Chapter 4

Angle Modulation and Multiplexing

Contents
4.1 Angle Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.1.1 Narrowband Angle Modulation . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4.1.2 Spectrum of an Angle-Modulated Signal . . . . 4-7
4.1.3 Power in an Angle-Modulated Signal . . . . . . 4-13
4.1.4 Bandwidth of Angle-Modulated Signals . . . . . 4-13
4.1.5 Narrowband-to-Wideband Conversion . . . . . . 4-19
4.1.6 Demodulation of Angle-Modulated Signals . . . 4-20
4.2 Feedback Demodulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30
4.2.1 Phase-Locked Loops for FM Demodulation . . . 4-30
4.2.2 PLL Frequency Synthesizers . . . . . . . . . . . 4-50
4.2.3 Frequency-Compressive Feedback . . . . . . . . 4-54
4.2.4 Coherent Carrier Recovery for DSB Demodulation 4-56
4.3 Interference and Preemphasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-60
4.3.1 Interference in Angle Modulation . . . . . . . . 4-60
4.3.2 The Use of Preemphasis in FM . . . . . . . . . . 4-64
4.4 Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-65
4.4.1 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) . . . . 4-66

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

4.4.2 Quadrature Multiplexing (QM) . . . . . . . . . . 4-69

4.5 General Performance of Modulation Systems in Noise 4-70

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

 Continuing from Chapter 3, we now focus on the .t / term

(angle) in the general modulated carrier waveform
 
xc .t / D A.t / cos 2fc t C .t /

4.1 Angle Modulation

 A general angle modulated signal is of the form

xc .t / D Ac cosŒ!c t C .t /

 Definition: Instantaneous phase of xc .t / is

i .t / D !c t C .t /

where .t / is the phase deviation

 Define: Instantaneous frequency of xc .t / is

di .t / d.t /
!i .t / D D !c C
dt dt
where d.t /=dt is the frequency deviation

 There are two basic types of angle modulation

1. Phase modulation (PM)

.t / D kp m.t /
„ƒ‚…
phase dev. const.

which implies

xc .t / D Ac cosŒ!c t C kp m.t /

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

– Note: the units of kp is radians per unit of m.t /

– If m.t / is a voltage, kp has units of radians/volt
2. Frequency modulation (FM)
d.t /
D kf m.t /
dt „ƒ‚…
freq. dev. const.

or Z t
.t / D kf m.˛/ d˛ C 0
t0
– Note: the units of kf is radians/sec per unit of m.t /
– If m.t / is a voltage, kf has units of radians/sec/volt
– An alternative expression for kf is

kf D 2fd

where fd is the frequency-deviation constant in Hz/unit

of m.t /

Example 4.1: Phase and Frequency Step Modulation

 Consider m.t / D u.t / v

 We form the PM signal

 
xPM.t / D Ac cos !c t C kp u.t / ; kp D =3 rad/v

 We form the FM signal

h Z t i
xFM.t / D Ac cos !c t C 2fd m.˛/ d˛ ; fd D 3 Hz/v

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

π/3 phase step at t = 0 3 Hz frequency step at t = 0

fc fc fc fc + 3 Hz
1 1

t t

1 1
1 1

1
1

Phase Modulation Frequency Modulation

Phase and frequency step modulation

4.1.1 Narrowband Angle Modulation

 Begin by writing an angle modulated signal in complex form
 
xc .t / D Re Ac e j!c t e j.t/

 Expand e j.t/ in a power series

 2.t /
  
xc .t / D Re Ac e j!c t 1 C j.t /



2Š

 The narrowband approximation is j.t /j  1, then

 
xc .t / ' Re Ac e j!c t C jAc .t /e j!c t

D Ac cos.!c t / Ac .t / sin.!c t /

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 Under the narrowband approximation we see that the signal is

similar to AM except it is carrier plus modulated quadrature
carrier

− NBFM
φ(t)
xc(t)
+

Ac sin(ωct) 90o

NBFM modulator block diagram

Example 4.2: Single tone narrowband FM

 Consider NBFM with m.t / D cos !mt

Z t
.t / D 2fd cos !mt d˛
2fd fd
D sin !mt D sin !mt
2fm fm

 Now,
 
fd
xc .t / D cos !c t C sin !mt
fm
 
fd
' Ac cos !c t sin !mt sin !c t
fm
fd fd
D Ac cos !c t C [Link] C fm/t [Link] fm/t
2fm 2fm

 This looks very much like AM

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

fc - fm
f
fc fc + fm
0

Single tone NBFM spectra

4.1.2 Spectrum of an Angle-Modulated Signal

 The development in this obtains the exact spectrum of an angle
modulated carrier for the case of

.t / D ˇ sin !mt

where ˇ is the modulation index for sinusoidal angle modula-

tion

 The transmitted signal is of the form

xc .t / D Ac cos !c t C ˇ sin !mt
˚ j!c t jˇ sin !mt
D Ac Re e
e

 Note that e jˇ sin !mt is periodic with period T D 2=!m, thus

we can obtain a Fourier series expansion of this signal, i.e.,
1
X
jˇ sin !m t
e D Yne j n!mt
nD 1

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 The coefficients are

=!m
!m
Z
Yn D e jˇ sin !mt e j n!m t
dt
2 =!m
=!m
!m
Z
j.n!m t ˇ sin !m t/
D e dt
2 =!m

 Change variables in the integral by letting x D !mt, then dx D

!mdt, t D =!m ! x D , and t D =!m ! x D 

 With the above substitutions, we have

Z 
1
Yn D e [Link] ˇ sin x/ dx
2Z 
1 
D [Link] ˇ sin x/ dx D Jn.ˇ/
 0

which is a Bessel function of the first kind order n with argu-

ment ˇ

Jn.ˇ/ Properties
 Recurrence equation:

2n
JnC1.ˇ/ D Jn.ˇ/ Jn 1.ˇ/
ˇ

 n – even:
J n.ˇ/ D Jn.ˇ/

 n – odd:
J n.ˇ/ D Jn.ˇ/

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

J0(β)
1
0.8
J1(β)
0.6 J2(β) J3(β)
0.4
0.2
β
2 4 6 8 10

0.2

0.4

Bessel function of order 0–3 plotted

 The zeros of the Bessel functions are important in spectral

analysis
First five Bessel function zeros for order 0 – 5

J0(β) = 0
2.40483, 5.52008, 8.65373, 11.7915, 14.9309

J1(β) = 0
3.83171, 7.01559, 10.1735, 13.3237, 16.4706

J2(β) = 0
5.13562, 8.41724, 11.6198, 14.796, 17.9598

J3(β) = 0
6.38016, 9.76102, 13.0152, 16.2235, 19.4094

J4(β) = 0
7.58834, 11.0647, 14.3725, 17.616, 20.8269

J5(β) = 0
8.77148, 12.3386, 15.7002, 18.9801, 22.2178

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Spectrum cont.
 We obtain the spectrum of xc .t / by inserting the series repre-
sentation for e jˇ sin !mt
1
" #
X
xc .t / D Ac Re e j!c t Jn.ˇ/e j n!mt
nD 1
1
X
D Ac Jn.ˇ/ cos.!c C n!m/t
nD 1

