A

Project report on

NUMERICAL MODELLING AND SIMULATION

OF LASER WELDING OF SUB-MILLIMETER
THICK 316 STAINLESS STEEL
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of

Master of Technology
In
Manufacturing Engineering
By

Sanket Yashwant Shambharkar

(PRN. 10303320181260810003)

Guide
Dr. Dhanraj B. Waghmare

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonere
Lonere - 402103, Dist. - Raigad, Maharashtra
2019-20
 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University
“Vidyavihar”, Lonere- 402103, Tal: Mangaon, Dist.: Raigad.
Maharashtra, India

___________________________________________________________________________

Approval Sheet

The project report entitled “Numerical Modelling and Simulation of Laser Welding of
sub-millimeter thick 316 Stainless Steel” by Shambharkar Sanket Yashwant
(10303320181260810003) is approved for partial fulfilment of award of the Degree of Master
of Technology in Manufacturing Engineering in the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR TECHNOLOGYCAL UNIVERSITY Lonere, Raigad.

Dr. Dhanraj B. Waghmare Dr. Neeraj Agrawal

Guide Head of Department

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,
Lonere - 402103

Examiners

1)___________________________________________

2)___________________________________________

3)___________________________________________

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 ACKNOWLEGEMENT

I express my profound gratitude to Dr. Dhanraj B. Waghmare, my project guide of

Mechanical Engineering Department, DR. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR UNIVERSITY,
Lonere, for his systematic guidance, valuable advice and the constant encouragement
throughout the project report.

I also wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr. Neeraj Agrawal, Head, Mechanical
Engineering Department, Dr. BABASAHEB AMBEDKAR TECHNOLOGICAL
UNIVERSITY, Lonere, for his valuable and motivating support.

I would like to mention technical help of Mr. Rohit V. Zende and Mr. Pankaj M. Dhongade,
Research Scholars, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
Technological University towards the reported work.

This will not get complete unless I thank my M. Tech colleagues and friends. They are the
ones who keep my life motivated.

Sanket Yashwant Shambharkar

(10303320181260810003)

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 CONTENTS

 Title Page
 Approval Sheet ii
 Acknowledgment iii
 List of Figures vii
 List of Tables x
 Abstract xi

Sr. No. Chapter Name Page No.

1 Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Principles of Laser Systems 2
1.2.1 Principle of Laser Generation 2
1.2.2 Laser Welding Operation 4
1.2.2.1 Keyhole Laser Welding 5
1.2.2.2 Conduction Laser welding 7
1.2.2.3 Operation Modes of Laser Welding Process 8
1.2.3 Applications of Laser Welding 8
1.3 Laser Welding of Steels 9
1.4 Simulation of Laser Welding 10
1.4.1 Thermo-mechanical Simulation 11
1.4.2 Multi-physical Simulation 12
1.4.2.1 Laser-material Interaction 13
1.4.2.2 Heat Transfers and Fluid Flow 13
1.4.2.3 Modelling of Liquid/Gas Interface 13
1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 14
1.5.1 Advantages of Laser Welding 14
1.5.2 Disadvantages of Laser Welding 15
1.6 Organization of Project Report 15

2 Chapter 2 Literature Survey

2.1 Introduction 16

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 2.2 Literature review 16
2.3 Lasers for Welding 30
2.3.1 Harnessing Laser Beam for Welding Operation 31
2.4 Parameters Affecting the Laser Welding 33
2.4.1 Focal Point Position 33
2.4.1.1 Focused Spot Size 33
2.4.1.2 Depth of Focus 34
2.4.1.3 Focus Position 35
2.4.2 Laser Power and Welding Speed 35
2.4.3 Shielding Gases 36
2.4.4 Joint Configurations 38
2.4.5 Material Preparation 39
2.5 Summary of Literature Review 40
2.6 Motivation 41
2.7 Objective of Study 41
3 Chapter 3 Methodology and Simulation
3.1 Data for Simulation 42
3.1.1 Study used for Reference 42
3.1.2 Material Selection and Properties 42
3.1.3 Joint Geometry 46
3.1.4 Laser Specification as per the Reference study 47
3.1.5 Data for Simulation Study 47
3.2 Numerical Simulation Modelling 48
3.2.1 Finite Element Analysis 48
3.2.2 Heat Conduction Theory and Boundary Conditions 49
3.2.3 Mathematical Modelling of the Heat Source 50
3.2.4 Sheet Geometry Modelling and Material Assignment 51
3.2.5 Mesh selection and Grid Independence Study 53
3.2.6 Input Conditions 57
3.2.7 Steps for Numerical Simulation in ANSYS 59
4 Chapter 4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Thermal Analysis of Laser Welded Zone 60
4.2 Weld Dimension Analysis 67

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 4.3 Structural Analysis of Laser Welding 70
5 Chapter 5 Conclusion
5.1 Conclusion 80
5.2 Future Scope 81
References 82
Appendix 85

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 List of Figures
Figure Title Page No.
1.1 Basic elements of a laser system with pumping action 3
1.2 Spontaneous emission of photons from the excited active medium 3
1.3 Stimulated emission of photons where 4
(a) collision of photon with an excited atom, molecule or ion,
(b) premature release of photon and formation of two photons,
(c) in-phase travel until the next collision,
(d) formation of a powerful laser beam by stimulated emitted
photons which travel parallel to the optical axis of the laser system
1.4 Optical feedback of photons by mirrors to increase the path length 4
for stimulated emission and amplify the laser power
1.5 (a) Formation of keyhole during laser welding 6
(b) solidification of molten material as the laser moves giving the
weld joint
1.6 Schematic of conduction laser welding 7
1.7 Example computation algorithm 12
2.1 (a) Temperature field, 16
(b) Welded joint zone and
(c) comparison of simulated weld with real experiment
2.2 Overview of the model for simulating laser material processing 18
2.3 Simulated keyhole shape and propagation during welding of 316L 23
stainless steel butt joint in absence and presence on laser pulse
2.4 Temperature distribution in front cross-section for Yb:YAG laser 24
welded joint
2.5 Deformation obtained from 26
(a) simulation and
(b) experimentation
2.6 Characteristics of focused laser beam 34
2.7 Approximate weld penetration depths for steels with respect to 36
laser power and welding speed
2.8 Basic joint configurations that can be laser welded 39
3.1 Experiment setup showing butt joint configuration 46
3.2 Values obtained after complete experimentation 48

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3.3 Geometry of the plate 51
3.4 Geometry preparation layout of ANSYS Workbench 51
3.5 Material properties assignment of SS 316 in materials module 52
3.6 (a) Meshing of sheets 54
(b) 3D view
3.7 Quality of mesh elements 54
3.8 Mesh aspect ratio 55
3.9 (a) 0.56 mm sheet mesh, 56
(b) side view,
(c) element quality and mesh count
3.10 (a) 0.2 mm sheet mesh, 57
(b) side view,
(c) element quality and mesh count
3.11 Steps for Numerical Simulation in ANSYS 59
4.1 Temperature profile for moving heat source with respect to time 62
4.2 Temperature distribution at welded region for 0.85 mm thickness 64
SS 316 sheet
4.3 Temperature distribution at welded region for 0.56 mm thickness 65
SS 316 sheet
4.4 Temperature distribution at welded region for 0.2 mm thickness 66
SS 316 sheet
4.5 Calculations for weld width from transient thermal study 68
4.6 Graphical comparison of weld dimension values 70
4.7 Stress vs. Strain curve of the thickness 0.85mm
(a) P=841.2 W, S=3926 mm/min, 72
(b) P=1108.8 W, S=3926 mm/min, 72
(c) P=1108.8 W, S=3926 mm/min 73

4.8 Stress vs. Strain curve of the thickness 0.56mm

(a) P=831.11 W, S=5446 mm/min, 74
(b) P=831.1 W, S=5446 mm/min, 74
(c) P=1068.9 W, S=5445.82 mm/min 75

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4.9 Stress vs. Strain curve of the thickness 0.2mm
(a) P=320.27 W, S=4906 mm/min, 76
(b) P=320.27 W, S=4906 mm/min, 76
(c)P=320.27 W, S=4906 mm/min 77

4.10 Graphical comparison of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) values 78

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 List of Tables

No. Table Page No.

2.1 Process parameters for simulation model of laser welding process 19
2.2 Time duration required for numerical analysis with respect to all 28
calculation techniques for laser welding of AISI304 stainless steel
and Inconel 625 nickel superalloy pipe
2.3 Types and characteristics of lasers for welding 31
2.4 Different shielding gases used in laser welding 38
3.1 Chemical composition (wt%) of SS 316 43
3.2 Composition of elements in SS 316 43
3.3 Mecahnical properties of SS 316 44
3.4 Thermal properties of SS 316 44
3.5 Thermo-Physical properties of SS 316 45
3.6 Yb-fibre laser system specifications 47
3.7 Experimental setup conditions during welding process 47
3.8 Properties of SS 316 for ANSYS materials module 52
3.9 Grid Independence study 53
3.10 Number of elements for given thickness 55
3.11 Input conditions for thermal analysis 57
4.1 Values of maximum temperature obtained from numerical 61
simulation
4.2 Comparison of weld geometry 69
4.3 Values of ultimate tensile strength from experimental study 71
4.4 Comparison of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) 78

Appendix I
1 Maximum stress and strain values obtained for 0.85 mm thickness 85
sheet
2 Maximum stress and strain values obtained for 0.56 mm thickness 86
sheet
3 Maximum stress and strain values obtained for 0.2 mm thickness 87
sheet

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 ABSTRACT

Welding is an essential joining process for achieving permanent joints for various
applications in the engineering discipline. With increasing technological advancements, novel
methods of welding with high productivity have been emerging which include Laser
Welding. Laser Welding, though has high initial investment, has good efficiency, as strong
joints are produced with low welding time and minimum defects. Laser Welding Simulations
are on a rise due to two reasons, extensive use of Laser Welding in engineering applications
and economical advantage in welding procedure as the simulation provides various insights
into the behaviour of welding operation without any significant and unwanted material
wastage.

The project report presents the simulation study performed on the topic of Laser welding
simulation of SS 316 sheets with very low thickness in analysis softwares. Simulation is
performed using the data of a previous study done on the SS 316 sheets of varied thickness
for structural and metallurgical research. This simulation study intends to check the effect of
input parameters like focus point position, laser power and welding speed on output like
thermal field distribution, weld dimensions and ultimate tensile strength. Error and agreement
between the numerical simulation and observed values from experiment will be checked to
validate the simulation model. Type of simulation performed is thermo-mechanical
simulation consisting of transient thermal analysis and structural analysis in ANSYS
software.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Welding is the most versatile fabrication process used for joining of materials or semi-
finished products, either having similar or dissimilar material composition, by melting the
parts together and allowing them to cool resulting in fusion process at the melted boundary
and thus, resulting in formation of a joint. Formation of coalescence of materials is produced
by heating, to their melting temperatures, can be defined as a weld. For certain conditions, an
additional material called filler material is added to the molten pool of the base material to
enhance the strength of the required joint. Application of heat energy is used as the main
source for creating the joint by melting the material but application of pressure in conjunction
with heat source is also an option used extensively for welding processes. Among various
different welding process types like Arc Welding, Gas Welding, Resistance Welding, Hybrid
Welding, etc., Energy Beam Welding is one of the most recent techniques consisting of Laser
Beam Welding and Electron Beam Welding. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused
laser beam, while electron beam welding uses a high power electron beam inside a vacuum
environment.

The laser beam, which is used as the heat source, provides a concentrated and high density
heat source, allowing for a narrow, deep weld bead with high welding speed. This technique
is mostly incorporated in high volume production industries like the automotive industry. But
due to its various advantages over other joining operations, laser welding has found its
profound application in various metal working fields too. Laser beam welding has high power
density which results in small heat affected zone due to high heating and cooling rates. Laser
welding is now recognised as one of the versatile and realistic fabrication process,
successfully joining many materials including aluminium, titanium, thermoplastic polymers,
carbon steels, high-strength-low-alloy (HSLA) steels and stainless steels. [1][2]

Laser beam has become an efficient source for joining metals because of its capability to join
metals at the surface level as well as required depth of penetration, producing strong welds
and joints. It is to be understood that there is an appreciable difference between joining and
welding. Some materials can be joined due to the small amount of molten material and the

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controllable melting period, but cannot be welded. Also, due to high rates of heating and
cooling, the weld-zone formed is supposed to be micro-cracked. On the other hand, laser
beam source is characterized by coherent, collimated source of light. Thus there is regulated,
well monitored supply of energy which can be properly maintained in laser welding.
Continuous or pulsed laser beam may be used depending upon the various applications in
industry. Thin materials are welded by millisecond-long pulses while continuous laser
systems are used for deep welds. The laser welding process operates at very high scan speeds
with low distortion as intense energy beam of light is used as heat source. Since it requires no
filler material, laser welding reduces costs. Laser welding can easily be automated and
provides good repeatability. [2]

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF LASER SYSTEMS

When molecules of certain material absorb selected light wavelengths, it causes the
molecules of that material to vibrate and generate heat. This ability of different wavelengths
to give their energy in the form of heat when absorbed by different materials and the
provision of transmitting the light through long distances along with focusing it optically to a
small spot to cause a significant increase in power density (W/mm2) prompted the scientists
and engineers to develop a special light making machine called lasers. The word LASER is
an acronym for Light Amplification Stimulated by the Emission of Radiation and it refers the
method in which the light is generated. Lasers are able to produce a collimated and coherent
beam of light, meaning all waves of one wavelength are in phase. High power density is
achieved because almost parallel, single wavelength light rays make the collimated laser
beam to focus on a much smaller spot size. Thus, a much more efficient power density is
achieved with laser compared to other heat sources. [3]

1.2.1 Principle of Laser Generation

Lasers can be considered as optical amplifiers working on the concept of pumping or exciting
an active medium which is placed between two mirrors, one of which is partially
transmitting. An active medium can be defined as collection of special atoms, molecules or
ions in any state, either solid, liquid or gas, which will lase i.e. emit radiations of light waves
when they are excited by pumping action. This pumping action can be easily understood with
reference to Fig 1.1. These light waves are usually referred to as photons when describing the
production of laser light because a photon always carries a precise and defined amount of
energy with respect to its wavelength.
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An active medium has significantly large number of atoms, molecules or ions in any
respective state and when these entities are pumped, they absorb energy which they are able
to hold for a very short but random life time. When this random lifetime expires, these atoms,
molecules or ions give up their energy in the form of photons returning to their initial state
until pumped again. This type of release of photons is termed as spontaneous emission as
shown in Fig 1.2.

