Class 12 NCERT History Chapter 3
Kinship, Caste and Class
• Kinship: The person belonging the same family.
• Polity: The form or process or system of government.
• Kinfolk: Persons of blood relation.
• Patriliny: System of tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on.
• Matriliny: System of tracing descent from mother side.
• Adi Parvan: Adi Parvan is the fi rst section of the Sanskrit version of the
Mahabharata.
• Indra: A god of warfare, rains and valour, one of the principal deities in the
Rigveda.
• Dharmasutras: These are the texts composed in Sanskrit by Brahmanas.
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• Mlechchhas: Shakas were regarded as Mlechchhas. They were
the Central Asian people who had migrated and settled in the
northwestern part of the Subcontinent.
• Majjhima Nikaya: It is a Buddhist text. It forms a part of a
dialogue between a king named Avantiputta and a disciple of
Buddha, named Kachchana.
• Gotras: People of the same kind and same vama.
• Shrenis: Unions of craftsmen and traders in Ancient India. It was
also called guilds.
• Chandals: Untouchables of the ancient India who did menial
works.
• Mahasammata: It means the great elect. A person chosen by the
whole people.
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• Nishad: A hunting community.
• Epic: A long poem about the deeds of great men and
women or about a nation’s past history.
• Dwij: During Later Vedic period, people who adopted
sacred thread system was caUedDwij.
• Endogamy: It refers to the system of marriage within
the unit such as caste.
• Polygamy: Practice of having more than one wife.
• Polyandry: Practice of having more than one husband.
• Vamasha: Sanskrit word meaning lineage of a person.
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Key concepts in nutshell
• Many rules and different practices were followed by the
people.
• Very often families were part of larger networks of people we
define as relatives. Blood relations can be defined in many
different ways.
• Mausmriti is considered the most important Dharma Sutra
and Dharmashastra. It was compiled between 200 BCE and
200 CE. This laid down rules governing social life.
• During Mahabharata age gotras were considered very
important by higher verna of societies.
• Social differences prevailed and integration took place within
the framework of caste system.
• According to the sutras only Kashtriyas could be a king.
• The original version of Mahabharata is in Sanskrit.
• It contains vivid descriptions of battles forest, palaces and
settlements. Instagram
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Finding out about families
1. Family varies in terms of numbers of members,
their relationship with one another as well as the
kinds of activities they share.
2. People belonging to the same family share food
and other resources, and live, work and perform
rituals together.
3. Families are usually parts of larger networks of
people defined as relatives, or to use a more
technical term, kinfolk.
4. While familial ties are often regarded as “natural”
and based on blood, they are defined in many
ways.
5. Historians also investigate and analyse attitudes
towards family and kinship. Instagram
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The ideal of patriliny
• Patriliny means tracing descent from father
to son, grandson and so on.
• Matriliny is the term used when descent is
traced through the mother.
1. The concern with patriliny was not unique to
ruling families. It is evident in mantras in
ritual texts such as the Rigveda.
2. It is possible that these attitudes were
shared by wealthy men and those who
claimed high status, including Brahmanas.
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Early Societies: In detail
1. The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
• One of the most ambitious projects of scholarship began in 1919, under
the leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar. A team
comprising dozens of scholars initiated the task of preparing a critical
edition of the Mahabharata, a colossal epic running in its present form
into over 100,000 verses with depictions of a wide range of social
categories and situations.
• It was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE
onwards), and some of the stories it contains may have been in
circulation even earlier. The central story is about two sets of warring
cousins. The text also contains sections laying down norms of behaviour
for various social groups.
• The critical edition meant collecting Sanskrit manuscripts of the text,
written in a variety of scripts, from different parts of the country. The
team worked out a method of comparing verses from each
manuscript. The project took 47 years to complete.
• There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the
story, Also there were enormous regional variations in the ways in which
the text had been transmitted over the centuries, which reflect complex
processes that shaped early (and later) social histories.