 We see that the amplitude spectrum is symmetrical about fc

due to the symmetry properties of the Bessel functions
|AcJ-1(β)| |AcJ1(β)|
Amplitude Spectrum

|AcJ-2(β)| |AcJ2(β)|
(one-sided)

|AcJ0(β)|
|AcJ-3(β)| |AcJ3(β)|
|A J (β)| |AcJ4(β)|
|AcJ-5(β)| c -4 |AcJ5(β)|
f
fc - 5fm

fc - 4fm

fc - 3fm

fc - 2fm

fc - fm

fc + fm

fc + 2fm

fc + 3fm

fc + 4fm

fc + 5fm
fc

 For PM
ˇ sin !mt D kp .A sin !mt /
„ ƒ‚ …
m.t/

) ˇ D kp A

 For FM
t
fd
Z
ˇ sin !mt D kf A cos !m˛ d˛ D A sin !mt
fm
) ˇ D .fd =fm/A

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

 When ˇ is small we have the narrowband case and as ˇ gets

larger the spectrum spreads over wider bandwidth
1 β = 0.2, Ac = 1
0.8 (narrowband case)
Amplitude
Spectrum

0.6
0.4
0.2

-5 0 5 10
(f - fc)/fm
1
β = 1, Ac = 1
0.8
Amplitude
Spectrum

0.6
0.4
0.2

-5 0 5 10
(f - fc)/fm
1
0.8 β = 2.4048, Ac = 1
Amplitude
Spectrum

0.6
(carrier null)
0.4
0.2

-5 0 5 10
(f - fc)/fm
1
0.8 β = 3.8317, Ac = 1
Amplitude
Spectrum

0.6 (1st sideband null)

0.4
0.2
(f - fc)/fm
-5 0 5 10
1
0.8 β = 8, Ac = 1
Amplitude
Spectrum

0.6 (spectrum becoming

0.4 wide)
0.2
(f - fc)/fm
-5 0 5 10

The amplitude spectrum relative to fc as ˇ increases

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

Example 4.3: VCO FM Modulator

 Consider again single-tone FM, that is m.t / D A cos.2fmt /

 We assume that we know fm and the modulator deviation con-

stant fd

 Find A such that the spectrum of xc .t / contains no carrier com-

ponent

 An FM modulator can be implemented using a voltage con-

trolled oscillator (VCO)

sensitivity fd MHz/v

m(t) VCO

Center
Freq = fc

A VCO used as an FM modulator

 The carrier term is Ac J0.ˇ/ cos !c t

 We know that J0.ˇ/ D 0 for ˇ D 2:4048; 5:5201; : : :

 The smallest ˇ that will make the carrier component zero is

fd
ˇ D 2:4048 D A
fm
which implies that we need to set
fm
A D 2:4048

fd
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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

 Suppose that fm D 1 kHz and fd D 2:5 MHz/v, then we

would need to set
1  103 4
A D 2:4048
D 9:6192  10
2:5  106

4.1.3 Power in an Angle-Modulated Signal

 The average power in an angle modulated signal is
2 2 2
 
hxc .t /i D Ac hcos !c t C .t / i
1 1
D A2c C A2chcos 2 !c t C .t / i
˚  
2 2

 For large fc the second term is approximately zero (why?),

thus
1
Pangle mod D hxc2.t /i D A2c
2
which makes the power independent of the modulation m.t /
(the assumptions must remain valid however)

4.1.4 Bandwidth of Angle-Modulated Signals

 With sinusoidal angle modulation we know that the occupied
bandwidth gets larger as ˇ increases

 There are an infinite number of sidebands, but

ˇn
lim Jn.ˇ/  lim n D 0;
n!1 n!1 2 nŠ

so consider the fractional power bandwidth

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 Define the power ratio

1 2
Pk
Pcarrier C P˙k sidebands A Jn2.ˇ/
Pr D D 2 c nD k
1 2
Ptotal A
2 c
k
X
D J02.ˇ/ C2 Jn2.ˇ/
nD1

 Given an acceptable Pr implies a fractional bandwidth of

B D 2kfm (Hz)

 In the text values of Pr  0:7 and Pr  0:98 are single and

double underlined respectively

 It turns out that for Pr  0:98 the value of k is IPŒ1 C ˇ, thus

B D B98 ' 2.ˇ C 1/fm sinusoidal mod only

 For arbitrary modulation m.t /, define the deviation ratio

peak freq. deviation fd  

DD D max jm.t /j
bandwidth of m.t / W

 In the sinusoidal modulation bandwidth definition let ˇ ! D

and fm ! W , then we obtain what is known as Carson’s rule

B D 2.D C 1/W

– Another view of Carson’s rule is to consider the maxi-

mum frequency deviation f D max jm.t /jfd , then B D
2.W C f /

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

 Two extremes in angle modulation are

1. Narrowband: D  1 ) B D 2W
2. Wideband: D  1 ) B D 2DW D 2f

Example 4.4: Single Tone FM

 Consider an FM modulator for broadcasting with
xc .t / D 100 cos 2.101:1  106/t C .t /
 

where fd D 75 kHz/v and

 
m.t / D cos 2.1000/t v

 The ˇ value for the transmitter is

fd 75  103
ˇD AD D 75
fm 103
 Note that the carrier frquency is 101.1 MHz and the peak de-
viation is f D 75 kHz
 The bandwidth of the signal is thus
B ' 2.1 C 75/1000 D 152 kHz
B = 2(β + 1)fm
17.5
15
Amplitude
Spectrum

12.5
10
7.5
5
2.5 (f - 101.1 MHz)
-50 0 50 100 1 kHz
-76 76

101.1 MHz - 76 kHz 101.1 MHz 101.1 MHz + 76 kHz

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 Suppose that this signal is passed through an ideal bandpass

filter of bandwidth 11 kHz centered on fc D 101:1 MHz, i.e.,
   
f fc f C fc
H.f / D … C…
11000 11000

 The carrier term and five sidebands either side of the carrier
pass through this filter, resulting an output power of
5
" #
2
A X
Pout D c J02.75/ C 2 Jn2.75/ D 241:93 W
2 nD1

 Note the input power is A2c=2 D 5000 W

Example 4.5: Two Tone FM

 Finding the exact spectrum of an angle modulated carrier is not
always possible

 The single-tone sinusoid case can be extended to multiple tone

with increasing complexity

 Suppose that
m.t / D A cos !1t C B cos !2t

 The phase deviation is given by 2fd times the integral of the

frequency modulation, i.e.,
.t / D ˇ1 sin !1t C ˇ2 sin !2t
where ˇ1 D Afd =f1 and ˇ2 D Afd =f2

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

 The transmitted signal is of the form

 
xc .t / D Ac cos !c t C ˇ1 sin !1t C ˇ2 sin !2t
D Ac Re e j!c t e jˇ1 sin !1t e jˇ2 sin ˇ2t
 

 We have previously seen that via Fourier series expansion

1
X
e jˇ1 sin !1t D Jn.ˇ1/e j n!1t
nD 1
X1
e jˇ2 sin !1t D Jn.ˇ2/e j n!2t
nD 1

 Inserting the above Fourier series expansions into xc .t /, we

have
1 1
( )
X X
xc .t / D Ac Re e j!c t Jn.ˇ1/e j n!1t
Jm.ˇ2/e j m!2t
nD 1 mD 1
1
X 1
X  
D Ac Jn.ˇ1/Jm.ˇ2/ cos .!c C n!1 C m!2/t
nD 1 mD 1

 The nonlinear nature of angle modulation is clear, since we see

not only components at !c C n!1 and !c C m!2, but also at
all combinations of !c C n!1 C m!2

 To find the bandwidth of this signal we can use Carson’s rule

(the sinusoidal formula only works for one tone)

 Recall that B D 2.f C W /, where f is the peak frequency

deviation

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 The frequency deviation is

1 d 
fi .t / D ˇ1 sin !1t C ˇ2 sin !2t
2 dt
D ˇ1f1 cos.2f1t / C ˇ2f2 cos.2f2t / Hz