Fig 1.1 Basic elements of a laser system with pumping action [4]

Fig 1.2 Spontaneous emission of photons from the excited active medium [4]

These released photons travel in all directions with reference to the optical axis of the laser as
shown in Fig 1.2. If a photon happens to collide with another energised atom, molecule or ion
then it will cause a premature photon release and these two photons will travel in phase with
respect to each other until the next collision happens. This action results in building of a
stream of photons of increasing density. This action of premature photon release is termed as
stimulated emission as shown in Fig 1.3.

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Fig 1.3 Stimulated emission of photons where (a) collision of photon with an excited atom, molecule or ion, (b)
premature release of photon and formation of two photons, (c) in-phase travel until the next collision, (d)
formation of a powerful laser beam by stimulated emitted photons which travel parallel to the optical axis of the
laser system [4]

Photons whose travel path is not parallel to the optical axis of the laser are lost from the
system in a quick manner. The photons which travel parallel to the optical axis of the laser
are contributing in formation of the resultant laser beam and they have their path length
extended by the optical feedback which is provided by the mirrors through a partially
transmitting mirror before leaving the laser as shown in Fig 1.4. This action results in
amplification of photon generation by stimulated emission to achieve the required power
level. This action also helps in provision of highly collimated coherent light beam making the
resultant laser beam very useful. [4]

Fig 1.4 Optical feedback of photons by mirrors to increase the path length for stimulated emission and amplify
the laser power [4]

1.2.2 Laser Welding Operation

Laser beam welding has high power density of the order of 1 MW/cm2 which results in small
heat affected zones and high heating and cooling rates. The spot size for the laser beam used
for the welding can range from 0.2 mm to 13 mm but for most of the applications, the smaller
size of the laser spot is preferred. The depth of penetration is proportional to the amount of
the power supplied and is also dependent on the focal point, where the penetration is
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maximized when the focal point is slightly below the surface of the workpiece. Depending on
the requirement of the application, the laser may be used in continuous mode or pulse mode.
Laser pulses ranging up to milliseconds are used for welding of thin materials such as razor
blades while the continuous mode laser can be employed for deep weld applications. Due to
the provision of the focal systems, the laser beam can be shaped easily. Thus laser welding
can be performed in the two main ways, Keyhole Type and Conduction Type.

1.2.2.1 Keyhole Laser Welding

Laser welding, in general, is in keyhole mode. Keyhole is a roughly cylindrical hole formed
in the weld zone due to continuous action of focused laser beam and high energy input. For
the formation of a laser weld, the laser beam is made to focus on a small spot and very near to
the surface of the boundaries which are to be joined. At first, a large percentage of the
incident laser beam gets reflected from the work surface for a miniscule amount of initial
time because of the factors like surface preparation, reflectivity and absorptivity of the
material in application, mostly for metals. The remaining amount of energy that has been
absorbed by the material starts raising the temperature of the material so as to melt the metal
and start the formation of a weld pool.

This weld pool consisting of the molten material helps in absorbing increasing amount of the
incident laser energy and thus reaching its evaporation temperature where the molten material
starts to become vapour, providing the surface below it for absorption of incident energy. As
laser systems possess high focused power density, at the value of 104 W/mm2, rapid removal
of the material by vaporisation initiates a small shape of keyhole. As this process continues,
the keyhole gets deeper into the material and laser light also penetrates deeper, getting
reflected and scattered repeatedly in the keyhole. This further increases the amount of energy
present in the keyhole to melt and instantly vaporize the material. While the laser energy is
being applied, the vapour pressure and surface tension inside the keyhole keeps the walls of
the keyhole from collapsing. The keyhole at this point consists of solid-liquid interface of the
material, the liquid-vapour interface and plasma due to high temperatures achieved in small
time. All the above factors are responsible for keeping the keyhole open, circulation of both
molten material and vapours and required penetration. Conduction and radiation are the two
modes of heat transfer. As the laser moves in the direction of weld line, the keyhole loses the
energy that was responsible for keeping high temperatures and the only remaining source is
energy from the hot plasma. As the laser moves, the temperatures at the interface begin to
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drop and as the plasma itself radiates large amount of energy, it also becomes energy
deficient and leads to lowering of the temperatures. Thus, solidification starts through the
base of the keyhole as it contains significant weld pool and material vapours are on the higher
stages of the keyhole. This process produces a close-fitting joint with a slightly protruding
top surface weld bead. Weld beads produced by laser welding are generally neat and have
aesthetic appearance to it as compared to other conventional welding methods.

In the keyhole welding technique, the laser heat source not only transfers heat to a single
point on the material surface but also to a line extending through the material thickness. The
weld penetration depth is generally limited to the power density of the laser available. By
rule of thumb, it is possible to weld a depth of 1.5 mm work piece at the speed of 1 m/min
when the applied laser power is of 1 kW for steel, thereby welding of 15 mm depth at 10 kW
rating. This makes welding of thicker sections in single pass possible by the use of laser
welding leading to reduction in production time and elimination of the filler material which is
far more a factor of concern in the welding techniques of gas welding or arc welding. A
schematic of keyhole laser welding is shown in Fig 1.5. [4][5]

Fig 1.5 (a) Formation of keyhole during laser welding, (b) solidification of molten material as the laser moves
giving the weld joint [4]

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1.2.2.2 Conduction Laser Welding

The main difference between the keyhole welding mode and conduction welding mode is
power density used for heat generation which is usually affected by factors like productivity,
stability, spatter, etc. Keyhole welding is characterized by deep penetration, small heat
affected zone and good productivity. But there are also certain issues with it, namely high
levels porosity, instabilities in energy control on the welding surface, spatters and some other
weld defects. Most of the above defects occur during welding materials, especially metals
with low thickness and high lustre like aluminium and its alloys, steels, etc. There is also the
compulsion of use of good laser beam quality for keyhole welding which increases the
operating costs.

As per various studies done on conduction laser welding, there is no proper definition for
defining conduction welding but is widely accepted that conduction welding occurs when
vaporisation of the material is insignificant or when the power density used for welding is not
enough to cause boiling. Thus, this welding process does not become a rival to the keyhole
welding process but its viable alternative. As the power density used is low for conduction
welding, this process becomes a stable one as there is much control of the heat supplied to the
material. Unlike keyhole welding, this process does not compulsorily require use of high
quality laser beam which brings the overall operating costs. Use of large, normal laser beams
contributes in reducing fit-up problems, spatter, porosity, etc. Conduction welding is
controlled mainly by convection and conduction modes of heat transfer. Convection heat
transfer influences the composition of the melt pool as it is responsible for mixing of the
material during the welding process. Fig 1.6 shows schematic of conduction laser welding
below. [5]

Fig 1.6 Schematic of conduction laser welding [5]

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1.2.2.3 Operation Modes of Laser Welding Process

Laser welding can be classified on the basis of operation modes as pulsed laser welding and
continuous laser welding. The pulse duration range for pulsed laser welding is 1~20
milliseconds, where pulse frequencies reach 1 kHz at the lower end of the range. Both modes
of operation can be used for same power rating; the only difference is that the time required
will be different for the modes described. Selection of the operation mode of laser welding
depends on the work material, weld size and thickness, material properties; weld bead size
and application considerations like weld strength, porosity, etc. [5]

1.2.3 Applications of Laser Welding

Laser welding is one of the latest and modern techniques to be adopted into various industries
for component fabrication as an alternative to previous joining techniques like gas and arc
welding. Welding with conventional methods of gas and arc welding became an issue with
increasing technological development, enhanced materials and complex applications. Laser
welding was embraced because it provided a number of advantages like acceptable aesthetic
appearance, low weld distortion, reduced material wastage, high production rates, reduced
component size, easy automation, high weld quality, etc. Thus, laser welding has been
expanding its horizon in the joining industries as many examples stated can support that.

Laser welding is applied in welding of stainless steel components for the television gun
where previous techniques like riveting, soldering and micro-resistance spot welding where
applied but were not that productive. Laser welding is used for spot welding applications in
floating blade cartridges of razor blades where the size of blades is very important factor.
Implantable heart pacemakers employ laser welding for joining of very thin titanium disk
valves with minute electronic hybrid circuits and batteries in a sandwich form where weld
distance is less than 1 mm. Fixing of opto-electronic transmitter for accurate positioning of
thin 125 μm optical fibre uses laser welding instead of soldering process or application of
adhesives because of its low distortion of workpiece. CO2 laser welding replaced resistance
spot welding for food mixer whisk which comprised of two ferritic stainless steel blade strips
with their ends clamped between two pressed, stainless steel discs as it was able to limit
metallurgical damage caused during resistance spot welding by uncontrolled spatter and
provide good appearance. Laser welding is being applied for joining passenger car body parts
because it satisfies the conditions required by the automotive industry for weld and after weld
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like sufficient ductility for further blanking and pressing operations, narrow weld, minimum
heat affected zone, flushing of weld beads with sheet surface to avoid blanking and other
press tool damages, in comparison to TIG welding. Laser welding is used instead of high
frequency induction welding, TIG or plasma welding for seam welding of stainless steel
tubes as it avoids formation of chromium and iron oxides which would lead to metallurgical
damage. Laser welding is also used in other applications like joining of stainless steel finned
tubes to walls of heat exchanger for effective conduction, joining of diamond or carbide
impregnated steel tips to rotary machine tool saw blades, solenoid operated hydraulic valves
in shuttle valve cylinder assemblies, joining of viscous couplings and differentials in four
wheel drive systems, etc. [4][5]

1.3 LASER WELDING OF STEELS

Laser welding is usually described as a liquid-phase welding process where joining of the
material takes place due to melting and mixing of molten material, which later solidifies after
the removal of heat energy source and provides the required joint. Laser welding is most
suitable for the materials which are having approximately equal or overlapping liquidus
temperatures with an essential condition that they are good absorbers of laser light. Pure
metals having same liquidus temperature can be easily laser welded, but the same cannot be
said about two different pure metals. But it can be overcome with the presence of that metal
as an alloying component in other pure metal. Thus, laser welding finds good application in
welding alloys.

Not all metals and alloys are readily acceptable to laser welding; each material has its own
weldability scale. Aluminium alloys, copper and cast iron applications tends to show
metallurgical problems after laser welding and requires a lot of precautionary measures
during the process. Steels, which are widely used in industrial applications, on the other hand
are very acceptable to the laser welding process as they are good absorbers of laser light.
Different types of steels may show different characteristics but overall, they possess good
laser weldability.

High strength low alloy (HSLA) and low carbon steels are have very good weld quality under
the laser welding process. The only condition to achieve the above is that proper precautions
are taken keep the values of inherent sulphur and phosphorus at a combined level of 0.2
percent or less to avoid solidification cracking problems which might reduce the weld
reliability. Alloy steels which are used in applications like pipelines, shipbuilding and
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structural steels also show good weld quality through laser weld, the only issue being of weld
hardness in some applications due to very high heating and cooling rates. Carbon steels can
also be welded by laser welding without any significant problems when the carbon content is
kept below 0.1%. But for steels containing carbon more than 0.1%, fast cooling rates, a
special attribute of laser welding, martensitic microstructure formation takes place which
results in low toughness and ductility of the material as the microstructure becomes brittle.