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Kinship and Marriage Many Rules and Varied Practices
• Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives,
or to use a more technical term, kinfolk. While familial ties are often regarded
as “natural” and based on blood, they are defined in many different ways.
• Historians also investigate and analyse attitudes towards family and
kinship.They provide an insight into people’s thinking.
• Mahabharata describes a feud over land and power between two groups of
cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling
family, that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of the janapadas. At the
end the Pandavas emerged victorious. After that, patrilineal succession was
proclaimed.
• While patriliny had existed prior to the composition of the epic, the central
story of the Mahabharata reinforced the idea that it was valuable. Under
patriliny, sons could claim the resources (including the throne in the case of
kings) of their fathers when the latter died.
• Most ruling dynasties (c. sixth century BCE onwards) claimed to follow this
system, with variations in case of no son.
• The concern with patriliny was not unique to ruling families. It is evident in
mantras in ritual texts such as the Rigveda. It is possible that these attitudes
were shared by wealthy men and those who claimed high status, including
Brahmanas. Instagram
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• Marriage: Daughters had no claims to the resources of the
household. They were married into families outside the kin.
Thos system was exogamy.
• Women were married at the “right” time and to the “right”
person. This gave rise to the belief that kanyadana or the
gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty
of the father.
• The Brahamanas laid down codes of social behaviour in
great detail. These were meant to be followed by Brahmanas
in particular and the rest of society in general. From c. 500
BCE, these norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as
the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras. The most
important of such works, the Manusmriti, was compiled
between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE.
• Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognised as many as
eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were
considered as “good” while the remaining were condemned.
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• Gotra: From c. 1000 BCE, people (especially
Brahmanas) were classifi ed into different gotras. Each
gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and all those who
belonged to the same gotra were regarded as his
descendants.
• Two important rules of gotras are: Women were
expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of
their husband on marriage and members of the same
gotra could not marry.
• Satavahanas are one of the powerful ruling lineages,
who ruled over parts of western India and the Deccan (c.
second century BCE-second century CE). Some of the
Satavahana rulers were polygynous.
• Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymics
(names derived from that of the mother) but that
succession to the throne was generally patrilineal.
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Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste
• The ideal social order was laid down in the Dharmasutras and
Dharmashastras. According to which, the Brahmanas were ranked
first and it was divinely ordained. While, Shudras and “untouchables”
were at the very bottom of the order. Positions within the order were
supposedly determined by birth.
• The shastras also contained rules about the ideal “occupations” of the
four categories or varnas.
• Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the
Vedas, Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and
administer justice, Vaishyas were engaged in agriculture, pastoralism
and trade, Shudras had only one occupation of serving the three
“higher” varnas.
• According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. But the
social background of the Mauryas, who ruled over a large empire, has
been hotly debated because they were described as being of “low”
origin.
• Other rulers, such as the Shakas who came from Central Asia, were
regarded as mlechchhas, barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas.
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• There was another classification called jati. Like varna, jati was also
based on birth but unlike varna there was no restriction on the number of
jatis. Whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups which
did not easily fit into the fourfold varna system, they classified them as a
jati
• Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes
organised into shrenis or guilds.
• There were populations whose social practices were not influenced by
Brahmanical ideas. They are often described as odd, uncivilised, or even
animal-like in Sanskrit texts.These included forest-dwellers – for whom
hunting and gathering remained an important means of subsistence.
Categories such as the nishada, to which Ekalavya is supposed to have
belonged, are examples of this.
• Brahmanas developed a sharper social divide by classifying certain social
categories as “untouchable”, based on certain activities and
performance of rituals. These included handling corpses and dead
animals. Those who performed such tasks, designated as
chandalas. The Manusmriti laid down the “duties” of the chandalas.
• Those who considered themselves “pure” avoided taking food from those
they designated as “untouchable”. Instagram
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Beyond Birth Resources and Status
• Issues of ownership figure in the Dharmasutras and
Dharmashastras. According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to
be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a
special share for the eldest.
• Women could not claim a share of these resources. However, women
were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their
marriage as stridhana (literally, a woman’s wealth). This could be
inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on it.