 The maximum of fi .t /, in this case, is ˇ1f1 C ˇ2f2

 Suppose ˇ1 D ˇ2 D 2 and f2 D 10f1, then we see that W D

f2 D 10f1 and
 
B D 2.W Cf / D 2 10f1C2.f1C10f1/ D 2.32f1/ D 64f1

β1 = β2 = 2, f2 = 10f 1
B = 2(W + ∆f) = 2(10f1 + 2(11)f1) = 64f1
0.35
0.3
Amplitude

0.25
Spectrum

0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05 (f - fc)
-40 -20 0 20 40 f1

Example 4.6: Bandlimited Noise PM and FM

 This example will utilize simulation to obtain the spectrum of

an angle modulated carrier

 The message signal in this case will be bandlimited noise hav-

ing lowpass bandwidth of W Hz

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

 In MATLAB we can generate Gaussian amplitude distributed

white noise using randn() and then filter this noise using a
high-order lowpass filter (implemented as a digital filter in this
case)
 We can then use this signal to phase or frequency modulate
a carrier in terms of the peak phase deviation, derived from
knowledge of maxŒj.t /j

4.1.5 Narrowband-to-Wideband Conversion

Narrowband FM Wideband FM
Carrier = fc1 Carrier = nfc1
Peak deviation = fd1 Peak deviation = nfd1
Deviation ratio = D1 Deviation ratio = nD1

m(t) Narrowband xn xc(t)

FM Modulator Freq. BPF
(similar to AM) Multiplier

Ac1cos[ωct + φ(t)]
LO Frequency
Ac2cos[nωct + nφ(t)] translate

narrowband-to-wideband conversion

 Narrowband FM can be generated using an AM-type modula-

tor as discussed earlier (without a VCO and very stable)
 A frequency multiplier, using say a nonlinearity, can be used
to make the signal wideband FM, i.e.,
n
Ac1 cosŒ!c t C .t / ! Ac2 cosŒn!c t C n.t /
so the modulator deviation constant of fd1 becomes nfd1

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

4.1.6 Demodulation of Angle-Modulated Signals

 To demodulate FM we require a discriminator circuit, which
gives an output which is proportional to the input frequency
deviation

 For an ideal discriminator with input

xr .t / D Ac cosŒ!c t C .t /
the output is
1 d.t /
yD .t / D KD
2 dt
Ideal
xc(t) Discriminator yD(t)

Ideal FM discriminator

 For FM Z t
.t / D 2fd m.˛/ d˛
so
yD .t / D KD fd m.t /
Output
Signal (voltage)

slope = KD

Input
fc Frequency

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

Ideal discriminator I/O characteristic

 For PM signals we follow the discriminator with an integrator

Ideal
xr(t) Discrim. yD(t)

Ideal discriminator with integrator for PM demod

 For PM .t / D kp m.t / so

yD .t / D KD kp m.t /

 We now consider approximating an ideal discriminator with:

e(t) Envelope
xr(t) yD(t)
Detector

Ideal discriminator approximation

 If xr .t / D Ac cosŒ!c t C .t /
 
dxr .t / d  
e.t / D D Ac !c C sin !c t C .t /
dt dt

 This looks like AM provided

d.t /
< !c
dt
which is only reasonable

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 Thus
d.t /
yD .t / D Ac D 2Ac fd m.t / (for FM)
dt
– Relative to an ideal discriminator, the gain constant is
KD D 2Ac

 To eliminate any amplitude variations on Ac pass xc .t / through

a bandpass limiter

Limiter e(t)
Envelope
xr(t) BPF yD(t)
Detector

Bandpass Limiter
FM discriminator with bandpass limiter

 We can approximate the differentiator with a delay and subtract

operation
e.t / D xr .t / xr .t  /
since
e.t / xr .t / xr .t / dxr .t /
lim D lim D ;
!0  !0  dt
thus
dxr .t /
e.t / ' 
dt
 In a discrete-time implementation (DSP), we can perform a
similar operation, e.g.

eŒn D xŒn xŒn 1

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

Example 4.7: Complex Baseband Discriminator

 A DSP implementation in MATLAB that works with complex
baseband signals (complex envelope) is the following:
function disdata = discrim(x)
% function disdata = discrimf(x)
% x is the received signal in complex baseband form
%
% Mark Wickert

xI=real(x); % xI is the real part of the received signal

xQ=imag(x); % xQ is the imaginary part of the received signal
N=length(x); % N is the length of xI and xQ
b=[1 -1]; % filter coefficients
a=[1 0]; % for discrete derivative
der_xI=filter(b,a,xI); % derivative of xI,
der_xQ=filter(b,a,xQ); % derivative of xQ
% normalize by the squared envelope acts as a limiter
disdata=(xI.*der_xQ-xQ.*der_xI)./(xI.^2+xQ.^2);

 To understand the operation of discrim() start with a general

angle modulated signal and obtain the complex envelope

xc .t / D Ac cos.!c t C .t //
D Re Ac e j.t/e j!c t
˚
j!c t
˚
D Ac Re Œcos .t / C j sin .t /e

 The complex envelope is

xQ c .t / D cos .t / C j sin .t / D xI .t / C jxQ .t /

where xI and xQ are the in-phase and quadrature signals re-

spectively

 A frequency discriminator obtains d.t /=dt

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 In terms of the I and Q signals,

 
1 xQ .t /
.t / D tan
xI .t /

 The derivative of .t/ is

 
d.t / 1 d xQ .t /
D
dt 1 C .xQ .t /=xI .t //2 dt xI .t /
0
xI .t /xQ .t / xI0 .t /xQ .t /
D
xI2 .t / C xQ
2
.t /

 In the DSP implementation xI Œn D xI .nT / and xQ Œn D

xQ .nT /, where T is the sample period

 The derivatives, xI0 .t / and xQ

0
.t / are approximated by the back-
wards difference xI Œn xI Œn 1 and xQ Œn xQ Œn 1 re-
spectively

 To put this code into action, consider a single tone message at

1 kHz with ˇ D 2:4048

.t / D 2:4048 cos.2.1000/t /

 The complex baseband (envelope) signal is

xQ c .t / D e j.t/ D e j 2:4048 cos.2.1000/t/

 A MATLAB simulation that utilizes the function Discrim() is:

>> n = 0:5000-1;
>> m = cos(2*pi*n*1000/50000); % sampling rate = 50 kHz
>> xc = exp(j*2.4048*m);
>> y = Discrim(xc);

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

>> % baseband spectrum plotting tool using psd()

>> bb_spec_plot(xc,2^11,50);
>> axis([-10 10 -30 30])
>> grid
>> xlabel('Frequency (kHz)')
>> ylabel('Spectral Density (dB)')
>> t = n/50;
>> plot(t(1:200),y(1:200))
>> axis([0 4 -.4 .4])
>> grid
>> xlabel('Time (ms)')
>> ylabel('Amplitude of y(t)')

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

30

Note: no carrier
20 term since β =
2.4048
Spectral Density (dB)

10

−10

−20

−30
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency (kHz)

0.4

0.3

0.2
Amplitude of y(t)

0.1

−0.1

−0.2

−0.3

−0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (ms)

Baseband FM spectrum and demodulator output wavefrom

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 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

Analog Circuit Implementations

 A simple analog circuit implementation is an RC highpass fil-

ter followed by an envelope detector

|H(f)|
1
0.707
C Linear operating
R
region converts
FM to AM

Highpass
f
fc 1
2πRC

C
R Re Ce

Highpass Envelope Detector

RC highpass filter + envelope detector discriminator (slope detector)

 For the RC highpass filter to be practical the cutoff frequency

must be reasonable

 Broadcast FM radio typically uses a 10.7 MHz IF frequency,

which means the highpass filter must have cutoff above this
frequency

 A more practical discriminator is the balanced discriminator,

which offers a wider linear operating range

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-27

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

Filter Amplitude
|H2(f)| |H1(f)|

Response

f
f2 f1
Filter Amplitude
Response

f
Linear region
|H1(f)| - |H2(f)|

R f1

L1 C1 Re Ce
xc(t) yD(t)
L2 C2 Re Ce

f2
R
Bandpass Envelope Detectors
Balanced discriminator operation (top) and a passive implementation
(bottom)