Stainless steels have the highest weldability amongst the steels when it comes to laser
welding process. High quality autogenous weld can be achieved through the entire range of
stainless steels with weld quality decreasing over the order stated; austenitic, ferritic and
martensitic stainless steels. Austenitic stainless steels, except SS303 and SS303Se, are most
suited for laser welding. These steels have thermal conductivity one third of the carbon steels
and 50% greater thermal expansion of the carbon steels, thus making it a good laser light
absorber and resulting in increased laser penetration. The high heating-cooling rates of the
process are also an additional bonus to the joining technique as when these steels are kept at
high temperatures, in range of 450℃ to 870℃, there is chromium carbide precipitation which
results in reduction of corrosion resistance property of the steels which does not occur in laser
welding case. Ferritic stainless steels have lower weldability than austenitic stainless steels
because usually fusion welding of any kind in these steels lead to impairment of joint
toughness and corrosion resistance. This happens due to presence of high carbon leading to
coarse grain formation in weld area and heat affected zones. Still good weld quality for
applications is possible with implementation of precautionary measures and proper material
preparation. Martensitic stainless steels have the lowest weldability among the stainless steels
for the laser welding process due to presence of high carbon content. Martensitic
microstructure is brittle in nature and always leads to solidification cracking. This can be
avoided to some extent by using a filler material of adaptable austenitic stainless steel for
improving weld joint toughness. [4]

1.4 SIMULATION OF LASER WELDING

Laser welding is a highly complex process. Multiple parameters greatly influence the quality
of the laser welded joints. Consequently, the metallurgical and mechanical properties of laser
welded joints have been the subject of a considerable amount of experimental studies. Due to
the complex welded joint geometry and its three-dimensional nature, it is very difficult to
obtain governing equations for predicting the metallurgical and mechanical properties of laser
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welded joints. An accurate knowledge of the laser welding process is important for predicting
the metallurgical and mechanical properties of the laser welded joints. It is very difficult to
get insight into the joint during laser welding process. The experimental predictions are time-
consuming and expensive. Experimental measurements of welding temperature fields,
residual stresses and distortions are time consuming, expensive and there may also be
uncertainties associated with the measurements as not all factors influencing the joint are
taken into consideration all at once and considering one factor or some factors at a time will
affect the result which is sought in various studies.

Due to increase in the efficiency in the computer hardware and software, numerical prospect
has grown in all industrial fields. Laser welding in particular has undergone a drastic
evolution in this context. Finite element method under numerical simulations are drastically
being carried out to understand the complexity of the welding process without causing
significant damage to the material and keeping check on the expenses. The first industrial
objective is the design and the optimization of manufacturing processes. The numerical
simulation is also useful to improve the production sequences and to minimize production
problems. The FE simulations of the laser welding processes enables estimation of different
process parameters such as weld pool geometry, transient temperature, stresses, and
distortion. As explained previously, the whole physical phenomena occurring in the work
piece during laser irradiation are highly coupled. While the physics is not easily
approachable, the main difficulty remains is the numerical computation of this kind of large
model. That is why, in the field of welding simulation, some phenomena are commonly
brought together and others are uncoupled. For instance, two kinds of model families can be
found in the industrial literature: the Thermo-mechanical models which aim to compute the
effect of welding on the piece mechanical behaviour and the Multi-physical models which try
to simulate the process impact on thermal field (weld pool size, thermal gradient) with as
much phenomena as possible. [7]

1.4.1 Thermo-mechanical Simulation

The industry regularly takes part in the thermo-mechanical simulation studies to compute
residual stress and strain induced by laser welding. Mainly used for large sized structures, this
type of simulation is used for conformation of the feasibility of the welding setup. This type
of simulation also helps in checking residual distortions and tolerance limits or checking if

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the internal strains are coherent with the application to be used. Due to large complexity in
the laser welding phenomena, many assumptions have been made. In a first, to reduce the
interaction complexity of the process and material, the study contours are reduced. The gas
and liquid flows are neglected and an equivalent volume heat source is modelled to reproduce
the effects of thermal field. By this way, thermo-mechanical simulations solve only a
conductive heat transfer problem and a mechanical problem. The flowchart of computation
algorithm for this type of simulation is shown below in Fig 1.7. The results achieved from
thermo-mechanical simulations in FE are related to effects of heat transfers, mechanical
stress and strain and phase transformations.

Fig 1.7 Example computation algorithm [7]

1.4.2 Multi-physical Simulation

This type of simulation is mainly concerned with research studies who are concerned with
understanding the physical aspect of various dimensions of laser welding a lot more than
looking out for its direct implications on the manufacturing front in the industries. This type
of simulation is one of the difficult simulations in terms of modelling complexity and analysis
time. Multi-physical simulation concerns with different scales of physical interactions during
the laser welding, mainly the photon-electron interaction and piece shape distortions. In spite

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of the technological advancements in both, computers and computation softwares, the

complete simulation of the laser welding starting from the light propagation until the
structural distortions, is not conceivable. The numerical codes used in FE simulations are
constrained to simulate the process step by step and then link together the results obtained
from the consecutive simulations. Some of these step by step simulations covering the major
analysis are stated below.

1.4.2.1 Laser-material Interaction

The physical interaction between the laser electromagnetic wave and the material takes place
at the electronic scale which is still not extremely difficult to simulate as the simulation scales
go up to nanometer level and it becomes tedious and time consuming on the part of software
computation. Nevertheless, as metallic materials are opaque it is easily assumed that the heat
transferred from the beam to the metal is localized at the material boundary. The difficulty is
the calculation of the beam reflection scheme inside the keyhole and, thus the deposited
energy quantity at each reflection.

1.4.2.2 Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow

Knowing how the laser power is distributed in the keyhole, the next step is the resolution of
the thermal field inside the bulk (solid, liquid and gas phases). All three modes of heat
transfer i.e. conduction, convection and radiation are to be considered depending upon the
application, mode of laser welding and power density applied. Each reference dealing with
multi-physical simulation has to treat this part, if the global method is always the same,
computing the thermal field and the fluid flow coupled by the convection and the free
boundary deformation (recoil pressure and surface tension), some particularities can be
observed.

1.4.2.3 Modelling of Liquid/Gas Interface

The key zone for laser welding simulation is located at the liquid/gas front. The behaviour of
the keyhole is mainly driven by the thermal cycle of this boundary. It is the seat of the laser
absorption and of the vaporization process. The previous interface phenomena should be
introduced in a model as boundary conditions, in the thermal problem and in the fluid flow
problem. The simulation of the interface liquid/gas can be realized by different ways:
Lagrangian methods (ALE) or Eulerian methods (Levels-set or VOF). [7]

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1.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Laser welding has both advantages and disadvantages. But advantages effects dominate over
disadvantages effects. So this process is widely utilized in metal working operations in
industry. Some of the advantages and disadvantages in laser welding are illustrated below.

1.5.1 Advantages of Laser Welding

1. Deep narrow welds are characteristic of laser welding which eliminates any sort of
advanced joint preparation and usage of filler material.
2. Very low thermal distortion of the workpiece and very less to no extra post-weld
machining.
3. Very close weld even to heat sensitive materials without metallurgical damage and
considerable heat affected zone.
4. High welding speeds up to several meters per minute results in high production rates.
5. Laser welding machines are easy to be automated and used in conjunction with robots
which increase process flexibility.
6. Laser welding is effective in welding multiple layers from a single side in one pass.
7. Laser welding is easily applicable in applications where weld spot size and joint size
are complicated.
8. Laser beam is focused exactly on the weld spot leading to less unwanted heat
discharge on material surface which improves fatigue and tensile strength of the joint.
9. Design considerations become simple as wide range of joint configurations can be
easily welded along with productive dissimilar material welding.
10. Weld sizes are small and exact so there is no need for material allowances for post
weld machining which in turn saves material and material costs.
11. Laser welding process can be performed in any environment and does not have any
restriction about its surrounding.
12. Laser welding can be employed easily in semiconductor and electronics industry as
the laser beam is not affected by magnetic fields and short circuit paths.

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1.5.2 Disadvantages of Laser Welding

1. Close fittings and good clamped joints are required due to the small size of the laser
beam spot.
2. Positioning of the workpiece is very necessary as the small laser beam might miss
through misaligned abutting interface of the joint.
3. Beam manipulation equipment is necessary to control the beam energy input which
increases operating costs.
4. Skilled operator is necessary for the operating laser welding machine.
5. Safety measures around the laser gun are essential for the safety of operator.
6. In comparison to arc and gas welding machines, laser welding machines are very
costly and the extra instalments needed for proper functioning and work handling
thereby further increases its initial cost.
7. Regular maintenance of the laser welding systems results in high operating costs.

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF PROJECT REPORT

Chapter 1 provides the necessary brief introduction to laser welding process, principles of
lasers, modes and methods of laser welding, applications and various advantages and
disadvantages of laser welding. Chapter 2 provides the extensive literature review on the
topic and motivation for project. Project objectives are decided on the basis of literature
review. Chapter 3 provides the information on selection of material, input parameters,
boundary conditions and output parameters necessary for the simulation model. Model
loading and brief working of the software are also discussed. Chapter 4 features the results
derived from the simulation work performed in chapter 3 and results are compared for
validation purpose. Chapter 5 states the conclusions incurred from the results, observations
and discussion in chapter 4 and provides the future scope in this study.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Various studies over the years have been done on laser welding, since its inception 1970s and
studies over laser welding simulation, since its inception in 1990s. This chapter deals with the
review over various studies done in the field of laser welding simulation and modelling
concerning with topics like finite element modelling, numerical investigation of residual
stress, temperature distribution and gradient, effect of laser welding over thin plates, etc.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Milan et al. [6] in 2011 studied the numerical simulation of thermal and stress fields in laser
welding of tubes made of austenitic stainless CrNi steel type AISI 304 with pulsed Nd: YAG
laser. The simulation was done to compare the results obtained by similar simulation done by
National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, and both numerical and real-time
experimental laser welding on AISI 304 steel of 1.6 mm thickness. The simulation was done
with optimized parameters of 1.25kW laser power and a normally incident laser beam with
750 mm/min welding speed. The study was conducted by use of three separate models i.e.
asymptotic, standard and shell model. Milan et al. [6] found that the result from numerical
simulation done on ANSYS 10 were approximately same to the results obtained from real-
time welding experiment in the case of weld macrostructure (Fig 2.1). Calculations for
thermal balance led to the conclusion that 23.4% of the total power transferred from the laser
beam was required for the formation of weld pool.

Fig 2.1 (a) Temperature field, (b) Welded joint zone and (c) comparison of simulated weld with real experiment
[6]

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Dal et al. [7] reviewed various simulation studies to determine the then state of the art laser
welding simulation. Both, studies ranging over thermo-mechanical simulations and multi-
physical simulations were reviewed to cover the entire simulation literature. Dal et al. [7]
discussed information on generalities of laser principle, thermo-mechanical simulations and
multi-physical simulations. Thermo-mechanical simulations, reviewed, were mainly done for
studying topics like heat transfers using double ellipsoidal heat source method and equivalent
thermal conductivity method; mechanical stress and strain by use of elastic strain, plastic
strain and thermal strain; metallurgical model for phase transformation with objectives of
determining accurate information about the phase distribution around the weld bead and
determining mechanical properties of micro-zones of weld. The authors concluded that
thermo-mechanical simulations were highly studied and had maximum industrial literature.

Multi-physical simulations reviewed were mainly performed to understand topics like laser-
material interaction through electromagnetic simulation and ray tracing, fluid flow in liquid
weld pool, heat source and liquid/gas interface modelling using Arbitrary Lagrangian
Eulerian (ALE) method and Volume of Fluid (VOF) method in FE softwares like SYSWELD
and ABAQUS. It was concluded that though multi-physical simulation consists of complex
modelling and typical calculations were required, FE simulations provided results closer to
reality. Due to modelling complexity, Dal et al. [7] concluded that multi-physical simulation
was still lacking profound literature in comparison to thermo-mechanical simulations.

Andreas et al. [8] in year 2011 studied the importance of simulation model required to define
the laser welding process along with other manufacturing processes related to the domain of
laser machining. Andreas et al. [8] emphasised the gaining importance of computer
simulations in order to understand the complex mechanisms occurring during the laser
machining affecting various processes as the process parameters change, though the
simulations for laser machining had not been that advent as that of the simulations available
for forming process. A common model was generated to understand the effects of laser on
three machining processes, namely the laser welding and laser drilling, on the open-source
software OpenFOAM (Open Field Operation and Manipulation) software which is usually
used to define the fluid problem simulation but can also solve mechanical problems. The
software uses finite volume numeric method to solve systems of coupled partial differential
equations. It was predetermined that thorough understanding can only be achieved by
combined experimental and simulative approach. The model selected for process

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understanding was geometric model of 1 mm thickness steel sheet with structural steel
properties and laser of power of 3000 Watt, focus radii of 200 μm and laser beam velocity of
6 m/min. The simulation was performed to understand the effects of conductive and
convective heat transfers and temperature gradients formed during the process which directly
affects the product properties. Calculations of heat transfers and temperature fields were
calculated by the basic heat equation,

( ⃗ ) (

where, H is the total enthalpy, L is the latent heat for phase changes and Q is the heat input.
The model was generated such that after providing the results for the given process
parameters, if found in acceptance with the values achieved from experiments, would serve
as a generic model of simulations with varying number of process parameters. Andreas et al.
[8] found that the mode of welding for thin sheets was by conduction mode, where the metal
melts and leads to vapour pressure leads to the deformation of surface of the melt pool. It was
also found that if the stationary time of laser input over a fixed spot was increased up to 2 ms,
there will be a formation of keyhole which will completely penetrate the sheet leading to the
cutting of sheet. The simulation results were in agreement with the experimental investigation
of the same process parameters. Fig 2.2 shows the scope of simulation models studied under
the research for laser machining.

