =e pri A =area of one of the plates, in m?, and d= ickness of dielectric in m “Another method used to increase the capacitance is to interleave several plates as shown in Figure 6.5(b). ‘Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with a capacitance nine times that of one pair of plates. Ie such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance Coc(n=1). eoeA(n—1) ‘Thus capacitance C -apacit + farads Problem 7. (a) A ceramic capacitor has an clfective plate area of 4em? separated by 0.1mm. of ceramic of relative permittivity 100, Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor in picofarads. (b) If the capacitor in part (a) is given a charge of 1.2)4C what will be the p.d. between the plates? (a) Area A=dem?=4 x 10~¢m? d=0.1mm=0.1 x 10-3; 69 =8.85 x 107! Ff; = 00 £08 Capacitance C = at farads 885 x 1072 x 1004 x 1 1x10 85x45, 8.85 x4 x 102 = yon = gn = 3540pF _ 2 12x10 (b) Q=CV thus ¥= 540x107 V=339V Problem 8. A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel plates, each of effective area 800em?. Ifthe ‘capacitance of the capacitor is 4425 pF determine the effective thickness of the paper if its relative permittivity is 2.5 A-=800em? = 800 x 10-4m? = 0.08m", C= 4425 pF = 4425 x 107 = 8.85 « 10°! Fimsey = A £08 Sinoe C= 8.85 x 10712 2.5 x 0.08 Hence, d 4425 x 10-7 Hence the thickness of the paper is 0.4mm. Problem 9. A parallel plate capacitor has ‘nineteen interleaved plates each 75mm by 75mm separated by mica sheets 0.2mm thick. Assuming the relative permittivity of the mica is 5, calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. 9: — 8 A=T5 x 15 = 5625 mm? = 5625 x 1078 m? 5p =5; £9 =8.85 x 107! Ff; 4 =0.2 mm =02 x 107 m evtrA(n 1) ad 885 x 10-2 x 5 x 5625 x 10-8 18, 02x10 1.0224, F or 22.4 nF Capacitance Now tay the following exercise Exercise 18 Further problems on parallel plate capacitors (Where appropriate take ¢9 as 8.85 x 10-!2 Fim) 1. Accapacitor consists of two parallel plates each. ‘of area 0,01 m2, spaced 0.1 mmin air. Calculate the capacitance in picofarads, [885pF] 2. A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel plates, each of effective area 0.2m’. Ii the capacitance is 4000pF determine the effective thickness of the paperif ts relative permittivity is? (0.885 mm} claca 5B Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology 3. Caleulate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having 5 plates, each 30mm by 20mm and separated by a dielectric 0.75mm thick having a relative permittivity of 2.3. (65.14pF] 4, How many plates has a parallel plate capaci tor having a capacitance of Saf, if each plate is 4omm by 40mm and each dielectric is (0.102:mm thick with arelative permittivity of 6. fu} 5. A parallel plate capacitor is made from 25 plates, each 70mm by 120mm interleaved with, rica of relative permittivity 5. If the eapaci- tance of the capacitor is 3000pF determine the thickness of the mica sheet, [297mm] 6. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 1000pF. It has 19 plates, each SOmm by 30mm separated by a dielectric of thickness 0.40 mm. Determine the relative permittivity of the dielectric ten 7. A capacitor is to be constructed so that its ‘capacitance is 4250pF and to operate at a p.. (of 1OOV across its terminals. The dielectric is to be polythene (¢, =2.3) which, after allow ing a safety factor, bas a dielectric strength of 20MV/m. Find (a) the thickness of the polythene needed, and (b) the area of a plate. [(@) 0.005 mm (b) 10.44¢m?