4-28 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.1. ANGLE MODULATION

FM Quadrature Detectors
Usually a
xc(t) xout(t) lowpass
filter is
C1
xquad(t) added here

Tank circuit
Lp Cp tuned to fc

Quadrature detector schematic

 In analog integrated circuits used for FM radio receivers and

the like, an FM demodulator known as a quadrature detector
or quadrature discriminator, is quite popular

 The input FM signal connects to one port of a multiplier (prod-

uct device)

 A quadrature signal is formed by passing the input to a capaci-

tor series connected to the other multiplier input and a parallel
tank circuit resonant at the input carrier frequency

 The quadrature circuit receives a phase shift from the capacitor

and additional phase shift from the tank circuit

 The phase shift produced by the tank circuit is time varying in

proportion to the input frequency deviation

 A mathematical model for the circuit begins with the FM input

signal
xc .t / D Ac Œ!c t C .t /

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-29

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 The quadrature signal is

 
.t /
xquad.t / D K1Ac sin !c t C .t / C K2
dt
where the constants K1 and K2 are determined by circuit pa-
rameters

 The multiplier output, assuming a lowpass filter removes the

sum terms, is
 
1 d.t /
xout.t / D K1A2c sin K2
2 dt
 By proper choice of K2 the argument of the sin function is
small, and a small angle approximation yields
1 d.t / 1
xout.t / ' K1K2A2c D K1K2A2cKD m.t /
2 dt 2

4.2 Feedback Demodulators

 The discriminator as described earlier first converts and FM
signal to and AM signal and then demodulates the AM

 The phase-locked loop (PLL) offer a direct way to demodulate

FM and is considered a basic building block by communication
system engineers

4.2.1 Phase-Locked Loops for FM Demodula-

tion
 The PLL has many uses and many different configurations,
both analog and DSP based

4-30 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

 We will start with a basic configuration for demodulation of

FM
Kd

Phase ed(t) Loop Loop

xr(t) Amplifier ev(t)
Detector Filter
µ

eo(t)
VCO

xr(t) Sinusoidal
phase detector
with inverting
-eo(t) input

Basic PLL block diagram

 Let
 
xr .t / D Ac cos !c t C .t /
 
eo.t / D Av sin !c t C .t /

– Note: Frequency error may be included in .t / .t /

 Assume a sinusoidal phase detector with an inverting operation

is included, then we can further write
1  
ed .t / D Ac Av Kd sin .t / .t /
2
– In the above we have assumed that the double frequency
term is removed (e.g., by the loop filter eventually)

 Note that for the voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) we have

the following relationship

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-31

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

ev(t) VCO ωo + dθ
Kv dt

but
d.t /
D Kv ev .t / rad/s
dt Z t
) .t / D Kv ev .˛/ d˛

 In its present form the PLL is a nonlinear feedback control

system

ψ(t) ed(t)
+
φ(t) sin( ) f(t)

- Loop Loop filter

nonlinearity impulse response
µ
θ(t)

ev(t)

Nonlinear feedback control model

 To shown tracking we first consider the loop filter to have im-

pulse response ı.t / (a straight through connection or unity gain
amplifier)

 The loop gain is now defined as

 1
Kt D Ac Av Kd Kv rad/s
2
4-32 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I
 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

 The VCO output is

Z t
.t / D Kt sinŒ.˛/ .˛/ d˛
d.t /
or D Kt sinŒ.t / .t /
dt
 Let .t / D .t / .t / and apply an input frequency step !,
i.e.,
d.t /
D ! u.t /
dt
 Now,
d.t / d .t /
D ! D Kt sin .t /; t  0
dt dt
 We can now plot d =dt versus , which is known as a phase
plane plot
dψ(t)/dt ∆ω + Kt

Stable
Β ∆ω lock point
∆ω > 0

ψ(t)
Α
∆ω - Kt
ψss

Phase plane plot (1st-order PLL)

d .t /
C Kt sin .t / D !u.t /
dt
ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-33
CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 At t D 0 the operating point is at B

d
Since dt is positive if > 0 ! d is positive
dt
d
Since dt is positive if < 0 ! d is negative
dt
therefore the steady-state operating point is at A

 The frequency error is always zero in steady-state

 The steady-state phase error is ss

– Note that for locking to take place, the phase plane curve
must cross the d =dt D 0 axis

 The maximum steady-state value of ! the loop can handle is

thus Kt

 The total lock range is then

!c Kt  !  !c C Kt ) 2Kt
– For a first-order loop the lock range and the hold-range
are identical

 For a given ! the value of ss can be made small by increas-

ing the loop gain, i.e.,
 
1 !
ss D sin
Kt

 Thus for large Kt the in-lock operation of the loop can be mod-
eled with a fully linear model since .t / .t / is small, i.e.,
sinŒ.t / .t / ' .t / .t /

4-34 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

 The s-domain linear PLL model is the following

Ψ(s)
Φ(s) Ev(s)
AcAvKd/2 F(s) µ
+
−
Θ(s)
Kv/s

Linear PLL model

 Solving for ‚.s/ we have

Kt  
‚.s/ D ˆ.s/ ‚.s/ F .s/
  s
Kt Kt
or ‚.s/ 1 C F .s/ D ˆ.s/F .s/
s s
 Finally, the closed-loop transfer function is
Kt
‚.s/
 s
F .s/ Kt F .s/
H.s/ D D D
ˆ.s/ 1 C Kst F .s/ s C Kt F .s/

First-Order PLL
 Let F .s/ D 1, then we have
Kt
H.s/ D
Kt C s
 Consider the loop response to a frequency step, that is for FM,
we assume m.t / D Au.t /, then
Z t
.t / D Akf u.˛/ d˛
Akf
so ˆ.s/ D 2
s
ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-35
CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 The VCO phase output is

Akf Kt
‚.s/ D
s [Link] C s/
 The VCO control voltage should be closely related to the ap-
plied FM message

 To see this write

s Akf Kt
Ev .s/ D ‚.s/ D

Kv Kv s.s C Kt /
 Partial fraction expanding yields,
 
Akf 1 1
Ev .s/ D
Kv s s C Kt
thus
Akf h Kt t
i
ev .t / D 1 e u.t /
Kv

m(t)
A

t
0
1st-Order PLL frequency step response at VCO input Kv ev .t/=kf

 In general,
kf M.s/
ˆ.s/ D
s
so
kf M.s/ s Kt kf Kt
Ev .s/ D

D

M.s/
s Kv s C Kt Kv s C Kt
4-36 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I
 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

 Now if the bandwidth of m.t / is W  Kt =.2/, then

kf kf
Ev .s/  M.s/ ) ev .t /  m.t /
Kv Kv

 The first-order PLL has limited lock range and always has a
nonzero steady-state phase error when the input frequency is
offset from the quiescent VCO frequency

 Increasing the loop gain appears to help, but the loop band-
width becomes large as well, which allows more noise to enter
the loop

 Spurious time constants which are always present, but not a

problem with low loop gains, are also a problem with high
gain first-order PLLs

Example 4.8: First-Order PLL Simulation Example

 Tool such as Python (in Jupyter notebook), MATLAB, MATLAB

with Simulink, VisSim/Comm, ADS, and others provide an
ideal environment for simulating PLLs at the system level

 Circuit level simulation of PLLs is very challenging due to the

need to simulate every cycle of the VCO

 The most realistic simulation method is to use the actual band-

pass signals, but since the carrier frequency must be kept low
to minimize the simulation time, we have difficulties removing
the double frequency term from the phase detector output