Koch et al. [9] in year 2012 tried to revise the simulation model based on studies made in [8]
and considered the optimization of the simulation model to make it more generic for various
available laser material processes. The study was carried out to provide an insight in system

Fig 2.2 Overview of the model for simulating laser material processing [9]
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incorporated. Initially, the governing physical processes taking place were determined and
then numerical solution algorithms were modelled within the OpenFOAM software
framework. Governing equations for laser intensity, laser tracing, mass conservation, vapour
pressure and recoil pressure were selected. For creating the simulation model, process
parameters selected were as shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Process parameters for simulation model of laser welding process [9]

Physical Properties Symbol Unit Value

Density of steel ρ kg/m3 7860

Specific heat of liquid steel Cp J/(kg.K) 465

Thermal conductivity of steel K W/(m.K) 67

Dynamic viscosity of molten steel η N.s/m2 5.5 x 10-3

Melting temperature of steel TM K 1893

Vaporization temperature of steel TV K 3123

Surface tension coefficient Σ N/m 1.4

Laser power PL W 4000

Heat of fusion HM kJ/mol 18.3

Heat of vaporization HV kJ/mol 340

Complex refraction index (λ = 1.064 μm) nr + ini - 3.2 + i4.6

Focus radius w0 μm 200

Velocity vector ⃗ m/s 0.1

It was observed that the results from simulation model were in agreement with the
experimental values recorded through high speed imaging. For the given parameters,
complete keyhole formation occurred at the time lapse of 1.5 ms which went through the
sheet. The maximum temperature attained during the simulation process was 3100 K where
the keyhole completely penetrated the steel sheet. The model was also checked for varying

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parameters for the same material sheet and the results were approximately similar,
conforming the high applicability of the multiphysical simulated model.

Vázquez et al. [10] in the year 2012 studied the previous available multiphysical models
related to dissimilar welding and tried to generate a new simulation model which could
demonstrate the complex phenomena of formation of intermetallic phases in the joining
interface. The simulation model was generated with the aim to support the study of laser
dissimilar welding by providing useful information on the process characteristics like thermal
distribution, species mixing including inter-metallic formation. The simulation model was
generated within the environment of OpenFOAM software. The model was based on the
governing equations studied and established in previous attempt by Vázquez et al. [10]
Governing equations were required for the simulation study of multi-species diffusion and
interface reaction model. It was found that the capabilities of the newly generated simulation
model of laser material processing made it possible to simulate the welding of a complex
dissimilar metal couple, in this case welding of aluminium and steel. The model also showed
reasonable success in matching the values of simulation to that of the experimental values for
various laser material processes.

Jayanthia et al. [11] in year 2016 surveyed the advancement of modelling of laser welding
and its related processes. It was found out that modelling and simulations of laser material
processing was important due to rising industrial demands, development of new materials and
occurrences of complex phenomenon in thermal interaction, mechanical and metallurgical
changes during laser processing. It was noted that in earlier times, only classical solutions
were studied for heat conduction equations considering a point source, line source and a
plane source because those analytical solutions were straightforward to obtain. Starting from
1970s with the introduction of laser technology as point heat source for material processing,
simulation models were developed using analytical-classical solution approach requiring
conduction-convection equations, finite element approach and finite volume approach. The
factors to be studied and understood to improve the productivity of laser material processing
increased including the complex parameters of stress and distortion distributions, phase
change problems, solidification, melting, austenitic-martensitic phase change, martensitic
transformation, solid liquid phase transformation. Various commercial softwares were
developed which use either finite element approach or finite volume approach like ABACUS,
SYSWELD, FORTRAN, SYSTUS, GRID code PHOENICS, MAPLE, ADINAT and

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FLUENT. With increasing technological development, this softwares also included

multiphysics package to simulate and model various complex phenomena. ANSYS software
is the complete package including FEM, FVM approach with multiphysics environment. This
softwares helped in making various simulation models for laser welding, especially laser
welding which included some examples like simulation model for temperature distribution on
ceramic, mullite and austenitic stainless steels, three-dimensional finite element simulation of
lase welding of copper, thick steel plate, AISI 401 stainless steel, dissimilar laser welding of
AISI 316 stainless steel and low carbon steel, etc. Various deep penetration laser welding
simulations were also modelled and reviewed which use various multiphysics environment to
consider all the complex parameters occurring during the formation of keyhole in deep
penetration welding. It was concluded that as the welding of modern engineering materials
including stainless steels and its alloys found variety of applications in industries, modelling
and simulation of laser welding process was a requirement in essential and needed to be
continuously updated before going to industrial implementation.

Tomashchuk et al. [12] in year 2016 studied and created a time-dependent multi-physical
model of keyhole formation during dissimilar laser welding. The main aim of the study was
effect of high power laser for welding on shape and dimensions of vapour-filled keyhole
during laser-matter interaction. The model was first generated and checked for laser welding
case of single material Ti6Al4V alloy. After its confirmation of results with the experimental
values of laser welding, Tomashchuk et al. [12] attempted for simulation model of Ti6Al4V-
stainless steel combination. The study was deemed important to study the effect of
discontinuity of physical properties across the joint line on keyhole behaviour. The study of
dissimilar laser welding was conducted in two modes of laser welding process, pulsed and
continuous laser beam welding. For improving the mesh quality in comparison to the free
surface deformation occurring in the experiment, ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian)
meshing approach was selected. Governing equations for heat transfer, laser energy supply,
latent heat of fusion, fluid flow in general for keyhole were selected and the COMSOL
Multiphysics software was selected to generate the simulation model. The model was made
for first and second case, both having 3 mm x 2 mm x 2 mm dimensions to be butt joined.
The laser selected was Nd:YAG laser with 3000 W power and focused beam diameter for
both pulsed and continuous welding cases. In the first case of single material butt joint laser
welding, it was found that the simulated model predicted the highest temperature attained

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during the process was 3332 K which is very close to vaporization temperature of Ti6Al4V
alloy. Other parameters like keyhole width and depth were also in satisfactory
correspondence with the experimental values. The second case was of laser welding of
Ti6Al4V-316L stainless steel with pulsed mode and continuous mode process. It was found
out that in pulsed mode laser welding, due to dissimilarities in the physical properties in the
materials at the joint interface, there was asymmetric melting and thus asymmetric shape of
the formation of the keyhole during the initial stages which was then autocorrected as the
time passed by due to presence of high temperature. The same tendency was seemed to be
followed by the simulation model of continuous mode laser welding of the specimen. Both
the above results were validated with cross-reference to the experimental values.

Jayanthia et al. [13] in year 2017 studied and developed a model for AISI 316L steel welding
using a pulsed laser beam as heat source in COMSOL Multiphysics software for estimation
of thermal profiles in terms of surface temperature and isothermal contours in radial and
depth direction for the prediction of keyhole formation and propagation. Physics of the heat
conduction was provided in terms of heat transfer governing equations for conduction and
convection, with defining the remaining heat dissipation through radiation to the open
atmosphere and parameters for the moving laser beam. Boundary conditions for the thermal
insulation were provided along with the assumption that weld to be studied will be
autogenous weld. Model was defined in terms of dimensions as 40 mm x 10 mm x 2 mm for
butt joining. The laser selected for the modelling and experimental study was Nd:YAG laser
with average peak power density of 2000 W, spot diameter of 0.451 μm, welding velocity of
3 m/s and pulse duration of 12 ms. The model predicted the maximum temperature of 2237 K
at the centre of the joint and decreasing as the path followed away from the joint. It was also
observed that no melting took place below the temperature of 1703 K which is the melting
point of 316L steel during the pulsed mode laser welding. Formation and propagation of
keyhole was also studied in terms of thermal profile and temperature gradient during the
absence and presence of pulsed laser heat source. Fig 2.3 shows the simulated keyhole
profiles and propagation direction. It was concluded that the simulation model was in good
acceptance with the results from experimental setup. The simulated keyhole was compared
with practical observation and results were justified. Thus, easy prediction of heat affected
zone, melt pool, penetration depth and keyhole structure was made possible.

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Fig 2.3 Simulated keyhole shape and propagation during welding of 316L stainless steel butt joint in absence
and presence on laser pulse [13]

Kubiak et al. [14] in year 2017 performed computer simulations and modelling to study
thermal phenomena in surface heating process during laser welding using Yb:YAG laser. The
simulation model included mathematical and numerical modelling of temperature field during
Yb:YAG laser heating of sheets of S355 steel. Numerical solution using projection method
and finite volume method was used to obtain the insights in temperature field and melted
material velocity field in the fusion zone. A comprehensive theoretical model was also
presented for this study taking into account the real heat source intensity distribution and
motion of liquid steel in the fusion zone. In order to assess the quality of simulation model
and obtained results over the predicted fusion zone and heat affected zone, experimentation
was also performed. Process parameters for the simulated model and experimental setup were
kept same, a S355 steel sheet with dimensions 250 mm x 50 mm x 5 mm and Yb:YAG laser
with laser beam diameter of 0.8 mm, laser translation velocity of 3m/min and three different
laser powers of 900 W, 500 W and 320 W. Numerical algorithms containing the governing
equations were implemented into the computer solver using ObjectPasacl programming
language. It was found that heat affected zone in laser heated elements was narrow, up to
about 1.2 mm in width for 900W laser beam power decreasing to about 0.8 for laser beam
power 320W. Melted zone also appeared to be justified by the experimental results. Thus, the
simulation model was validated and proved to be useful for further predictions. Fig 2.4
shows the heat affected zone variation based on different powers for simulated and
experimental results.

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Fig 2.4 Temperature distribution in front cross-section for Yb:YAG laser welded joint [14]

Salman et al. [15] in year 2018 made a model for simulation of continuous laser welding for
Ti6Al4V alloys using COMSOL multiphysics software. The simulation model was done to
predict the distribution of temperature in the joint zone and understand the effects of welding
parameters in the four welding zones, namely, the melting zone, partial melting zone, heat
affected zone and the base material. Welding of titanium alloys was deemed important in the
study because of various applications of titanium alloys in industries, compatible material
properties and welding procedure by the use of lasers because it has the minimum heat
affected zone which is the primary effect affecting the material properties after manufacturing
process. For the selection of laser heat source, CO2 laser was selected over other lasers
because it was able to provide higher power of continuous beams. The geometry of the model
in simulation and experimentation was of dimensions 10 mm x 10 mm x 1.6 mm with
maximum size of element after meshing of 0.4 mm. Governing equations for thermal
conductivity load, heat capacity and density were provided to the simulation model in
multiphysics environment. Laser power as the heat source was selected with respective

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parameters of varying powers 1200 W, 2200 W, 3200 W and welding speeds of 0.05 m/s,
0.06 m/s and 0.08m/s. It was found that melted zone reached temperature of 1873 K, partial
melting zone reached 1600 K, heat affected zone was significant with temperature 1200 K.
Results from simulation model were validated with experimental values and there was good
acceptance between them. Thus was concluded that the simulation model was successful and
could be used for future studies.

Acherjee et al. [16] studied the modelling and analysis of simultaneous laser transmission
welding of polycarbonates using an FEM and RSM combined approach. Simultaneous laser
welding is a part of laser transmission welding process, where a laser beam is transmitted
through a laser-transparent material and welding occurs at the interface of laser-transparent
and laser-absorbing material. The main objective of the study carried out by Acherjee et al.
[16] was to determine the effects of laser process parameters on temperature field and
dimensions of weld bead. It was found out after extensive literature review that very few
studies were made in coordination with the thermal models to predict the temperature field
along with parametric study and process optimization. Response surface methodology was
used to model and predict the response of interest affected by a number of input variables.
Central composite design (CCD) was used as the response surface design. Simulation models
and experimental setup of dimensions 20 mm x 40 mm x 1 mm were used for cross
verification and checking of agreement between the successive results. Simulation modelling
and analysis was performed on ANSYS 10 software and RSM approach was taken from
DesignExpert software. It was found that with increase in laser power and welding time, the
maximum temperature attained by the welded surface as well as the welding temperature
increased. It was also found that maximum welding and surface temperature was achieved
with highest value of beam time and lowest value of beam width. It was seen that an increase
in laser power and welding time increased weld width. Increased weld width also resulted in
spreading of laser energy over a wide area creating an abnormally wide width and large heat
affected zone. There was a good agreement between the results from experimentation and
simulation model. RSM approach to the model gave its validation and it was concluded that
the model was successful and can be used for further studies of laser welding of
polycarbonates.

Xu et al. [17] in year 2019 studied the effect of pulsed Nd:YAG laser welding of ultra-thin
316 stainless steel plate on welding deformation in numerical as well as experimental

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approach. The aim of the study was to determine the deformation caused by welding process
on thickness less than 0.1 mm thick plates which have application in precision instruments
like high precision collimator as excessive deformation would severely affect the application.
Plates of dimension 100 x 100 x 0.07 mm 316L stainless steel were used for welding
experiment and simulation model. A half ellipsoidal volumetric heat source model was
adapted to define the experimental heat input in the simulation model for thermal analysis.
Values obtained from thermal analysis were used as input parameters for mechanical
simulation for determining plate deformation. It was found out that the thermal cycles
obtained from both experimental data and simulation results were in good agreement with
each other. Weld bead morphology obtained from simulation was in agreement with
experimental results with maximum temperatures reaching up to 2226℃. Thermal cycles
predicated from simulation also showed that maximum temperature in the molten weld pool
had no significant change at different positions. It was also found out that deformation values
from experimentation results and simulation were in good agreement with each other. It was
concluded that welding deformation direction of the ultra-thin plates occurred in two modes.
For high energy input, there was concave deformation trend and for low energy input there
was convex deformation trend which were within the acceptable deformation regime of the
application. Fig 2.5 shows the deformation data provided by experimentation and simulation.