• Social differences between men and women were sharpened because of
the differences in access to resources.
• Another criterion for regulating access to wealth was varna.
Certain traditions developed critiques of the varna order.
• Buddhism (c. sixth century BCE) rejected the idea of claims to status on
the basis of birth. It also recognised that there were differences in
society, but did not regard these as natural or infl exible.
• Status could also be claimed in situations where men who were
generous were respected, while those who were miserly or simply
accumulated wealth for themselves were despised.
• One area where these values were cherished was ancient Tamilakam.
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Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract
• The Buddhists also developed an alternative
understanding of social inequalities.
• In a myth found in a text known as the Sutta
Pitaka, they suggested that originally human beings
did not have fully evolved bodily forms, nor was the
world of plants fully developed. All beings lived in an
idyllic state of peace, taking from nature only what they
needed for each meal.
• The institution of kingship was based on human
choice, with taxes as a form of payment for services
rendered by the king.
• It was never a rigid system because if human beings
were responsible for the creation of the system, they
could also change it in future.
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Handling Texts Historians and the Mahabharata
• Historians consider several elements when they analyse texts.
They examine the languages and kinds of texts. They also
found out the authors and audience because authors keep the
interests of their audience in mind while composing their work.
• They also ascertain the possible date of the composition or
compilation and the place where they may have been
composed.
• A Dynamic Text: Historians usually classify the contents of
the present text of the Mahabharata under two broad heads –
sections that contain stories, designated as the narrative, and
sections that contain prescriptions about social norms,
designated as didactic (the narrative often contains a social
message).
• Generally historians agree that the Mahabharata was meant to
be a dramatic, moving story, and that the didactic portions
were probably added later.
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• The original story was probably composed by charioteer-
bards known as sutas who generally accompanied
Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems
celebrating their victories and other achievements.
• The enormous composition is traditionally attributed to a
sage named Vyasa.
• The Mahabharata, like any major epic, contains vivid
descriptions of battles, forests, palaces and settlements.
• The growth of the Mahabharata did not stop with the
Sanskrit version. Over the centuries, versions of the epic
were written in a variety of languages through an ongoing
process of dialogue between peoples, communities, and
those who wrote the texts. At the same time, the central
story of the epic was often retold in different ways.
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Answer in 100-150 Words Instagram
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1. Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.
Answer
Patriliny is the system through which descent from father to son and grandson is traced.
The principle of patriliny would have been essential for the elite families for the following
reasons:
Continuity of dynasty:
As per the dharamshastra, it was belief that the son carried forward the dynasty. That
was the main reason that the families wish for the son and not for the daughters. A
couple of Rig-Veda also substantiates this view. In this couplet, a father at the time of the
marriage of his daughter wishes that she should have best sons with the grace of Lord
Shiva.
Inheritance:
In Royal families. The acquisition of thrones was included in the inheritance. After the
death of the king, his elderly son was supposed to inherit the throne. After the death of
parents, the property was equally divided among all the sons to avoid disputes in
between the family. Most of the royal families followed patriliny since 600 B.C. But
sometimes this system had the exception,
(a) The brother of king ascended the throne in case the former had no son.
(b) Relatives also claimed inheritance of the throne.
(c)In some special cases, women also ascended the throne like Prabhavati Gupta.
2. Discuss whether kings in early states were invariably Kshatriyas.
Answer
As per the Dhramashastra, only Kshatriyas were supposed to be the
kings. But it was also to be noted that important ruling lineages perhaps
had different origins. Mauryas were considered Kshatriyas by many
people. Some Brahmanical texts described Mauryas as of low origin. The
shungas and Kanvas who were immediate successors of the Mauryans
were Brahmans. In fact those section of the society controlled the
political power which enjoyed support and resources. It did not depend
on the question of being born as Kshatriya.
There were other rulers like shakes who came from Central Asia. But the
Brahmans considered them as mlechchhas, barbarians and outsiders.