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CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 By simulating at baseband, using the nonlinear loop model,

many PLL aspects can be modeled without worrying about
how to remove the double frequency term

– A complex baseband simulation allows further capability,

but will not be discussed at his time

 The most challenging aspect of the simulation is dealing with

the integrator found in the VCO block (Kv =s)

 We consider a discrete-time simulation where all continuous-

time waveforms are replaced by their discrete-time counter-
parts, i.e., xŒn D [Link] / D x.n=f s/, where fs is the sample
frequency and T D 1=fs is the sampling period

 The input/output relationship of an integration block can be

approximated via the trapezoidal rule
T

yŒn D yŒn 1 C xŒn C xŒn 1
2
function [theta,ev,phi_error] = PLL1(phi,fs,loop_type,Kv,fn,zeta)
% [theta, ev, error, t] = PLL1(phi,fs,loop_type,Kv,fn,zeta)
%
%
% Mark Wickert, April 2007

T = 1/fs;
Kv = 2*pi*Kv; % convert Kv in Hz/v to rad/s/v

if loop_type == 1
% First-order loop parameters
Kt = 2*pi*fn; % loop natural frequency in rad/s
elseif loop_type == 2
% Second-order loop parameters
Kt = 4*pi*zeta*fn; % loop natural frequency in rad/s
a = pi*fn/zeta;
else

4-38 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

error('Loop type must be 1 or 2');

end

% Initialize integration approximation filters

filt_in_last = 0; filt_out_last = 0;
vco_in_last = 0; vco_out = 0; vco_out_last = 0;

% Initialize working and final output vectors

n = 0:length(phi)-1;
theta = zeros(size(phi));
ev = zeros(size(phi));
phi_error = zeros(size(phi));

% Begin the simulation loop

for k = 1:length(n)
phi_error(k) = phi(k) - vco_out;
% sinusoidal phase detector
pd_out = sin(phi_error(k));
% Loop gain
gain_out = Kt/Kv*pd_out; % apply VCO gain at VCO
% Loop filter
if loop_type == 2
filt_in = a*gain_out;
filt_out = filt_out_last + T/2*(filt_in + filt_in_last);
filt_in_last = filt_in;
filt_out_last = filt_out;
filt_out = filt_out + gain_out;
else
filt_out = gain_out;
end
% VCO
vco_in = filt_out;
vco_out = vco_out_last + T/2*(vco_in + vco_in_last);
vco_in_last = vco_in;
vco_out_last = vco_out;
vco_out = Kv*vco_out; % apply Kv
% Measured loop signals
ev(k) = vco_in;
theta(k) = vco_out;
end

 To simulate a frequency step we input a phase ramp

 Consider an 8 Hz frequency step turning on at 0.5 s and a -12

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-39

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

Hz frequency step turning on at 1.5 s

 
.t / D 2 8.t 0:5/u.t 0:5/ 12.t 1:5/u.t 1:5/

>> t = 0:1/1000:2.5;
>> idx1 = find(t>= 0.5);
>> idx2 = find(t>= 1.5);
>> phi1(idx1) =2*pi* 8*(t(idx1)-0.5).*ones(size(idx1));
>> phi2(idx2) = 2*pi*12*(t(idx2)-1.5).*ones(size(idx2));
>> phi = phi1 - phi2;
>> [theta, ev, phi_error] = PLL1(phi,1000,1,1,10,0.707);
>> plot(t,phi_error); % phase error in radians

1
0.927
Phase Error, φ(t) − θ(t), (rad)

0.5 With Kt = 2π(10) and

Kv = 2π(1) rad/s/v, we
know that with the 8
Hz step ev(t) = 8, so
working backwards,
sin(φ - θ) = 8/10 = 0.8
0
and φ - θ = 0.927 rad.

-0.412
−0.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (s)

Phase error for input within lock range

 In the above plot we see the finite rise-time due to the loop gain
being 2.10/

 This is a first-order lowpass step response

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 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

 The loop stays in lock since the frequency swing either side of
zero is within the ˙10 Hz lock range

 Suppose now that a single positive frequency step of 12 Hz is

applied, the loop unlocks and cycle slips indefinitely; why?

>> phi = 12/8*phi1; % scale frequency step from 8 Hz to 12 Hz

>> [theta, ev, phi_error] = PLL1(phi,1000,1,1,10,0.707);
>> subplot(211)
>> plot(t,phi_error)
>> subplot(212)
>> plot(t,sin(phi_error))
Phase Error (φ(t) − θ(t))

100

50 le slips
Cyc

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (s)
Phase Error sin(φ(t) − θ(t))

0.5

−0.5

−1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (s)

Phase error for input exceeding lock range by 2 Hz

 By plotting the true phase detector output, sinŒ.t / .t /, we

see that the error voltage is simply not large enough to pull the
VCO frequency to match the input which is offset by 12 Hz

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-41

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 In the phase plane plot shown earlier, this scenario corresponds

to the trajectory never crossing zero

Second-Order Type II PLL

 To mitigate some of the problems of the first-order PLL, we

can include a second integrator in the open-loop transfer func-
tion

 A common loop filter for building a second-order PLL is an

integrator with lead compensation
sCa
F .s/ D
s

 The resulting PLL is sometimes called a perfect second-order

PLL since two integrators are now in the transfer function

 In text Problem 4.28 you analyze the lead-lag loop filter

sCa
F .s/ D
s C a
which creates an imperfect, or finite gain integrator, second-
order PLL

 Returning to the integrator with phase lead loop filter, the closed-
loop transfer function is
Kt F .s/ Kt .s C a/
H.s/ D D 2
s C Kt F .s/ s C Kt s C Kt a
4-42 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I
 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

 The transfer function from the input phase to the phase error
.t / is
 ‰.s/ ‚.s/ ˆ.s/
G.s/ D D
‚.s/ ‚.s/
s2
or G.s/ D 1 H.s/ D 2
s C Kt s C Kt a
 In standard second-order system notation we can write the de-
nominator of G.s/ D 1 H.s/ (and also H.s/) as
s 2 C Kt s C Kt a D s 2 C 2!ns C !n2
where
p
!n D Kt a D natural frequency in rad/s
r
1 Kt
D D damping factor
2 a
 For an input frequency step the steady-state phase error is zero

– Note the hold-in range is infinite, in theory, since the in-

tegrator contained in the loop filter has infinite DC gain

 To verify this we can use the final value theorem

s2
 
!
ss D lim s

s!0 s 2 s 2 C Kt s C Kt a
!s
D lim 2 D0
s!0 s C Kt s C Kt a

 In exact terms we can find .t / by inverse Laplace transform-

ing
!
‰.s/ D
s 2 C 2!ns C !n2
ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-43
CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 The result for  < 1 is

! !n t
 p 
.t / D p e sin !n 1 2 t u.t /
!n 1  2

Example 4.9: Second-Order PLL Simulation Example

 As a simulation example consider a loop designed with fn D

10 Hz and  D 0:707

Kt D 2!n D 2  0:707  2  10 D 88:84

!n 2  10
aD D D 44:43
2 2  0:707

 The simulation code of Example 4.9 includes the needed loop

filter via a software switch

 The integrator that is part of the loop filter is implemented us-

ing the same trapezoidal formula as used in the VCO

 We input a 40 Hz frequency step and observe the VCO control

voltage (ev .t /) as the loop first slips cycles, gradually pulls in,
then tracks the input signal that is offset by 40 Hz