*) fer Creare tact) Pea Poo) {a) Capacitors connected in parallel Figure 6.6 shows three capacitors, C1, Cz and Cs, con- nected in parallel with a supply voltage V applied across the arrangement. ‘When the charging current J reaches point A it divides, some flowing into Ci, some flowing into C2 and some into Cy. Hence the total charge Qr(=1 x1) is divided between the three capacitors. The capacitors, ceach store a charge and these are shown as Q1, Q2 and Qs respectively. Hence Or=O1+02+0s Total charge, Q;=@; + G+ Q, Figure 6.6 But Or =CV. Q1=CiV, 2=C2V and Q3=C5V ‘Therefore CV =CiV +C2V +CaV where C isthe total equivalent circuit capacitance, je CHC4C: +Cs It follows that for n parallel-connected capacitors, CHC HC ACS H+ Cy ive, the equivalent capacitance of a group of parallet- connected capacitors is the sum of the capacitances of the individual capacitors. (Note that this formula is similar to that used for resistors connected in series.) {b) Capacitors connected in series Figure 6.7 shows three capacitors, C1, Cz and Cs, con- nected in series across a supply voltage V. Let the pad, across the individual capacitors be Vi, Va and V3 respectively as shown, Let the charge on plate ‘a’ of capacitor Cy be +0 coulombs. This induces an equal but opposite charge of —@ coulombs on plate ‘b’. The conductor between plates “b’ and ‘c" is electrically isolated from the rest of the circuit so that an equal but opposite charge of +0 coulombs must appear onplate ‘c", which, of 2 sajj-0 fs Ys Ys ‘Charge on each eapactor= @ Figure 6.7Capacitors and capacitance 59 in tum, induces an equal and opposite charge of —Q. ccoulombs on plate ‘d’, and so on, Hence when capacitors ate connected in series the charge on each isthe same Ina series cuit: V=Vi4+V2+ Va Q @_@,2 ea cm orga Ga where Cis the total equivalent cout capacitance, altaya cn Since V ie ded Tolows that form sves-conested capacitors tlaayay ya Coa Ge Cn Le forsereronneted apaitors, the reciprocal ofthe equivalent capaci equal othe sur of he ep. tele of th individual epastancs, (Note ht ts {erotic iro that ed fr nesistors connected in parallel.) For the special case of two capacitors in series: rot 12+) ca a GG ic (i, ma) Hence C= 2 (ic, 1+ 7 Problem 10. Calculate the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors of 6 uF and 4uUF connected (a) in parallel and (b) in series. (a) In parallel, equivalent capacitance C=C, +O. = uF + 4p =10nF (b) _Inseries, equivalent capacitance Cis given by: ac ata ‘This formula is used for the special case of two capacitors in series. x4 ora 10 ‘Thus =24uF Problem 11, What capacitance must be ‘connected in series with a 30 LF capacitor for the ‘equivalent capacitance to be 12 uF? Let C=12F (the equivalent capacitance), C;=30 nF and C be the unknown capacitance, Hence ce 1230 30-12 Problem 12. Capacitances of 1 KF, 3 WF, 5 WF and 6,F are connected in parallel to a direct voltage supply of 100. Determine (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the total charge and (c) the charge on each capacitor. (a) The equivalent capacitance C for four capacitors in parallel is given by: CHC HQ tees ie CH14345+6=15uF (b) Total charge Or =CV where C is the equivalent circuit capacitance ie. Or =15 x 10-$% 1001 5x10™°C=1.5 mC (©) The charge on the 1 F capacitor Oy = CV =1 x 107% x 100 mC ‘The charge on the 3 1F capacitor Q, =CxV =3 x 107% x 100 =03mC The charge on the SWF capacitor Oy = CsV =5 x 107 x 100 osme ‘The charge on the 6 AF capacitor Qs x 10-* x 100 6 omc [Check: In a parallel circuit Or=O1+02+Os+0a Q1+O2+Os+01=0.1403+05+06 r) SmC. claca {60 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology Problem 13. Capacitances of 34K, 6,F and 12,F are connected in series across a 350V supply. Calculate (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the charge on each capacitor and (c) the p.d across each capacitor. ‘The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 6 8 Cy Spr Cp OuF c= Figure 68 (a) ‘The equivalent circuit capacitance € for three capacitors in series is given by’ te Lapa 442417 cron 2 oR Hence the equivalent circuit capacitance 7 (b) Total charge Or =cV hhence 2g - Or =F x 10° x 350 = 600 oF 0.6mC Since the capacitors are connected in series 0.6 mC is the charge