Similarly Gotami-putra Satkarni, the best known ruler of Satavahana
Dynasty, became a destroyer of the pride of kshatriyas. This we see that
the Satavahanas claimed to be brahmanas whereas the Brahmanas
were of the opinion that the kings should be Kshatriyas. Instagram
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3. Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of
Drona, Hidimba and Matanga.
Answer
Drona: He was Brahmanas. As per the dharamshastras, it was the duty of
the brahmana to impart education. It was considered a pious deed of
brahmanas. Drona was also following that system. He was imparting
education. He thought archery to the princes of the Kuru Dynasty. In those
days, people of low caste were not entitled to get education. Keeping this
view in mind, Drona refused imparting education to Ekalavya. But in the
course of time, Ekalavya learnt archery and acquired great skill. But Drona
demanded right thumb of Ekalavya as his teaching fee. This was against
religious norms in fact, Drona did this just to ensure that no one could be
better archer than Arjuna in the field of Archery.
Hidimba: She was lady demon that is rakshasini. In fact all the rakshasa
were man- eaters. One day her brother asked her to catch pandavas so that
he may eat them. But hidimba did not follow this. She fell in love with Bhima
and married him. A rakshasa boy was born to him, named Ghatokacha. In
this way, Hidimba did keep the norms of rakshasas. Instagram
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Matanga: He was Boddhisatta who was born in the family of
chandala. But he married Dittha Mangalika who was the
daughter of the merchant. A son was born to him named
Mandavya kumara. In the course of time he learnt three Vedas.
He used to offer food to sixteen hundered Brahmanas every day.
But when his father appeared before him dressed in rags with a
clay alms bowl in his hand, he refused to offer food to him. The
reason was that he considered his father as outcaste and his
food was meant for Brahmanas only. Matanga advised his son
not to be proud of his birth. After saying this, he disappeared
into the air. When Dittha Mangalika knew this incident she went
after Matanga and begged his forgiveness. This way acted like
a true wife. She performed her duty religiously. A donor is
considered generous. But Mandavya failed to follow the norms
of religion and generosity.
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4. In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the
Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha sukta?
Answer
The purusha sukta of the Rig Veda says that the four Varnas emerged because of the
sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man. The four varnas were Brahmanas, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and shudras. These Varnas had different jobs. The Brahmanas had supreme
position in the society. They were also considered as teachers. Kshatriyas were
considered warriors. They also ran the administration. The vaishyas were the masters of
trade. The shudras were at the lowest strata. Their duty was to serve the above three
varnas. Under this brahmanical system, birth was the only criteria to judge the stutus
and prestige in the society.
But the Buddhist theory of a social contract was different. As per the Buddhist concept,
there was inequality in society. But they also opined that this inequality was neither
natural nor permanent. They did not favour the idea of birth being the criteria of social
status.
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6. This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Winternitz, wrote about
the Mahabharata: “just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature
… and contains so much and so many kinds of things, … (it) gives(s) us an insight into the
most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.
Answer
Plenty of literary sources are available to reconstruct the ancient Indian history.
Mahabharata is one of them. It is an important literary and historical source. Its
important has been recognised even by the foreign writers. Its important has also been
recognised by Maurice Winternitz because in his opinion the Mahabharata represents
an entire literature. This great epic is full of various examples of different aspects of the
Indians life. The reading of the Mahabharata gives a profound depth of soul of the
Indian folk. It has been written in simple Sanskrit and therefore widely understood.
Generally, historians classify the contents of the Mahabharata under two sections. They
are narrative and didactic. Narrative section contains stories and didactic section
contains prescription about social norms. But at some instances, there were
intermingling also.
Many historians believe that the Mahabharata was a dramatic, moving story and that
the didactic portions were a later interpolation.
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We get several get several different views about the authorship of the
Mahabharata was a dramatic, moving store and that the didactic portion
were a later interpolation.
We get several different views about the authorship of the Mahabharta. It
was believed that the original stories were composed by sutras. Sutras were
charioteer beads. They accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battle field
and composed poems celebrating their victories other achievement. These
compositions were circulated orally. From the fifth century BCE onwards,
Brahmans took over the story and started writing story and started witting
story.