 The VCO gain Kv D 1 v/Hz or 2 rad/s, so ev .t / effectively

corresponds to the VCO frequency deviation in Hz

>> t = 0:1/1000:2.5;
>> idx1 = find(t>= 0.5);
>> phi(idx1) = 2*pi*40*(t(idx1)-0.5).*ones(size(idx1));
>> [theta, ev, phi_error] = PLL1(phi,1000,2,1,10,0.707);
>> plot(t,ev)
>> axis([0.4 0.8 -10 50])

4-44 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

50
Cycle slipping, but
pulling in to match
VCO Control Voltage ev(t) (Kv = 1 Hz/v)

40
40 Hz frequency step Cycle slipping stops,
30
and the loop settles

20

10

−10
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
Time (s)

VCO control voltage for a 40 Hz frequency step

Example 4.10: Bandpass Simulation of FM Demodulation

 Baseband PLL simulations are very useful and easy to imple-

ment, but sometimes a full bandpass level simulation is re-
quired

 The MATLAB simulation file PLL1.m is modified to allow pass-

band simulation via the function file PLL2.m

 The phase detector is a multiplier followed by a lowpass filter

to remove the double frequency term
function [theta, ev, phi_error] = PLL2(xr,fs,loop_type,Kv,fn,zeta)
% [theta, ev, error, t] = PLL2(xr,fs,loop_type,Kv,fn,zeta)
%

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-45

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

%
% Mark Wickert, April 2007

T = 1/fs;
% Set the VCO quiescent frequency in Hz
fc = fs/4;
% Design a lowpass filter to remove the double freq term
[b,a] = butter(5,2*1/8);
fstate = zeros(1,5); % LPF state vector

Kv = 2*pi*Kv; % convert Kv in Hz/v to rad/s/v

if loop_type == 1
% First-order loop parameters
Kt = 2*pi*fn; % loop natural frequency in rad/s
elseif loop_type == 2
% Second-order loop parameters
Kt = 4*pi*zeta*fn; % loop natural frequency in rad/s
a = pi*fn/zeta;
else
error('Loop type musy be 1 or 2');
end

% Initialize integration approximation filters

filt_in_last = 0; filt_out_last = 0;
vco_in_last = 0; vco_out = 0; vco_out_last = 0;

% Initialize working and final output vectors

n = 0:length(xr)-1;
theta = zeros(size(xr));
ev = zeros(size(xr));
phi_error = zeros(size(xr));

% Begin the simulation loop

for k = 1:length(n)
% Sinusoidal phase detector (simple multiplier)
phi_error(k) = 2*xr(k)*vco_out;
% LPF to remove double frequency term
[phi_error(k),fstate] = filter(b,a,phi_error(k),fstate);
pd_out = phi_error(k);
% Loop gain
gain_out = Kt/Kv*pd_out; % apply VCO gain at VCO
% Loop filter
if loop_type == 2
filt_in = a*gain_out;
filt_out = filt_out_last + T/2*(filt_in + filt_in_last);

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 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

filt_in_last = filt_in;
filt_out_last = filt_out;
filt_out = filt_out + gain_out;
else
filt_out = gain_out;
end
% VCO
vco_in = filt_out + fc/(Kv/(2*pi)); % bias to quiescent freq.
vco_out = vco_out_last + T/2*(vco_in + vco_in_last);
vco_in_last = vco_in;
vco_out_last = vco_out;
vco_out = Kv*vco_out; % apply Kv;
vco_out = sin(vco_out); % sin() for bandpass signal
% Measured loop signals
ev(k) = filt_out;
theta(k) = vco_out;
end

 Note that the carrier frequency is fixed at fs =4 and the lowpass

filter cutoff frequency is fixed at fs =8

 The double frequency components out of the phase detector

are removed with a fifth-order Butterworth lowpass filter

 The VCO is modified to include a bias that shifts the quiescent

frequency to fc D fs =4

 The VCO output is not simply a phase deviation, but rather a

sinusoid with argument the VCO output phase
 We will test the PLL using a single tone FM signal

>> t = 0:1/4000:5;
>> xr = cos(2*pi*1000*t+2*sin(2*pi*10*t));
>> psd(xr,2^14,4000)
>> axis([900 1100 -40 30])
>> % Process signal through PLL
>> [theta, ev, phi_error] = PLL2(xr,4000,1,1,50,0.707);
>> plot(t,ev)
>> axis([0 1 -25 25])

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-47

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

30

Power Spectrum of xr(t) (dB) 20

10

−10

−20

−30

−40
900 920 940 960 980 1000 1020 1040 1060 1080 1100
Frequency (Hz)

Single tone FM input spectrum having fm D 10 Hz and f D 20 Hz

25

20
VCO Control Voltage ev(t) (Kv = 1 Hz/v)

15

10

−5

−10

−15

−20

−25
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (s)

Recovered modulation at VCO input, ev .t/

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 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

General Loop Transfer Function and Steady-State Errors

 We have see that for arbitrary loop filter F .s/ the closed-loop
transfer function H.s/ is
Kt F .s/
H.s/ D
s C Kt F .s/
and the loop error function G.s/ D 1 H.s/ is
s
G.s/ D
s C Kt F .s/

 In tracking receiver applications of the PLL we need to con-

sider platform dynamics which give rise to a phase deviation
of the received signal of the form
2
 
.t / D Rt C 2ft C 0 u.t /
which is a superposition of a phase step, frequency step, and a
frequency ramp

 In the s-domain we have

2R 2f 0
ˆ.s/ D C 2 C
s3 s s
 From the final value theorem the loop steady-state phase error
is  
2R 2f 0
ss D lim s C 2 C G.s/
s!0 s3 s s
 If we generalize the loop filters we have been considering to
the form
1 2  a b
F .s/ D 2 s C as C b D 1 C C 2
s s s
ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-49
CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

we have for G.s/

s3
G.s/ D 3
s C Kt s 2 C Kt as C Kt b

 Depending upon the values chosen for a and b, we can create

a 1st, 2nd, or 3rd-order PLL using this F .s/

 The steady-state phase error when using this loop filter is

2


s 0s C 2fs C 2R
ss D lim
s!0 s 3 C Kt s 2 C Kt as C Kt b

 What are some possible outcomes for ss ?

4.2.2 PLL Frequency Synthesizers

 A frequency synthesizer is used to generate a stable, yet pro-
grammable frequency source

 A frequency synthesizer is often used to allow digital tuning of

the local oscillator in a communications receiver

 One common frequency synthesis type is known as indirect

synthesis

 With indirect synthesis a PLL is used to create a stable fre-

quency source

 The basic block diagram of an indirect frequency synthesizer

is the following

4-50 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

fref 1 Phase Loop fout

VCO
M Detector Filter
fref
Freq Div M

1
N
fout
N Freq Div
Indirect frequency synthesis using a PLL

 When locked the frequency error is zero, thus

N
fout D  fref
M

Example 4.11: A PLL Synthesizer for Broadcast FM

 In this example the synthesizer will provide the local oscillator
signal for frequency converting the FM broadcast band from
88.1 to 107.9 MHz down to an IF of 10.7 MHz

 The minimum channel spacing should be 200 kHz

 We will choose high-side tuning for the LO, thus

88:1 C 10:7  fLO  107:9 C 10:7 MHz
98:8  fLO  118:6 MHz
– The step size must be 200 kHz so the frequency must be
no larger than 200 kHz

 To reduce the maximum frequency into the divide by counter

a frequency offset scheme will be employed

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-51

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 The synthesizer with offset oscillator is the following

Freq Div
fref 1 Phase Loop fout
VCO
M Detector Filter
fref
M
= 200 kHz

1 fmix
N
fmix
Difference
N Freq Div Frequency
foffset

FM broadcast band synthesizer producing fLO for fIF D 10:7 MHz

 Choose foffset < fout then fmix D fout foffset, and for locking
fref fmix Nfref
D ) fout D C foffset
M N M
– Note that Fmix D Nfref=M and fout D fmix C foffset, by
virtue of the low side tuning assumption for the offset os-
cillator

 Let fref=M D 200 kHz and foffset D 98:0 MHz, then

118:6 98:0
Nmax D D 103
0:2
and
98:8 98:0
Nmin D D4
0:2
 To program the LO such that the receiver tunes all FM stations
step N from 4; 5; 6; : : : ; 102; 103

4-52 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

Example 4.12: Simple PLL Frequency Multiplication

 A scheme for multiplication by three is shown below:

Input at fc
Phase Loop Filt.
Hard limit Detector & Ampl.
t sinusoidal
input if
needed
VCO
Centered at 3fc
Input Spectrum
xVCO = Acos[2π(3fc)t]

f
0 fc 3fc

PLL as a Frequency Multiplier

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-53

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

Example 4.13: Simple PLL Frequency Division

 A scheme for divide by two is shown below:

VCO Output Phase Loop Filt.