on each of them, (©) The voltage across the 3 1 capacitor y= 208x107 ~C,~ 3x10-* =200v The voltage across the 6 LF capacitor, _ 206x107 G oxi0* =100V ‘The voltage across the 12 WF capacitor, yn 2 = 26x10 Gs x10 =s0v [Check: In a series circuit VeVi+VatVs Vi+Va-+V3=200+100-+50=350V supply voltage.) In practice, capacitors are rarely connected in series unless they are of the same capacitance, The reason for this can be seen from the above problem where the low- est valued capacitor (i.e. 3 uF) has the highest p.d. across ite. 200V) which means that ial the capacitors have aan identical construction they must all be rated at the highest voltage Problem 14, For the arrangement shown in Figure 6.9 find (a) the equivalent capacitance of the circuit, (b) the voltage across OR, and (c) the charge ‘on each capacitor. 2uF 15yF otdber 1 Sur Lo zov Figure 6.9) (®) 2UF in parallel with 3).F gives an equivalent capacitance of 24F-+3pF=5 uF, The circuit is now as shown in Figure 6.10, WF & 240y ———< Figure 6.10 The equivalent capacitance of 5jFin series with 15 Fis given by xis 75 uF =P ur=375ur sys" = 20Capacitors and capacitance 6 ) © ‘The charge on each of the capacitors shown in Figure 6.10 will be the same since they are con- nected in series. Let this charge be @ coulomb Then = CM =CaV2 ie 5V; = 15Ve v1 =3¥2 a Also Vi4¥2=240V Hence 3V2+ V2 =240V from equation (1) ‘Thus Vs = 60V and Vj = 180V Hence the voltage across OR is 60V ‘The charge on the 151F capacitor is €2¥2=15 «10-6 x 60=0.9mC ‘The charge on the 2 UF capacitor is 2x 10S 180=0.36mC, “The charge on the 3 UF capacitor is 3x10 180=0.54mC, Now try the following exercise Exercise 19 Further problems on capacitors in parallel and ser Ss Capacitors of 2F and 6 uF are connected (2) in parallel and (b) in series. Determine the equivalent capacitance in each case. (@) SAF) 1.5 uF] Find the capacitance to be connected in series ‘with a 10 uF capacitor for the equivalent capac- itance to be 6 1K, Usney ‘Two GWE capacitors are connected in series with one having a capacitance of 12 uF. Find the total equivalent circuit capacitance. What capacitance must be added in series to obtain a capacitance of L2WF? [2.4 WF, 24 WF] Determine the equivalent capacitance when the following capacitors are connected (a) in parallel and (b) in series: @ 2HR 4uF and 8 uF Gi) 0.02 44F, 0.05 pF and 0.10 uF Gil) SOpF and 450pF Gv) 0.01,F and 200pF [(@) 6) 14 uF Gi) 0.17 wF Git) S00pF Gv) 0.0102 uF (b) G) 1.143 WF i) 0.0125 uF Git) 45 pF Gv) 196.1 pF] For the arrangement shown in Figure 6.11 find (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance and (b) the voltage across a 4.5 4F capacitor, [(@) 1.2uF (b) 100] 45uF 45 uF Gear rie... THEE I Ki save Figure 6.11, ‘Three 12uF capacitors are connected in series across a750V supply. Calculate (a) the equiva- Tent capacitance, (b) the charge on each capac itor and (@) the pa. across each capacitor. [G@) uF (b) 3mC (©) 250] If two capacitors having capacitances of 3 uF and 5\F respectively are connected in series across a 240V supply, determine (a) the p.d ‘across each capacitor and (b) the charge on each, capacitor. [(@) 150V, 90V (b) 0.45 mC on each] In Figure 6.12 capacitors P, Q and R are iden- tical and the total equivalent capacitance of the irouit is 34UF. Determine the values of P,Q snd. [4.2uF each] ager 2yF dt 4 asa 9] tt Ht 4-4 ttt Figure 612 For the eizcuit shown in Figure 6.13, determine (a) the total circuit capacitance, (b) the total claca {62 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology energy in the circuit, and (c) the charges in the capacitors shown as C and C2 [(@) 0857 pF (b) L071 mI (©) 42.85 uC on cach] p20 20F aur 2uef——AF 4 aur re awe Td strength ‘The maximum amount of field strength that a diclec~ (ric can withstand is called the dielectric strength of the material Dielectric strength, ). = 7 