Fig 2.5 Deformation obtained from (a) simulation and (b) experimentation [17]

Chen et al. [18] in year 2019 studied numerical and experimental investigation of
microstructure and residual stress of multi-pass hybrid laser-arc welded 316L steel. The study
was performed to understand the correlation between non-uniform heating, non-uniform
residual stress and microstructure inhomogeneity which was not possible by only practical
experimentation. Two steel plates of dimensions 100 x 60 x 10 mm each were used for both
experimental study and simulation model. In addition to parent material, filler material of 1.2
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mm diameter 316LSi was used. To replicate the heat source in simulation model, a double
ellipsoidal plus conical model of heat source was implemented based on Gaussian
distribution. It was found out that numerical results and experimental data for sectional
morphology were in good correspondence with each other validating the use of double
ellipsoidal heat source model. Numerical results and experimental data were also compared
for determination of residual stress after welding process and it was found that the tensile
stress reached a peak value of 177.45 MPa at the heat affected zone during actual welding
process. Simulation results in comparison were little off but within acceptable error range and
thus it were concluded to be in agreement with experimental results. Temperature field results
from simulation were compared with microstructure SEMs to better understand the
microstructure heterogeneity after welding process. The comparative data was useful in
determining why the re-melting zone had slightly higher average hardness among the other
locations on the weld centreline and concluding that ferrite precipitation was responsible for
increase in the local hardness of the weld.

Kik Tomasz [19] studied the comparison of modern computational techniques that were used
in numerical analysis of various different welding processes. The comparison was done
between three techniques- transient technique with moving heat source, macro-bead
technique with imposed thermal cycle and local-global approach with shrinkage calculation
technique. The main aim of the study was to determine the best approach for a given
simulation model from the above stated three techniques on the basis of adaptability to the
complexity of the model problem and time required for solving the model. Tomasz argued
that technique selection for simulation model of welding process was very important as it
considered the effect of moving heat source which was the reason for uneven distribution of
displacements and stresses in welded elements. These in turn affected various parameters
essential to the welding process like clamping conditions and forces, mechanical and thermal
properties, preheating temperatures, temperature of surroundings, type of welding technology
and related parameters, weld joint designs, etc. Proper technique selection will provide good
results and also help in increasing product quality and production process. To perform the
comparison, study was done for three welding processes by applying all three simulation
techniques in SYSWELD software package. Simulations were performed for gas-metal arc
welding, multi-pass arc welding and laser welding process. For laser welding process,
simulation was done for welding of 70 x 5 mm pipes with butt joint configuration with two
different materials, AISI304 steel and Inconel 625 nickel superalloy with welding parameters
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like 3 kW laser beam power and welding speed of 39 mm/sec. All three techniques were
applied for determination of distributions of displacements and stresses in the laser welded
joints. It was found out that all three techniques provided results in the same range, only that
transient technique provided higher values of stresses in comparison to other two techniques.
The time required for simulation were noted and shown as in Table 2.2. The difference in the
simulation times were contributed to the methods used by individual techniques.

Table 2.2 Time duration required for numerical analysis with respect to all calculation techniques for laser
welding of AISI304 stainless steel and Inconel 625 nickel superalloy pipe [19]

Transient Macro-Bead (MBD) MBD DE

ASIS 304 45 min 8 sec 5 min 1 sec 50 sec

Inconel 625 33 min 12 sec 3 min 48 sec 55 sec

MBD DE is acronym for macro-bead distortion engineering for local-global approach

Transient technique required highest as it covered each step over the nodes as the moving
heat source over the weld line and was able to produce much more data on each point present
on weld line than other techniques. It was concluded that to increase productivity a
combination of the calculation techniques can be implemented to achieve required results
from the simulation with acceptable simulation running time.

Fey et al. [20] in year 2020 studied the numerical analysis of temperature distribution of deep
laser welding of duplex stainless steel. The study was performed to optimize the temperature
distribution during laser welding of duplex steel sheets. High heating and cooling rates,
which are characteristic of laser welding process, brought problems in maintaining optimum
temperatures for required ferritic-austenitic microstructure formation which led to loss of
mechanical strength and corrosion properties of the duplex steel. It was also noted that post
welding treatment to keep the temperature field conducive for microstructure formation was
cost-intensive and inapplicable to complex joint configurations. Thus the study was aimed to
determine the effects of a second laser beam pass after the original weld beam pass to
maintain the temperature field and bring about the required temperature in the range of
1303.15 K to 1403.15 K to achieve proper ratios of ferrite (30 to 50%) and austenite.
Simulation and experimentation were performed for cross-validation of the results. A CFD
analysis system of FLUENT ANSYS was used for modelling the laser welding. A duplex
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steel plate of dimensions 12 x 5 x0.525 mm was used for simulation compared to 100 x 50 x
0.525 mm steel sheet during actual welding. CFD analysis was performed to understand the
immediate temperature field distribution after the passing of welding beam and was it enough
to maintain the temperature range for at least 1 sec for proper intragranular austenitic
microstructure formation. Three reheating strategies were modelled to understand each ones
effect on the temperature field. The first two were modelled mostly similarly on donut
distribution method whereas third strategy was modelled on Gaussian heat distribution. It was
found that the third strategy provided good results in maintaining temperature field followed
by second and first strategy. Thus it was concluded that reheating method on the shop-floor
itself after welding process was possible and could prove cost saving. It was also observed
that results obtained from the strategies could serve as parameters for construction of
diffractive optics elements which will be providing the reheating laser beam.

Waghmare and Saha [21] studied the parametric optimization for laser butt welding of sub-
millimeter thin SS 316 sheets by using central composite design (CCD). The study was made
in an attempt for characterization of laser beam welding for very thin sheets of steel SS 316
for important industrial applications like cooking utensils coating, automobile chassis and
aeronautical applications. The study was done for autogenous laser welding process. It was
established that welding of thin SS sheets using conventional welding process resulted in
various defects like thermal distortion, hot cracking, large heat affected zone, etc. resulting in
increasing importance in study of laser welding as a viable option. It was also determined that
no previous work was done for fibre laser welding of SS 316 butt joint configuration. Central
composite design (CCD) as a part of response surface method was used to identify the
affecting parameters and experiments in the vicinity of the optimum value. Experimental
setup included the SS 316 sheets of size 70 mm x 30 mm with three varying thickness, 0.85
mm, 0.56 mm and 0.2 mm, in butt joint configuration using a 2 kW Yb-fibre laser having
1.07μm wavelength. It was found out that maximum laser power required for complete
penetration decreased with decrease in sheet thickness and also reduction in laser scan speed
was observed for the same case. Heat affected zone was almost absent because of presence of
higher cooling rates of laser welding. Increase in laser power resulted in change in
microstructure in the form of grain coarsening which caused a decrease in ultimate tensile
strength. Whereas, increase in laser scan speed resulted in refinement of grains. By using
microscopy, weld geometry was determined to be of Y shape, meaning the weld zone was
widest at the top portion and it became narrower as the weld penetrated deep. Numerical
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optimization by use of DesignExpert software provided the optimum responses of output

parameters like ultimate tensile strength and micro-hardness on the basis of input parameters.
The values of responses were in good agreement with the results of experimentation. It was
concluded from the study that preparation and proper alignment of the sheets were necessary
for defect free butt joint welding; second order polynomial equations that were developed
were able to predict the weld characteristics with good accuracy; and that the laser power,
laser scan speed and position of the focal point were important parameters affecting various
output responses.

2.3 LASERS FOR WELDING

There are a variety of lasers available for welding operation depending on its power output
and application to which it is applied. Typical conversation of welding lasers usually is
surrounded by CO2 and Nd:YAG laser systems. These were the initial lasers used when laser
welding was in its initial developmental stages. Over the course of years with increase in
application variety, its complication of joining and technological development, new lasers
like Laser Diode (LD), LD-pumped Solid State laser, Disk laser and Fibre laser are made
available for the welding process. Table 1.1 summarises the different types of lasers and their
characteristics.
As CO2 lasers are high beam quality and high power, they are utilized in welding of steels,
automotive components, airplanes, ships, etc. Nd:YAG lasers can be operated in continuous
weld (CW) mode and pulse weld (PW) mode. PW lasers are used in welding of small
components like battery cases, glass frames, electric components, etc. whereas CW lasers are
used for welding of stainless steel pipes and tanks, aluminium cars, Zn-coated steel sheets,
tailored blanks, etc. The main drawback of CO2 laser is that it cannot be fibre delivered and
requires shielding gas like He or Ar. Nd:YAG laser has the drawback of being a low
electrical efficient system of less than 4%. Therefore, need for new laser systems led to
formation of new lasers like laser-diode, disk and fibre lasers. Disk and fibre lasers have
shown the characteristics of high power, high efficiency and high beam quality as compared
to its predecessors which is also seen in Table 1.1 and thus are able to provide good
flexibility. Direct LD and fibre-delivered LD laser systems are usually robot mounted for
welding process in applications of joining steels, stainless steels, plastics, aluminium alloy
thin sheets, etc. showing its adaptability to automation. [4][5]

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Table 2.3 Types and characteristics of lasers for welding [5]

Types of Laser Characteristics

Lasers Wavelength Laser Media Average Power Merits

High beam
10.6 μm CO2-N2-He Normal – 1~15 kW
CO2 Laser quality, higher
(far-infrared) mixed gas (gas) Maximum – 50 kW
power
Normal–
Lamp-pumped 1.06 μm Nd3+:Y3Al5012
50W~7kW Fibre delivery
YAG Laser (near-infrared) garnet (solid)
Maximum – 10 kW
Compact, high
Laser Diode 0.8 ~ 1.1 μm InGaAsP, etc. Normal – 10 kW
efficiency
(LD) (near-infrared) (solid) Maximum – 15 kW
(20-60%)
LD-pumped Nd3+:Y3Al5012
1 μm Normal – 6 kW
solid-state garnet (solid), Fibre delivery
(near-infrared) Maximum – 13 kW
laser etc.
Fibre delivery,
Yb3+:YAG or
1.03 μm high -brightness,
Disk Laser YVO4 (solid), Average – 16 kW
(near-infrared) high efficiency
etc.
(15-25%)
Fibre delivery,
1.07 μm Yb3+:SiO2, etc. high -brightness,
Fibre Laser Average – 100 kW
(near-infrared) (solid) high efficiency
(20-30%)

2.3.1 Harnessing Laser Beam for Welding Operation

Laser output beam diameter is a factor dependant on the power rating required for the
application. An increase in power rating will result in increase in laser beam diameter. For
power ratings of 1, 5, 10 and 25 kW, laser beam of diameters 10, 25, 40 and 70 mm
respectively have been noted. Power densities ranging from 103 to 105 W/mm2 are required
for laser keyhole welding and thus it becomes important to focus the output laser beam to a
very fine and small spot having the size of a diameter, fraction of millimetre. It is to be

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understood that the coherent beams of laser cannot be focused to infinity before its
divergence. The parameters which decide the focused spot size are laser beam diameter, focal
length of the optic used for focussing the beam, beam mode and the angle of beam
divergence. Although there are various methods to calculate the focus spot size of laser beam
to determine the required power density, physical measurement has been proven to be
difficult, especially when it comes to high power lasers, as it requires placement of certain
scientific equipments which is not always possible on the machining floor.
But there are certain guidelines which are accepted on a wide scale. To approximate the focus
spot diameter for CO2 lasers and its derivatives, the formula used is as given below,

Focus Spot Diameter = ( )

where, λ = laser wavelength in mm

F = focal length in mm
D = laser beam diameter in mm
M = laser beam mode number expressed in decimal

In comparison to CO2 lasers, Nd:YAG lasers have large beam divergenvce angle and hence
cannot be focused to a very small spot as CO2 lasers. Usually a collimator is placed before the
focus optic for this lasers to achieve the required spot diameter. Focus spot size for Nd:YAG
lasers is approximated by the formula,

Focus Spot Diameter = 2θF

where, θ = divergence angle of laser beam leaving the collimator in radians
F = focal length in mm

From a practical standpoint, it is not always necessary to establish the focus spot size by
calculation, but determination of focus number ‘f’ is important as it establishes tolerant
welding conditions. Focus number ‘f’ is calculated by dividing the focal length (mm) by laser
beam diameter (mm) applied. For proper focussing of the laser beam, transmissive optics
(lenses) and reflective optics (shaped mirrors) are used. [4]

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2.4 PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE LASER WELDING

In laser welding process, welding energy applied to the joint interface is responsible for
determining the weld shape and depth. Thus, welding energy becomes an important
component in laser welding which has been studied and determined on the basis of
parameters like focal point position, laser power and laser speed in general. These factors can
be further dependent on small parameters like focus number (f), focus position, depth of
focus (L), shielding gas, plasma suppression, welding conditions, material preparation and
tolerances, etc. When all these parameters are correct, repetition of laser welding process
becomes easy. Thus these parameters form an important part of discussion in laser welding
process.

2.4.1 Focal Point Position

Focal point position can be discussed as an important parameter dependent on sub-parameters

like focused spot size, depth of focus and focus position.