Input at fc
Detector & Ampl.

t
0 2T0 VCO
VCO Output Spectrum
Centered at fc/2
Keep the
Lowpass Fundamental
Filter
f xLPF = Acos[2π(fc/2)t]
0
fc/2

PLL as a Frequency Divider

4.2.3 Frequency-Compressive Feedback

ed(t) x(t)
xr(t) BPF Discrim ev(t)
Demod.
eo(t) Output
VCO

Frequency compressive feedback PLL

4-54 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

 If we place a discriminator inside the PLL loop a compressing

action occurs

 Assume that

xr .t / D Ac cosŒ!c t C .t /

and
 Z t 
ev .t / D Av sin .!c !o/t C Kv ev .˛/ d˛

 Then,
blocked by BPF
‚
1  …„ ƒ
ed .t / D Ac Av sin .2!c !o/t C other terms
2
Z t 
sinŒ!ot C .t / Kv ev .˛/ d˛
„ ƒ‚ …
passed by BPF

so
t
1 h Z i
x.t / D Ac Av sin !ot C .t / Kv ev .˛/ d˛
2

 Assuming an ideal discriminator

 
1 d.t /
ev .t / D KD Kv ev .t /
2 dt
or  
Kv KD KD d.t /
ev .t / 1 C D

2 2 dt
ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-55
CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 For FM d.t /=dt D 2fd m.t /, so

KD fd
ev .t / D m.t /
1 C Kv KD =.2/

which is the original modulation scaled by a constant

 The discriminator input must be

 
1 1
x.t / D Ac Ad sin !ot C .t /
2 1 C Kv KD =.2/

 Assuming that Kv KD =.2/  1 we conclude that the dis-

criminator input has been converted to a narrowband FM sig-
nal, which is justifies the name ’frequency compressive feed-
back’

4.2.4 Coherent Carrier Recovery for DSB De-

modulation
 Recall that a DSB signal is of the form

xr .t / D m.t / cos !c t

 A PLL can be used to obtain a coherent carrier reference di-

rectly from xr .t /

 Here we will consider the squaring loop and the Costas loop

4-56 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

m(t)cos(ωct + φ) m(t)cos(ψ)
xr(t) LPF
Am2(t)cos(2ωct + 2φ)

Loop cos(ωct + θ)
2
() VCO
Filter static
phase
x2 -90o error
Bsin(2ωct + 2θ)
0o

Squaring Loop

m(t)cos(ψ)
LPF
1 2
m (t)sin2ψ
2
xr(t) 0o
cos(ωct + θ) Loop
sin(ωct + θ) VCO Filter
-90o
ksin(2ψ)
m(t)sin(ψ)
LPF

Costas Loop

 Note: For both of the above loops m2.t / must contain a DC

component

 The Costas loop or a variation of it, is often used for carrier

recovery in digital modulation

 Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), for example, can be viewed

as DSB where
1
X
m.t / D dnp.t nT /
nD 1

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-57

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

where dn D ˙1 represents random data bits and p.t / is a pulse

shaping function, say
(
1; 0  t  T
p.t / D
0; otherwise

 Note that in this case m2.t / D 1, so there is a strong DC value

present

m(t)
1
0.5
t/T
2 4 6 8 10

0.5

1
m(t)cos(ωct)
1

0.5

t/T
2 4 6 8 10

0.5

1

BPSK modulation

 Digital signal processing techniques are particularly useful for

building PLLs

 In the discrete-time domain, digital communication waveforms

are usually processed at complex baseband following some
form of I-Q demodulation

4-58 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.2. FEEDBACK DEMODULATORS

rI(t)
LPF A/D Discrete-
Time
Sampling
0 o fs clock
xIF(t)
cos[2πfcLt + φL]
-90o fs

rQ(t) r[n] = rI[n] + jrQ[n]

LPF A/D

IF to discrete-time complex baseband conversion

y[n]
To Symbol Synch

x[n] e[n]
( )M 2M 2 −1 Im( )
From e − j θ̂[n]
Matched v[n] Error Generation
θ̂[n]
Filter
LUT z −1
kp
NCO

z −1 ka
Loop Filter

M th-power digital PLL (DPLL) carrier phase tracking loop

From
Matched To Symbol Synch
Filter L-Tap
Delay
x[n] y[n]
ρ[n]
F( ) θ̂[n]
Rect.
to L-Tap 1
arg() e j( )
Polar φ[n] MA FIR M
e j( )

Non-Data Aided (NDA) feedforward carrier phase tracking

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-59

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

4.3 Interference and Preemphasis

Interference is a fact of life in communication systems. A through
understanding of interference requires a background in random sig-
nals analysis (Chapter 7 of the text), but some basic concepts can
be obtained by considering a single interference at fc C fi that lies
close to the carrier fc

4.3.1 Interference in Angle Modulation

 Initially assume that the carrier is unmodulated

xr .t / D Ac cos !c t C Ai cos.!c C !i /t

 In complex envelope form we have

j!c t
˚
xr .t / D Re .Ac C Ai cos !i t jAi sin !i t /e
Q / D Ac C Ai cos !i t
with R.t jAi sin !i t
Q /j,
 The real envelope or envelope magnitude is, R.t / D jR.t
p
R.t / D .Ac C Ai cos !i t /2 C .Ai sin !i t /2

and the envelope phase is

 
1 Ai sin !i t
.t / D tan
Ac C Ai cos !i t

 For future reference note that:

1 x3 x5 x7 jxj1
tan xDx C C


' x
3 5 7
4-60 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I
 4.3. INTERFERENCE AND PREEMPHASIS

 We can thus write that

 
xr .t / D R.t / cos !c t C .t /

 If Ac  Ai
 
Ai
xr .t / ' .Ac C Ai cos !i t / cos !c t C sin !i t
„ ƒ‚ … Ac
R.t/ „ ƒ‚ …
.t/

 Case of PM Demodulator: The discriminator recovers d.t /=dt ,

so the output is followed by an integrator
Ai
yD .t / D KD sin !i t
Ac

 Case of FM Demodulator: The discriminator output is used di-

rectly to obtain d.t /=dt
1 Ai d Ai
yD .t / D KD sin !i t D KD fi cos !i t
2 Ac dt Ac

 We thus see that the interfering tone appears directly in the

output for both PM and FM

 For the case of FM the amplitude of the tone is proportional to

the offset frequency fi

 For fi > W , recall W is the bandwidth of the message m.t /,

a lowpass filter following the discriminator will remove the
interference

 When Ai is similar to Ac and larger, the above analysis no

longer holds

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-61

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 In complex envelope form

j!i t j!c t
˚ 
xr .t / D Re Ac C Ai e e

 The phase of the complex envelope is

 
Ai sin !i t
.t / D † Ac C Ai e j!i t D tan 1


Ac C Ai cos !i t
 We now consider Ai  Ac and look at plots of .t / and the
derivative
φ(t) 0.1 0.6
dφ(t)/dt
0.4
0.05
0.2
t t