Problem 15. A capacitor is tobe constructed so that its capacitance is 0.2uF and to take ap.d. of L.25KV across its terminals. The dielectric is to be mica which, after allowing a safety factor of 2, has a diclectric strength of SOMV/m. Find (a) the thickness of the mica needed, and (b) the area of a plate assuming a two-plate construction. (Assume & for mica to be 6.) (a) Dielectric strength, (b) Capacitance, C hence area A= 02x 10-8 0.025 x 107? “Ssixlotxe 0.09416m? = 941.6 em? Dr cir) ‘The energy, W, stored by a capacitor is given by CV? joules: Problem 16. (a) Determine the energy stored in a 3 uF capacitor when charged to 400 V. (b) Find also the average power developed if this energy is dissipated ina time of 10s. (@)_ Energy stored W=4CV" joules = bx 3 107% 4002 3x 16x 107? 1243 Energy _ () Power = — Problem 17. A 12|4F capacitor is required to store 4J of energy. Find the p.d. to which the ‘capacitor must be charged, tiny seed = ev hens = 2 oi) Baa) =s165V Problem 18, A capacitor is charged with 10mC. Ifthe energy stored is 1.21 find (a) the voltage and (©) the capacitance Energy stored Hence = W from which v= Q=10mC = 10x 107°C and W = 1.25 (=) Vottage y= 2 = 212 24kV or 240V aCapacitors and capacitance 63 (b) Capacitance C- _ 10x 108 ~ 240x108 ALOT UF Now try the following exercise Exercise 20. Further problems on energy stored (Where appropriate take £9 as 8.85 x 10! jm) 1, When a capacitor is connected across a 200V supply the charge is 4 4C. Find (a) the capaci- tance and (b) the energy stored [(@) 0.02 KF (b) 0.4m) 2. Find the energy stored in a 10)UF capacitor when charged to 2kV. (207) 3. A 3300p F capacitor is required to store 0.5m ‘of energy. Find the p.d. to which the capacitor rust be charged, [s50V] 4, Acapacitor, consisting of twometal plates each ‘of area 50cm? and spaced 0.2mm apart ina, is ‘connected across a 120V supply. Calculate (a) the energy stored, (b) the electric flux density and (c) the potential gradient, [G) 1.593 15 (b) 5.31 wC/m? (6) 600kV/m) 5. Abakelite capacitor is tobe constructed tohave a capacitance of 0.04 1F and to have a steady ‘working potential of 1kV maximum. Allowing 1 safe value of field stress of 25 MV/m find (a) the thickness of bakelite required, (b) the area of plate required if the relative permittivity of bakeliteis 5, (6) the maximum energy stored by the capacitor and (4) the average power devel- ‘oped if this energy is dissipated in a time of 20,5. [(@) 0.04mm (b) 361.6cm* (©0025 (@) 1kW) Pen eee recog Practical types of capacitor are characterized by the _material used for their dielectric. The main ypesinclude: variable air, mica, paper, ceramic, plastic titanium oxide and electrolytic. ‘Variable air capacitors. These usually consist of two sets of metal plates (such as aluminium) one fixed, the other variable, The set of moving plates rotate on a spindle as shown by the end view of Figure 6.14, Moving plato Spindle Fed plate Figure 6.14 ‘As the moving plates are rotated though half a revolution, the meshing, and therefore the capaci- (ance, varies from a minimum (oa maximum value. Variable air capacitors are used in radio and elec- lwonic circuits where very low losses arerequited, or where a variable capacitance is needed, The maxi- ‘mum value of such capacitors is between S00pF and 1000pF. Mica capacitors. A typical older type construction is shown in Figure 6.15. Mica sheets SEEKS aaa See KE NS ‘Metal foil ‘Usually the whole capacitor is impregnated with wax and placed in a bakelite case, Mica is easily obtained in thin sheets andis a good insulator. How- ever, mica is expensive and is not used in capacitors above about 0.21F. A modified form of micacapac- itor s the silvered mica type. The mica is coated on both sides with a thin layer of silver which forms the plates. Capacitance is stable and less likely to change with age. Such capacitors