This great epic contains vivid description of battles, forests, palaces and
settlements. It describes kinship, political life of the said period, social
priority. Major features of the family life such as patriliny, different forms of
marriage and rules related with marriage, position of women in the society,
social differences of the Indian society can be traced back to the period of
the Mahabharata. This great epic also describes social mobility.
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7. Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.
Answer
There are so much views about the author of the Mahabharata. Following views have been put
forward regarding the authorship of the Mahabharata.
(a) It is believed that the original story was written by the charioteer-bards known as sutras.
They generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battle field and composed poems
celebrating their victories and other achievements.
(b)It is also believed that in the beginning the text of the Mahabharata was orally circulated.
Scholars and priests carried it from one generation to another. From the fifth century BCE, the
Brahmans took over the story and started writing. This was the time when Kurus and Panchals
were gradually becoming kingdoms. The story of the Mahabhartata also revolved round them.
Some parts of the story reflect that old social values were replaced by the new ones.
(c)C. 200 BCE and 200 CE is another phase in the composition of the Mahabharata. During
this period worship of Vishnu was gaining ground Krishna came to be identified as Vishnu.
Large didactic section resembling the Manuscript was added during the period between C 200
and 400 CE. This interpolation made Mahabharata an epic consisting of 100,000 verses. This
enormous composition is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyas. Instagram
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8. How important were gender differences in early societies? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer
It is seen that in early societies families were generally patriliny. Patriliny means tracing
descent from father to son and to grandson and so on. Matriliny family was generally not
in use. But exception was also available. As exception, Satavahanas of Andhra can be
mentioned. Historical sources mention the name of some rulers from inscription
association with the name of the mothers of the king. As Gotami-putra means son of
Gotami. Gotami and Vasistha are the ferminines of Gotama and vasistha.
Sons were consdered important for the continuity of the family. Attitudes towards
daughter were different. They had no claims towards the resources of the household. But
marrying them into the families outside the kin was considered desirable. This system of
marriage was called exogamy. According to this system, the lives of the young girls and the
women belonged to those families which claimed that high status were often carefully
regulated to ensure that they were married at the right time and to the right person. This
gave rise to the tradition that in marriage kanyadana was an important religious duty of
the father. Instagram
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After marriage women were supposed to give up their fathers gotra and
adopt their husbands.
As per manusmriti, the parental state was to be divided equally amongst
sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest.
Women were not given any share in this state.
But women were allowed to keep the gifts with themselves which they
received at the time of their marriage. This was called stridhana. This
could be inherited by their children and the husband had no claims over
it. But at the same time Manusmriti also told women not to hoard family
property or even their own valuables without the permission other
husband.
In fact, social differences were sharpened because of the differences in
access of resources. Many texts suggest that while upper class women
may have access to resource but land, cattle, money were generally
controlled by the men. Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta was rich
women. Instagram
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9. Discuss the evidence that suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were
not universally followed.
Answer
Brahmanical prescription about kinship and marriage:
Prescription about kinship
According to Sanskrit texts the term Kula was used to designate families and jati for the larger network of
kinfolk. The terms vasha was used for lineage. Very often people belonging to the same family share
food and other resources they live work and perform rituals together. Families were considered as the
part of larger networks of the people defined as relatives technical terms used to be defined them was
kinfolk .While familial ties were considered natural and based on blood they can be defined in different
ways. For instance, some societies regard cousins s being blood relations, whereas others do not regard
as from historians retrieve information about elite families fairly easily from it is very hard reconstruct the
familial relationship of ordinary people.
Prescription about marriage
For the continuity of the patrilineage the sons were considered important. The daughter could not have
right over the resource of their household. They were married into families outside the kin. This system
was known as exogamy which means marrying outside ones kin or gotra. The women of high stats
families were married to the right person at the right time. Kanayadan or the gift of the daughter in the
marriage was considered as an important religion duty of the father. Satvahana rulers did not follow
exogamy of Brahmans.
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