2.4.1.1 Focused Spot Size

Proper selection and maintenance of correct focused spot size is very important for achieving
required power densities for welding process. Fig 2.6 shows the basic focusing optic
chracteristics required to establish the focused spot size and in turn the focal point position.
Laser light when focused, the light rays converge to form a very small waist diameter (d),
over a small length which is called depth of focus (L) before diverging as shown in Fig 2.6.
Dimensions of minimum waist diameter and focus length depends heavily on the type of
optics used, beam focal length (F), beam diameter (D), incidence of laser light on optics, light
wavelength and laser power. Fig 2.6 shows a method to calculate the minimum waist
diameter but that will not provide the correct results everytime as the formulation of the
stated method is based on approximation. It is also very difficult to measure the minimum
waist diameter even by using highly sophisticated measuring equipments due to its volatile
nature and minute size. Focused spot size is interdependent on parameters like welding
power, welding speed, depth of focus (L), etc. to control the welding performance. Hence,
their inter-relation makes them to compromise with each other as any one of the stated factors
cannot be adjusted individually during laser welding.

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Fig 2.6 Characteristics of focused laser beam [4]

Fig 2.6 shows that when focus number (f) is low, there will be smaller minimum waist
diameter (d) and depth of focus (L), leading to large convergence angle (θ). Lower focus
number (f) produces a small spot size which results in high power densities and good laser
penetration at higher welding speeds. But this may not always result in all-round welding
performance because large convergence angle leads to lower focal length (F) and the distance
between the optic and workpiece reduces. This sometimes causes a hinderance in welding
complex parts and tough joining spots, resulting in changes of weld joint design. Very high
focus number (f) is also not feasible as it leads to large spot size which in turn reduces power
densities, penetration and welding speeds. For CO2 lasers, general range of focus number (f)
is 6 to 9 where as for Nd:YAG and fibre lasers the range is 4 to 7. [4]

2.4.1.2 Depth of Focus

Depth of focus (L) is the small region where the diameter of the laser beam is not more than
the 5% of the minimum waist diameter (d) and where the power density will not decrease
more than 10% of the actual value. Depth of focus is an important parameter which provides
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working tolerance to enhance the repeatability of the intended laser welding process. There
are various methods to calculate the depth of focus, many of them depending on the
calculation of focused spot size. For calculation of working depth of focus, the distance
between the optic and approximate minimum waist diameter (d) i.e. the focal length (F) needs
to be determined. The only problem in this calculation is that for some manufacturers, the
starting point of focal length is from the upper surface of the laser optic while for others it is a
little below the upper surface of the optic. Such specifications are usually provided by the
manufacturer in its guide. But theoretical calculations cannot be used as the final one and
experimental verification of such dimensions are necessary to determine the feasible working
range of depth of focus (L). Various different methods are provided for different lasers such
as sheet coupon testing with spot weld method for Nd:YAG and fibre lasers and focus beam
prints on acrylic sheet for CO2 lasers. [4][5]

2.4.1.3 Focus Position

Focus position is important in determination of focus spot size as both will determine the
power density of the laser energy on the joint interface. There is always confusion between
many studies that whether the focus position should be on the surface of the material or
should it be slightly below it for correct autogenous welding. But keeping the focus position
outside the depth of focus (L) is going to result in errors and is not advised because even
small variations outside the depth of focus leads to large deviation in beam diameters. This
case is very sensitive in low focus number (f) conditions. Correct working focus position is
the one which will provide maximum penetration and which can be easily obtained from the
calculations of depth of focus (d). This position has to be determined theoretically and
checked practically by conducting various experiments to determine the correct range of
focus position with working tolerances. Determination of focus position when welding is
carried out with the help of filler material depends on factors like joint gap for filler material;
filler wire feed position and depth.

2.4.2 Laser Power and Welding Speed

Laser power and welding speed are very important and inter-related parameters in laser
welding process other than focal point position. All the three stated parameters work together
to provide an all-round welding performance. Effect of laser power and welding speed is
different in cases of continuous seam welding and pulsed mode welding. Both the parameters
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act differently because of the introduction of pulse frequency, number of joules/pulse and
percentage overlap of each spot in pulsed mode welding. Lower the laser power, greater can
be the welding speed because low heat input will be required for the welding process, a
benefit of having small focused spot size, small beam diameter and high power density. Laser
power required for the welding operation usually depends on the application thickness and
level of penetration required for joining. Fig 2.7 shows the graphical relation between the
weld penetration depth (mm), laser power (kW) and welding speed (m/min) for CO2 lasers.

Fig 2.7 Approximate weld penetration depths for steels with respect to laser power and welding speed [4]

From fig 2.7, it can be observed that with increasing welding speed, for a given laser power
the weld penetration decreases. Very high laser welding speeds are not advised as the heat
source made available in the given time over a spot might seem insufficient to cause
appropriate melting and very low welding speeds are dangerous as it leads to scattering of the
beam power over a large area, increasing heat affected zone, causing splatter and
undercutting problems among a few. Correct relation must always be maintained between
these two parameters for a sound welded joint. [4]

2.4.3 Shielding Gases

There are main two purposes that the shielding gas is intended to serve during the laser
welding process. They are,

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1. Protection of weld keyhole and solidifying molten metal from oxidation and
oxide inclusions to avoid porosity and poor weld quality.

2. Protection of transmitted laser beam from vapours and residual gases around
the keyhole to avoid unnecessary beam diameter expansion and scattering.

Several gases can qualify for the first requirement but very few gases trickle down to cover
both requirements. During welding operation and keyhole formation, metal vapour from the
molten metal is ejected out of the joint which absorbs the incident laser power to ionise and
form a plasma cloud just above the keyhole formation. This plasma has a bright blue tint to it
which can result in scattering and beam expansion due to its partially transparent nature. This
leads to poor weld quality and must be avoided to increase productivity. Thus, correct
shielding gases are required for the suppression of such plasma cloud, which itself would not
react to the plasma and ionise and at the same time protect the joint from unwanted outer
inclusions.

For solid state lasers like Nd:YAG laser and fibre lasers which have wavelength of 1.07 μm
and mostly used for spot welds, plasma cloud formations are very rare and usually operated
without the shielding gas. Also, molten metal solidifies much quicker for these lasers and
thus oxidation cannot occur during solidification. But for seam and butt welds with
overlapping spots, gases like argon and nitrogen can be used though nitrogen gas could lead
to embrittlement in certain grades of steels. For laser power above 300W and thickness above
4 mm, gas shielding becomes critical for these laser systems. Gas mixtures like 80% argon-
20% carbon dioxide or argon and 1%-2% oxygen or helium gas can be used depending upon
the material to be welded.

Shielding of gas lasers like CO2 laser becomes very critical because CO2 laser have wide
wavelength of 10.6 μm which causes significant plasma formation and is itself highly
reactive to the plasma. Welding speeds lower than 1 m/min combined with high laser power
always results in plasma formation and require special plasma suppression jets and
mechanism. Helium is considered as the best shielding gas when it comes to CO2 laser
system and other gas laser systems. Helium is light in weight and hence remains above the
keyhole for a limited amount of time and gets circulated outside. It also has high ionisation
potential which means that it will have to absorb very high amount of laser energy before
itself converting into plasma cloud or getting degraded. Oxygen free nitrogen gas (OFN) is
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recommended when it is known that the plasma formation will not be very severe and cost
concerns are prevalent. But nitrogen gas has been known to cause embrittlement in certain
materials and should be applied properly. Other gases used as shielding for this system are
argon, mixtures of helium-argon, helium-nitrogen and argon-oxygen. Table 2.4 gives a brief
idea about the shielding gases and its characteristics. [4][5][28]

Table 2.4 Different shielding gases used in laser welding [28]

Shield Gas Plasma Prevention Relative Cost Weld Profile Limitations

Suppression against (Penetration)
Oxidation

Helium Excellent Good High Deepest None

Plasma cloud
Argon Lower Excellent Medium Wide reduces
power density

Embrittlement
Nitrogen
Lower Good Low Deep in certain
(OFN)
materials

Not useful for

CO2 Lower Poor Lowest Nominal reactive
materials

20% He-
Good Very Good Medium Nominal None
80% Ar

2.4.4 Joint Configurations

Precise control over the gaps in the joint interface is essential in laser welding. This is
because the joint must be able to take the advantage of concentrated power source of the laser
beam over a relative small area. Thus, consideration and design of joint configurations play
an important role in laser welding process. Generally for autogenous welds, a gap no more
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than 10% of the smallest thickness of the component is permitted to be present between the
joining interfaces. However, this condition can be relaxed for thickness above 1 mm. for very
small thickness, for example 0.2 mm thickness, the permitted gap should not be more than
5% of the thickness. It is also much more difficult to start a laser weld in an area with a large
gap area compared to maintaining a seam weld through a short section of high gap area where
bridging can sometimes be maintained. In the autogenous process, whether spot or seam, the
weld gaps must be filled with metal from the adjacent area. Bridging any gap requires extra
laser energy. As the gap increases, the welds become increasingly concave until the gap fails
to bridge and the joint is incomplete. Common joint configurations for laser welding process
are lap joint and butt joint but some other joints are also used depending on the application
and component design as shown in fig 2.8. [4][28]

Fig 2.8 Basic joint configurations that can be laser welded [4]

2.4.5 Material Preparation

After determining the welding parameters related to laser welding, the performance of
welding operation depends on preparation of joint faces, accurate joint centreline and joint
fit-up. Joint interfaces should be kept clean against contaminants like paints, grease, oxides
and dirt. Care is taken to see that the joining faces should be clean and very close to each

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other in case of autogenous welds. Thin components are always kept straight with respect to
each other at joining faces to mate correctly after weld solidification. To make good contact
between the joining faces, thicker sections must be machined in appropriate form. Above
actions are important to reduce joint gaps and surface mismatch which might hamper the
weld quality. Cleaning agents are to be adequately rinsed and removed off the surface of
material that is to be welded to avoid weld defects of spatter and porosity. [4]

2.5 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

From the above literature review, it can be concluded that mathematical modelling based
simulation models are becoming increasingly precise and a necessary accessory to understand
the complex phenomena of laser welding process. Though static simulation can validate a
process experiment with a given singular set of values of the input parameters, a simulating
model based on mathematical modelling in any analysis software platform when validated for
a number of experimental results provides a good tool to do further studies related to laser
welding process. Many researchers have attempted to study the effects of input parameters on
the weld characteristics for laser welding on various different materials with varying joint
configurations, both experimentally and simulation. Simulation models were found to be in
good agreement with the results in most of the cases. Various researchers also performed
parametric optimization over the process to derive optimum values and check output
responses with respect to input parameters and were successfully validated. With proper
mathematical modelling, a simulation model can be generated to study the otherwise complex
phenomena of laser welding process which, when validated, can be useful for extensive
studies. It was also observed that maximum work was done on thick sheets having thickness
of at least 1 mm whereas there are very few studies on the laser welding of sub-millimeter
thin sheets and a very small number of simulation models for its study. Brief overview on
essentials of laser welding like welding lasers, controlling parameters including focal point
position, focused spot, depth of focus, laser power, welding speed, shielding gases, joint
configurations and material preparation for laser welding was done to understand the
importance of each topic in laser welding systems.

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2.6 MOTIVATION

Limited number of studies has been performed on sub-millimeter thick steels, especially
when there are increased numbers of industrial applications for it. Further, very little
simulation data is present to support the experimental results and understand the complex
behaviour occurring during laser welding process. Formulation of simulation models will
eventually help in increasing the number of studies concerned with laser welding over topics
like temperature distribution, temperature field, thermal and mechanical stresses, elongation
of material, etc. and thus increase the process productivity. Experimental study has been done
by Waghmare et al. [21] in the case of sub-millimeter thick SS316 sheets over various
thicknesses and optimized those experiments to obtain best welding conditions for good
tensile strength and appropriate weld widths but no simulation work has been done with
respect to this study for the considered experimental data [21].

2.7 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

Following are the objectives of the study:

1. To review existing laser welding processes including fibre laser welding, the
principles of laser keyhole welding, origins and mechanisms involved laser welding,
and published work on the subject of welding.

2. To model the mathematical model based simulation model for selected three
thicknesses based on the available experimental data.

3. To validate the model based on experimental results.

4. To create such a simulation model that would be able to predict output parameters of
laser welding process like ultimate tensile strength, weld width, etc. which affect weld
characteristics in its application.

5. To generalise the model, i.e. to find optimum parameters by incorporating parametric

study for the model.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY AND SIMULATION

Ductile materials having low thickness are easy to form in a variety of joint configurations as
per the required application which might not be that easy with respect to materials having
higher thickness. Sheet metal fabrications, especially various grades of steels, are done by
laser welding for componenets having thickness less than 3 mm at a high welding speed of 2
m/min and low laser power of 5 kW. Such components find their applications in domestic
appliances, automotive industries and electronic packaging industries. Thus, the project is
conducted in this area of low thickness sheets, mainly stainless steel sheets of grade AISI
316.

3.1 DATA FOR SIMULATION

3.1.1 Study used for Reference

Main motivation for performing this study is the reference of the previous study done by
Waghmare et al. [21] titled parametric optimization for autogenous butt laser welding of sub-
millimeter thick SS 316 sheets using central composite design. The aim of the study was to
understand the effect of parameters like welding speed, focal point position and laser power
on welding of varied thicknesses for outputs like ultimate tensile strength, weld width and
microhardness. An attempt was also made to optimise the parameter values from the
experimental data to achieve best output results. As no simulation study has been carried out
to support and validate the results and experimentation, this project considers the study of
Waghmare et al. [21] as its reference for data.