have a constant capacitance with change of temperature, a high working voltage rating and a long service life and. are used in high frequency circuits with fixed values of capacitance up to about 1000pF. Paper capacitors. A typical paper capacitor is shown in Figute 6.16 where the length of the soll claca {64 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology Metal end cap for connection a meta foil Metal ‘ol Paper Figure 6.16 corresponds tothe capacitance requited. The whole 4s usually impregnated with oil or wax to exclude ‘moisture, and then placed in a plastic or aluminium, container for protection, Paper capacitors are made in various working voltages up to about 1S0kV and are used where loss is not very important ‘The maximum value of this type of capacitor is between S00pF and 10,F Disadvantages of paper capacitors include variation in capacitance with temperature change and a shorter service life than most other types of capacitor. 4, Ceramic capacitors. These are made in various forms, each type of construction depending on the value of capacitance required, For high values, a tube of ceramic material is used as shown in the cross-section of Figure 6.17. For smaller values the cup construction is used as shown in Figure 6.18, and for still smaller values the dise construction shown in Figure 6.19 is used. Certain ceramic materials have a very high permittivity and this Connection Connection Ceramic ‘ube Figure 6.17 Ceramic cup Conneation Conducting coating Figure 6.18, Ceramic ‘dsc fay Conducting ‘coatings Figure 6.19 enables capacitors of high capacitance to be made which are of small physical size with ahigh working voltage rating. Ceramic capacitors are available in the range 1pF to 0.14 and may be used in high frequency electronic circuits subjecttoawiderange of temperatures. Plastic capacitors. Some plastic materials such as polystyrene and Teflon can be used as dielectrics. Construction is similar to the paper capacitor bout using a plastic film instead of paper. Plastic capacitors operate well under conditions of high emperatute, provide a precise value of capacitance, a very long service life and high reliability. ‘Titanium oxide capacitors have a very high capa citance with a small physical size when used at a low temperature. Electrolytic capacitors. Constructions similar to the paper capacitor with aluminium foilused fo the plates and with a thick absorbent material, such at pape, impregnated with an electrolyte (ammonium borate), separating the plates. The finished capaci- tors usually assembled in an aluminium container and hermetically sealed. Its operation depends on the formation of a thin aluminium oxide layer on the positive plate by electrolytic action when a suitable direct potential is maintained between the plates. This oxide layer is very thin and forms the dielectic. (The absorbent paper between the plates isa conductor and does not act asa dielec- tric.) Such capacitors must always be used on de and must be connected with the correct polarity: if this is not done the capacitor will he destroyed since the oxide layer will he destroyed. Electrolytic capacitors are manufactured with working voltage from 6V to 600, although accuracy is generally nol very high. These capacitors possess a much larger capacitance than ether types of capacitors of similar dimensions due to the oxide film being only afew microns thick. The fact that they can be used only on de supplies limit their usefulnesseee ‘When a capacitor has been disconnected from the sup- ply it may still be charged and it may retain this charge Capacitors and capacitance for some considerable time. Thus precautions must be taken to ensure that the capacitor is automatically dis~ charged after the supply is switched off, This is done bby connecting a high value resistor across the capacitor terminals, 65 cla