1
0.5 0.5 1
1
0.5 0.5 1

0.2
Ai = 0.1Ac
0.05
fi = 1
0.4

0.1
0.6

φ(t) 1 t

1
0.5 0.5 1
0.5
10
dφ(t)/dt

20
t

1
0.5 0.5 1
30
Ai = 0.9Ac
0.5
40
fi = 1

1
50

70
φ(t) 3 dφ(t)/dt
60
2
50
1
40
t 30

1
0.5 0.5 1

1 20
Ai = 1.1Ac
fi = 1
2 10 t

1
0.5 0.5 1

3

Phase deviation and discriminator outputs when Ai  Ac

4-62 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.3. INTERFERENCE AND PREEMPHASIS

 We see that clicks (positive or negative spikes) occur in the

discriminator output when the interference levels is near the
signal level

 When Ai  Ac the message signal is entirely lost and the

discriminator is said to be operating below threshold

 To better see what happens when we approach threshold, apply

single tone FM to the carrier

.t / D † Ac e jAm cos.!mt/ C Ai e j!i t

 

 Plot the discriminator output d.t /=dt with Am D 5, fm D 1,

fi D 3, and various values of Ai

Ai = 0.005, 30 dφ(t)/dt Ai = 0.1, 30 dφ(t)/dt

fi = 3 20 fi = 3 20
Am = β = 5, Am = β = 5,
fm = 1 10 fm = 1 10
t t

1
0.5 0.5 1
1
0.5 0.5 1

10
10

20
20

30
30

dφ(t)/dt dφ(t)/dt
20 t

1
0.5 0.5 1
t
100

1
0.5 0.5 1

20

200
Ai = 0.5, Ai = 0.9,
fi = 3
40 fi = 3
300
Am = β = 5,
60 Am = β = 5,
fm = 1 fm = 1
400

80

Discriminator outputs as Ai approaches Ac with single tone FM ˇ D 5

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-63

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

4.3.2 The Use of Preemphasis in FM

 We have seen that when Ai is small compared to Ac the inter-
ference level in the case of FM demodulation is proportional
to fi

 The generalization from a single tone interferer to background

noise (text Chapter 6), shows a similar behavior, that is wide
bandwidth noise entering the receiver along with the desired
FM signal creates noise in the discriminator output that has
amplitude proportional with frequency (noise power propor-
tional to the square of the frequency)

 In FM radio broadcasting a preemphasis boosts the high fre-

quency content of the message signal to overcome the increased
noise background level at higher frequencies, with a deem-
phasis filter used at the discriminator output to gain equal-
ize/flatten the end-to-end transfer function for the modulation
m.t /

4-64 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.4. MULTIPLEXING

No preemphasis

with Interference/Noise
Discriminator Output
With preemphasis

Message Bandwidth

f
C 0 f1 W
r

FM
r Discrim C
R Mod

HP(f) Hd(f)
|Hp(f)| |Hd(f)|

f f
f1 f2 f1

FM broadcast preemphasis and deemphasis filtering

 The time constant for these filters is RC D 75 s (f1 D

1=.2RC / D 2:1 kHz ), with a high end cutoff of about
f2 D 30 kHz

4.4 Multiplexing
 It is quite common to have multiple information sources lo-
cated at the same point within a communication system

 To simultaneously transmit these signals we need to use some

form of multiplexing

 In this chapter we continue the discussion of multiplexing from

Chapter 3 and investigate frequency-division multiplexing

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-65

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

4.4.1 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 With FDM the idea is to locate a group of messages on dif-

ferent subcarriers and then sum then together to form a new
baseband signal which can then be modulated onto the carrier

m1(t) Mod Lower bound on the

#1 composite signal band-
width
fsc1

xc(t)
m2(t) Mod RF
#2 Mod

fsc2 fc
Composite
...

baseband

mN(t) Mod
#N

fscN

FDM transmitter

 At the receiver we first demodulate the composite signal, then

separate into subcarrier channels using bandpass filters, then
demodulate the messages from each subcarrier

4-66 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.4. MULTIPLEXING

BPF Sub Car. yD1(t)

fsc1 Demod #1

RF BPF Sub Car. yD2(t)

Demod fsc2 Demod #2

...

...

...
BPF Sub Car. yDN(t)
fscN Demod #N

FDM receiver/demodulator

 The best spectral efficiency is obtained with SSB subcarrier

modulation and no guard bands

 At one time this was the dominant means of routing calls in the
public switched telephone network (PSTN)

 In some applications the subcarrier modulation may be combi-

nations both analog and digital schemes

 The analog schemes may be combinations of amplitude mod-

ulation (AM/DSM/SSB) and angle modulation (FM/PM)

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-67

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

Example 4.14: FM Stereo

+ l(t) + r(t)
l(t)
+
+ +
l(t) - r(t) + xb(t) FM
r(t) xc(t)
− Mod
+

19 kHz x2 38 kHz 19 kHz fc

Pilot Freq. Mult pilot

Pilot Other subcarrier

Xb(f) Carrier services can occupy
this region

f (kHz)
0 15 19 23 38 53

FM stereo transmitter
Mono
output
xb(t) LPF l(t) + r(t)
xr(t) FM
W = 15 l(t)
Discrim
kHz

LPF
W = 15 r(t)
kHz −
BPF l(t) - r(t)
fc = 19
kHz Coherent demod
of DSB on 38
kHz subcarrier
x 2 Freq
Mult

FM stereo receiver

4-68 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.4. MULTIPLEXING

4.4.2 Quadrature Multiplexing (QM)

Accosωct 2cosωct

m1(t) LPF yD1(t)

d1(t)

Channel
xc(t) xr(t)

m2(t) LPF yD2(t)

d2(t)
Acsinωct 2sinωct

QM modulation and demodulation

 With QM quadrature (sin/cos) carrier are used to send inde-

pendent message sources

 The transmitted signal is

 
xc .t / D Ac m1.t / cos !c t C m2.t / sin !c t

 If we assume an imperfect reference at the receiver, i.e., 2 cos.!c t C

 /, we have

d1.t / D Ac m1.t / cos  m2.t / sin 

C m1.t / cos.2!c t C  / C m2.t / sin.2!c t C  /
„ ƒ‚ …
LPF removes these terms
 
yD1.t / D Ac m1.t / cos  C m2.t / sin 

 The second term in yD1.t / is termed crosstalk, and is due to

the static phase error 

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-69

CHAPTER 4. ANGLE MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

 Similarly

 
yD2.t / D Ac m2.t / cos  m1.t / sin 

 Note that QM acheives a bandwidth efficiency similar to that

of SSB using adjacent two subcarriers or USSB and LSSB to-
gether on the same subcarrier

4.5 General Performance of Modulation

Systems in Noise

 Regardless of the modulation scheme, the received signal xr .t /,

is generally perturbed by additive noise of some sort, i.e.,

xr .t / D xc .t / C n.t /

where n.t / is a noise process

 The pre- and post-detection signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is used

as a figure or merit

4-70 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

 4.5. GENERAL PERFORMANCE OF MODULATION SYSTEMS IN NOISE

xr(t) Pre-Det. Demod/ yD(t)

Filter Detector
P <m2(t)>
(SNR)T = T (SNR)D =
<n2(t)> <n2(t)>
Common to
all systems

1 0
, D= 5
FM =
,D
PCM FM Nonlinear modu-
q = 256 lation systems
=2
,D have a distinct
(SNR)D PCM FM threshold in noise
q = 64
D SB
Q
S B, mod
S e
S B, nt D
D er e
h
Co
(SNR)T

General modulation performance in noise

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 4-71