3.1.2 Material Selection and Properties

The material selected for the study by Wghmare et al. [21] is AISI 316 stainless steel with
three thickness of 0.85 mm, 0.56 mm and 0.2 mm. All the steel sheets are sub-millimeter
thick sheets and difficult to join, hence has recieved a lot of research attention. Chemical
composition by percent weight for stated thicknesses is given in table 3.1.

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Table 3.1 Chemical composition (wt%) of SS 316 [21]

Thickness Cr (wt%) Ni (wt%) Mo (wt%)

0.85 mm 16.658 10.358 1.312

0.56 mm 16.626 9.766 1.33

0.2 mm 16.88 9.98 1.3

Grade AISI 316 stainless steel is an austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steel and heat-
resisting steel with superior corrosion resistance as compared to other chromium-nickel steels
when exposed to many types of chemical corroding agents such as sea water, brine solutions
and other highly corrosive environments. Since type 316 stainless steel alloy contains
molybdenum, it gives the metal greater resistance to various chemical attacks. It is
considerably more resistant to solutions of sulphuric acid, chlorides, bromides, iodides and
fatty acids. SS316 steel is durable, easy to fabricate, clean, weld and finish. SS316 is ideal for
electrical enclosures used in coastal areas, marine applications subjected to severe sea spray,
industrial coatings exposed to corrosive process, production of ink, textiles, bleaches,
photographic chemicals and areas subjected to high exposures of chlorides. General
composition, mechanical properties, thermal properties and thermo-physical properties of SS
316 are stated in table 3.2, table 3.3, table 3.4 and table 3.5 respectively.

Table 3.2 Composition of elements in SS 316 [24][26]

Component C Cr Fe Mn Mo Ni P S

Wt. % 0.08 18 62 2 3 14 0.045 0.3

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Table 3.3 Mecahnical properties of SS 316 [24][26]

Mechanical Properties

Property Metric unit English Unit

Hardness, Rockwell B 79 79

Tensile Strength, Ultimate 580 MPa 84100 psi

Tensile Strength, Yield 290 MPa 42100 psi

Elongation at Break 50% 50%

Modulus of Elasticity 193 GPa 28000ksi

Charpy Impact 105 J 77.4 ft-lb

Izod Impact 129 J 95.1 ft-lb

Density 8 g/cc 0.28 lb/in3

Table 3.4 Thermal properties of SS 316 [24][26]

Thermal Properties

Property Metric Unit English Unit

CTE, linear 20℃ 16 μm/m℃ 8.89 μin/in°F

CTE, linear 250℃ 16.2 μm/m℃ 9 μin/in°F

CTE, linear 500℃ 17.5 μm/m℃ 9.72 μin/in°F

Specific Heat Capacity 0.5 J/g℃ 0.12 BTU/lb°F

Thermal Conductivity 16.3 W/mK 113 BTU-in/hr-ft2-°F

Solidus 1370℃ 2500°F

Liquidus 1400℃ 2550°F

Maximum Service Temperature, Air 870℃ 1600°F

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Table 3.5 Thermo-Physical properties of SS 316 [24][26]

Thermo-Physical Properties
Temperature Density Heat Thermal Linear Thermal
T℃ ρ (kg/m3) Capacity Conductivity Expansion Diffusivity
(Cp) = K (W/mK) Coefficient λ mm2/s
J/(KgK) 106 (1/K) (106)

100 7771.6289 511.982 15.1078 79.81454 3.7969

200 7635.0600 525.382 16.6788 108.27280 4.1579

300 7476.1556 23.782 18.2498 141.74439 4.5307

400 7294.9158 552.182 19.8208 180.22929 4.9206

500 7091.3406 565.582 21.3918 223.72751 5.3336

600 6865.4300 578.982 22.9628 272.23906 5.7768

700 6617.1839 592.382 24.5338 325.76393 6.2587

800 6346.6023 605.782 26.048 384.30212 6.7899

900 6053.6853 619.182 27.6758 447.85363 7.3835

1000 5738.4329 632.582 29.2468 516.41846 8.0569

1100 5400.8450 645.982 30.8178 589.99661 8.8332

1200 5040.9217 659.382 32.3888 668.58809 9.7442

1300 4658.6630 672.782 33.9598 752.19289 0.1083

1400 4254.0688 686.182 35.5308 840.81100 0.1217

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3.1.3 Joint Geometry

Laser welding is applicable to various types of joints as stated in fig 2.8 in chapter 2. Most
used joint configurations are lap joint and butt joint. Lap joint in laser welding offers the most
versatility with respect to design and ease of manufacture. As it is the most simple case to be
welded, there is little concern over problems in joint alignment and joint preparation. Lap
joints are also favouarble for high working tolerances. Disadvantage of lap joint is that initial
energy is spent on penetrating the first sheet and before reaching the joint interface i.e. the
second sheet. This causes energy loss in an unproductive way, especially if the thickness of
the sheets are greater than 1 mm.

Butt joint is known to provide the most efficient way to join two interfaces as the joining
energy will be focused directly on the joint line of interfaces. Though effecient, a good butt
joint is diffcult to achieve because it depends on the factors like proper joint surface matchup
and joint face fit-up. This joint configurtaion becomes more difficult in case of very thin
sheets as the joining faces cover very small area over each other along the joint line.
Precautions are maintained to ensure clean material edges, minimal wrapping and distortion
to achive good weld quality. [4][5]

Weld joint considered in study by Waghmare et al. [21] is butt joint configuration and the
same will be used for simulation studies along with its original dimensions. Fig 3.1 shows the
experimental setup consisting butt joint configuration with reference to [21].

Fig 3.1 Experiment setup showing butt joint configuration [21]

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3.1.4 Laser Specifications as per the Reference Study

Laser experiments were conducted on a 2 kW Yb-fibre laser system (IPG photonics, model
no. YLR-2000), operating at 1.07 μm wavelength. This laser system has the capability to
operate in both continous and pulsed modulate (50-1000 Hz) mode. Yb-fibre laser
specifications used for the experimentation and experimental setup for the welding process is
given in table 3.6 and 3.7 respectively.

Table 3.6 Yb-fibre laser system specifications [21]

Max. Wavelength Focal spot Focal Frequenc Duty

power (nm) Diameter length y range cycle
(W) (μm) (mm) (Hz) range (%)

1750 1070 325 200 50-1000 5-100

Table 3.7 Experimental setup conditions during welding process [21]

Mode of Laser Power Continuous wave

Beam mode Multi-mode and flat on top surface
Laser spot diameter 325μm
Beam angle 90 degrees
Wavelength 1070 nm
Fibre core diameter 50μm
Focal point 0 mm

3.1.5 Data for Simulation Study

The motive of the study done in [21] was determination of effect of input parameters like
welding speed, laser power and focal point position on output parameters like ultimate tensile
strength, weld width and microhardness after laser welding operation on SS 316 sheet of
three different thicknesses. Experiments were conducted over a large number of runs and
optimization techniques were applied to find optimum input values to get desired good
quality weld and output parameters. The range of experiments along with its values before
optmization is given in fig 3.2 and some of this data can be utilized for performing simulation
of laser welding.

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Fig 3.2 Values obtained after complete experimentation [21]

3.2 NUMERICAL SIMULATION MODELLING

3.2.1 Finite Element Analysis

The laser welding process is characterized by the highly collimated and concentrated beam
energy. This process makes it difficult to provide an accurate measurement of temperature,
fusion zone and heat affected zone. It is very difficult to provide an accurate measurement of
temperature distribution, fusion zone and heat affected zone, since the beam power is highly
concentrated. Here finite element analysis helps in understanding the process more
comprehensively. For this purpose, numerical analysis software like ANSYS is used in this
study to simulate the thermal and structural aspects of laser welding process. In order to
investigate the temperature distribution induced by the laser irradiation on austenitic stainless
steel sheets, the Finite Element Modelling (FEM) is adopted due to its flexibility in modelling
and its capability in obtaining full field numerical solution, multiphysics software ANSYS is
employed to solve the transient thermal analysis of the problem. The peak temperature
reached is more than the boiling point of the material and hence the phase change is to be
considered while performing the analysis. The heat-affected zone is much smaller than the
domain of the material and the thickness of the stainless-steel sheet considered being very
thin, very fine meshes are demanded to resolve temperature distribution in the weld region.
The following assumptions are made in the formulation of the finite element model,

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1. The workpiece is maintained at initial temperature of 22℃.

2. The heat source is moving while the workpiece is fixed.
3. All thermo-physical properties of SS 316 are considered to be temperature
dependent.
4. Latent heat of fusion is 285 kJ/kg for SS 316.

3.2.2 Heat Conduction Theory and Boundary Conditions

The heat transfer of laser beam welding can be calculated by applying heat conduction theory
and the thermal and mechanical aspects of the problem can be decoupled without imposing a
significant penalty on the calculation accuracy. The assumptions on this are that dimensional
changes during laser beam welding are not significant and that the mechanical work done is
negligible compared to the thermal energy changes. Under a moving coordinate system o -
xyz with y axis along the welding direction, z axis along the workpiece thickness direction
(coinciding with the laser beam centre-line), and the origin o at the work piece surface, the
governing equation for the temperature field on the workpiece is as follows,

where ρ is the density, Cp is the specific heat, vw is the welding speed, T is the temperature, t

is the time, k is the thermal conductivity and qv (x, y ,z) is the volumetric heat source term
which varies with beam power and beam incidence angle.

The natural boundary condition can be defined by,

where q is the prescribed heat flux, the film coefficient used is h = 20 W/m2 °C and the
emissivity value of 0.63 is assumed for stainless steel. During laser beam welding in
atmosphere, heat losses from the workpiece surface through natural convection, radiation and
evaporation of molten metal takes place. Based on this, only the convective and radioactive
heat losses are considered for the study. The initial condition for the transient analysis is,

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where, T0 is the initial temperature.

3.2.3 Mathematical Modelling of the Heat Source

The Gaussian equation is used to obtain the moving heat source. The moving heat source is
nothing but a replication of the original heat source from the laser to simulate the laser
welding. This heat source is responsible for changes in the state of the material SS 316. The
heat input distribution is responsible for determining the size and shape of weld pool in
simulations. A point heat source is obtained by the Gaussian equation. The Gaussian equation
for moving heat source is given as,

( ) (3.1)
Q(x, y)=

where,

Q = Heat Flux,

P = Laser Power Intensity,

σ = Beam Radius,

( ) = Velocity Component [23]

During laser welding, part of the energy generated by the laser source is lost before being
absorbed by the material of the workpiece. For a butt-joint laser welding this energy loss is
approximately 30% of the nominal power of the laser source. Accordingly, the absorbed
energy is considered as 70% of the laser power.

The equation was simplified to write UDF (User Defined Function) for generating heat
source,

Q(x, y, t) = A*Exp(B*(({X}-C)^2+({Y}-D*{TIME}-E)^2)/F^2) (3.2)

where,

A = Laser Power and geometry constants,

F = Laser beam diameter,

C = x distance to coordinate system,

D = Laser beam velocity,

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E = y distance to coordinate system,

B= -3 constant from Goldak’s heat flux mode

3.2.4 Sheet Geometry Modelling and Material Assignment

The Geometry is prepared in the Design Modular from ANSYS Workbench Toolbox. The
true scale model is prepared for the simulation of laser welding of the plate with moving heat
source. The selection of the computational domain has been done with different thickness.
Three different thicknesses (0.85, 0.56 and 0.2 mm) of material are used for simulations and
similar for the computational domain modelling. 70 mm x 30 mm thick sheets are prepared
with corresponding thickness. [21]

Fig 3.3 shows the plate used as a computational domain and fig 3.4 shows the interface of
ANSYS workbench software.

Fig 3.3 Geometry of the plate (H = 70 mm; V = 30 mm)

Fig 3.4 Geometry preparation layout of ANSYS Workbench

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Following steps show the procedure used in ANSYS software for the generation of required
geometry in ANSYS Geometry module,

1. Selection of Geometry module from the components system in ANSYS Workbench.

2. Selection of millimeter as input unit of dimension for geometry generation.
3. Selection of rectangle mode for sketch with fixed dimensions of 30 mm height and 70
mm length for sheet geometry in vertical plane.
4. Extrusion of varied thicknesses as stated: 0.85 mm, 0.56 mm and 0.2 mm.
5. Selection of slice command to divide the geometry into two equal halves to represent
the joint of sheet interface.

A SS316 material is prepared in the ANSYS Workbench. The properties of the SS316
material are mentioned in the following table 3.8. Fig 3.5 shows the assignment of material
properties in ANSYS engineering toolbox.

Table 3.8 Properties of SS 316 for ANSYS materials module

Name of the Property Value

Density 8000 Kg/m3
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 1.59×10-5 1/K
Young’s Modulus 1.93×105 MPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.275
Yield Strength 290 MPa

Fig 3.5 Material properties assignment of SS 316 in materials module

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3.2.5 Mesh selection and Grid Independence Study

To establish the accuracy of the solution and to keep the computational time and costs low, a
mesh independence study of the heat sink domain is important. Prior to performing the
simulations, a grid independence study is conducted over four grid resolutions. A uniform
grid size is used for the analysis of various types of computational domain with change in
geometric parameters. Grid independence is associated with the accuracy or even rationality
of numerical results. It takes at least two-dimensional study, like steady state heat transfer, for
example, to reveal the effect of grid resolution on numerical results. The production acquired
here can be used as the guidance in choosing grid density in numerical simulation and get
exact grid independence value without using infinite fine grid. Through analysing grid
independence, minimum number of grid cells are determined that are needed to get grid-
independence results. Such strategy can save computational resource while ensure a rational
computational result.

The meshing is done in the Mechanical Meshing module. The meshing is made denser at the
moving heat source path. To obtain maximum temperature distribution at welding zone, the
mesh grid is optimized. Table 3.9 shows the grid independence study with respect to
maximum temperature attained by the heat sink i.e. the sheet geometry.

Table 3.9 Grid Independence study

Relevance No. elements Maximum Temperature

10 21504 1027.22
20 22176 1028
30 22515 1028.9
40 22515 1028.9

Following steps show the procedure used in ANSYS software for the generation of required
geometry in ANSYS Meshing module,

1. Selection of Mesh module from the components system in ANSYS Workbench.

2. Loading the previous generated geometry conditions in the Mesh module.
3. Selection of connections > contact > contact region to define both sheets as solid at
joint interface.

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4. Selection of sheet outer edges, thickness edges and joint interface edges for mesh
sizing with mesh type as number of divisions (60) over its length and hard behaviour
with appropriate bias for dense mesh at the joint interface.
5. Selection of body surfaces of the sheet geometry with element size 0.1 mm to
complete mesh process.

The sheet geometry is meshed with quad elements as shown in fig 3.6.

(a) (b)

Fig 3.6 (a) Meshing of sheets, (b) 3D view

The laser welding path is made denser mesh to obtain maximum temperature distribution.
The quality of mesh obtained is shown in fig 3.7 and 3.8 respectively.

Fig 3.7 Quality of mesh elements

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Fig 3.8 Mesh aspect ratio

The grid independence study is used to mesh all the thicknesses keeping the relevance value
constant. The following grids are obtained for other two widths. Figs 3.6 to 3.8 are
representing the sheets of thickness value 0.85 mm. Fig 3.9 represents the meshing operation
over 0.56 mm thickness and fig 3.10 represents the meshing operation over 0.2 mm thickness.
Table 3.10 gives the final variance in mesh count as the sheet thickness changes.

Table 3.10 Number of elements for given thickness

Thickness of plate No. element in Mesh

0.85 22515
0.56 21840
0.2 21840

(a) (b)

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(c)
Fig 3.9 (a) 0.56 mm sheet mesh, (b) side view, (c) element quality and mesh count

(a) (b)

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(c)
Fig 3.10 (a) 0.2 mm sheet mesh, (b) side view, (c) element quality and mesh count

3.2.6 Input Conditions

The laser welding input conditions obtained from Waghmare et al. [21] and as shown in 3.2
are the base conditions for the simulation study. After optimization, the study found out 9
optimum cases, three cases each for each sheet thickness. These values are considered for the
simulation study to carry out the thermal and structural analysis in ANSYS software. Table
3.11 shows the optimized conditions to be used as simulation data.

Table 3.11 Input conditions for thermal analysis

Exp. Sheet Laser Scanning speed Focal Distance

No Thickness Power(P) (S) (mm)
(mm) (watt) (mm/min)
1 0.85 841.2 3926 0.64
2 0.85 1108.8 3926 0.64
3 0.85 848.56 2975.06 0.16
4 0.56 831.11 5446 0.45
5 0.56 831.1 5446 0.11
6 0.56 1068.9 5445.82 0.45
7 0.2 320.27 4906 0.16
8 0.2 320.92 4919.76 0.04
9 0.2 379.51 4905.4 0.04
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Data obtained from thermal analysis will be used as the loading condition for structural study.
Thermal study is conducted in Transient Thermal module of ANSYS Workbench as the
moving heat source replicating the laser beam is non-stationary in nature and is thus time-
dependent, therefore is transient condition. The thermal study is characterised by repeated
heating and cooling process through conduction, convection and radiation. When plate gets
heated, heat starts to flow in the surrounding thorough mode of convection and radiation for
show these convection boundary conditions are applied. Also some heat in transfer is through
radiation so radiation effect also must be applied. For this application convective heat
transfer, thermal conductivity is used from table 3.4 and emissivity coefficient as 0.63. Extra
condition of convection by applying stagnant air convective coefficient is also provided in the
simulation model which is predefined in transient thermal module. Structural analysis is
conducted in Structural module of ANSYS Workbench for determination of UTS values. The
dwell loading for 0.1 Kg or 0.981 N load is applied for 10 sec on the welding zone to
simulate the UTM conditions which were used for ultimate tensile strength calculation during
experimentation. The ultimate tensile strength value is determined for the weld by structural
analysis. The compression of the analytical results with the numerical and experimental
results are obtained and discussed for better understanding of the laser beam welding for
SS316 sub-millimetre thick sheets.

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3.2.7 Steps for Numerical Simulation in ANSYS

Fig 3.11 shows the steps followed for performing the numerical simulation study for the
considered data.

Defining Material Data

Creation of Geometry

Appropriate Meshing of
Geometry

Modelling and assigning the

Heat Source

Application of Boundary
Conditions

Solving for Thermal

Analysis

Taking Thermal solutions as

input for Structural Analysis

Boundary Conditions for

Structural Analysis

Solving for Structural

Analysis

Post processing Results

Fig 3.11 Steps for Numerical Simulation in ANSYS

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The analytical study is carried out for the understanding of the structural strength of the weld
joint. The thermal and structural analysis is carried out with ANSYS Workbench. The results
are discussed below. The output parameters are UTS (ultimate tensile strength of weld), the
welding zone temperature (heat affected zone). The temperature rise causes the change in the
material state of SS316. The weld is obtained by changing the temperature of the material by
concentrated laser beam. As thickness is increased, the temperature distribution by laser heat
source is changed. The decrease in the temperature distribution causes the change in the heat
affected zone. As heat affected zone decreases, the welding width also decreases, which
results in the change in the strength of the weld. These observations are obtained by structural
analysis for selected values given in table 3.11.

4.1 THERMAL ANALYSIS OF LASER WELDED ZONE

Following steps show the procedure used in ANSYS software for the simulation of thermal
analysis in ANSYS Transient Thermal module,

1. Importing meshed geometry form previous source stated above.

2. Selection of sheet surfaces and edges over which thermal solutions are required.
3. Addition of convection to whole geometry of sheets with imported convection data
for stagnant air for continuous heating and cooling effect.
4. Addition of thermal input of moving heat source through thermal condition
‘Commands’ with user defined function (UDF) of moving heat source mathematical
model.
5. Selection of different solutions like temperature field, temperature flux, etc. as
required.

The temperature changes at the welded zone with change in the laser power (P). The laser
power plays important role in the welding. The heat source is modelled in the thermal
analysis by using Gaussian Heat source model for 3D geometry. The source of heat is point
source, so the heat affected zone obtained in simulation gives the maximum temperature
values for various laser power input. The heat source is moving along the plate surface with
the speed which is also mentioned as the laser scanning speed. The heat source is moving
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with scanning speed and distributes the temperature along the welding area. The optimized
scanning speed values for respective laser power are mentioned in the table 3.11. The
scanning speed is also important input factor which is affecting the welding of plates. As the
speed is decreased the value of welding width is increased as the temperature distribution is
increased. The optimized input values by numerical analysis obtained by the transient thermal
analysis and the maximum temperature at the welded region of SS316 are stated in table 4.1.
These maximum temperatures are recorded under continuous heating and cooling conditions
by application of extra convection condition of convective coefficient of stagnant air over the
sheets, after passing of the heat source over the joint line. As the maximum temperatures
recorded are near the liquidus temperature of SS 316 (1400℃) after the cooling condition
taking conduction, convection and radiation heat transfers into account, it can be concluded
that maximum temperatures during heating by the moving heat source breached well above
the liquidus temperature and proper welding is achieved by melting and mixing of material.
Further results such as solutions from structural analysis and its degree of agreement will help
in justifying the results of thermal analysis and selection of thermal parameters used for the
analysis.

Table 4.1 Values of maximum temperature obtained from numerical simulation

Exp. Sheet Thickness Scanning speed Maximum

No (mm) (S) temperature
(mm/min) (℃)
1 0.85 3926 1027.8
2 0.85 3926 959.72
3 0.85 2975.06 1185.4
4 0.56 5446 984.27
5 0.56 5446 938.41
6 0.56 5445.82 932.42
7 0.2 4906 330.22
8 0.2 4919.76 476.48
9 0.2 4905.4 308.81

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0.05 sec 0.1 sec

0.2 sec 0.3 sec

0.4 sec 0.5 sec

Fig 4.1 Temperature profile for moving heat source with respect to time

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Fig 4.1 shows the temperature profile for the applied moving heat source which represents
the simulation of laser beam applied on the joining interface. It can be seen that position of
heat source changes with respect to time as the mathematical model of heat source is
characterised by the parameter of laser scan speed or welding speed (mm/min). Fig 4.1 shows
that the temperature field presents an elongated tailing shape, where the front area has a high
temperature with intensive isothermal while the back area performs quite the reverse, which
means the temperature gradient in the front is larger than that at the back. Here it is concluded
from the phenomenon that as the heat source moves forward, heat transfers are much faster at
the back on account of continuous heat accumulation.

Fig 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 show the end results of the heat source after reaching the end of the plate
and results are interpreted from thermal perspective. In general, the temperature distribution
shows the heat affected zone clearly and as the input conditions are considered, the laser
power is considerably decreased. Though the heat affected zone has increased as the
thickness of the sheet decreased.

Fig 4.2 shows the resulting contours of temperature distribution from transient thermal
analysis carried out for 0.85 mm thickness SS 316 sheet. The temperature distribution along
the width shows the laser penetration in the plate or the heat distribution in the plate. As the
plate thickness is maximum, it is going to be minimum heat affected area along the width of
the plate. For all three conditions, the variance in the temperature region is noted; however
the welding area is limited in the 0.85 plate as considered along the width of the plate. The
laser contact area or heat source area is showing maximum temperature 1027.80C to
1185.40C and lower temperature at the end is around 22.40C.

Fig 4.3 shows the resulting contours of temperature distribution from transient thermal
analysis carried out for 0.56 mm thickness SS 316 sheet. As the plate thickness is less the
0.85mm, it is going to be quite maximum heat affected area along the width of the plate. For
all three conditions, the variance in the temperature region is noted; however the welding area
is slightly increased in the 0.56 mm plate as considered along the width of the plate. The laser
contact area or heat source area is showing maximum temperature 932.85 0C to 984.27 0C
and lower temperature at the end is 22.40C. For this width value also, there is no temperature
contour till the end of plate that meant the temperature change is near to the heat source only.
At the end of width the temperature is not changed as initial. So the heat affected zone is
going to be limited to the welding of the plate region.

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Temperature distribution by moving heat Temperature distribution along the plate

source along the plate width

Fig 4.2 Temperature distribution at welded region for 0.85 mm thickness SS 316 sheet

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Temperature distribution by moving heat Temperature distribution along the plate

source along the plate width

Fig 4.3 Temperature distribution at welded region for 0.56 mm thickness SS 316 sheet

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Temperature distribution by moving heat Temperature distribution along the plate

source along the plate width

Fig 4.4 Temperature distribution at welded region for 0.2 mm thickness SS 316 sheet

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Fig 4.4 shows the resulting contours of temperature distribution from transient thermal
analysis carried out for 0.2 mm thickness SS 316 sheet. The 0.2 mm thickness is minimum
thickness considered according to the reference values. Because of the laser penetration in the
plate or the heat distribution in the plate, it is significant for all considered input conditions
mentioned in the table 3.11. As the plate thickness is 0.2 mm, it is going to have maximum
heat affected area along the width of the plate. For all three conditions the variance in the
temperature region is noted; however the welding area is extended till the end of the width of
plate. The laser contact area or heat source area is showing maximum temperature 308.510C
to 476.480C and lower temperature at the end is 2470C to 2800C.

The variance in temperature distribution for various widths of the plates implicates the laser
heat source efficiency to penetrate through material and gives the maximum temperature
distribution along the plate width. The maximum distribution will provide the maximum heat
affected zone along the plate width which is going to change the welding strength.

4.2 WELD DIMENSION ANALYSIS

The experimental study conducted with reference to [21] had the one of the outputs as weld
dimensions, specifically the weld width. Weld width is a necessary parameter to study the
effects of welding heat source on the joining area. Size of weld dimensions is responsible in
influencing the heat affected zone formed adjacent to the joint. Heat affected zone and joint
area are together responsible for the material properties present after the welding procedure
which directly affect the reliability of the joint as per the application in which the joined
materials are going to be used. Limited heat affected zone in any type of welding process is
expected so that the material deviates in very small amount from its original properties.
Laser welding process occurs through highly constrained and collimated heat source and is
characterized by small weld size and heat affected zone. To check the weld dimensions,
sheets of all thickness after the welding heat source has reached the other end of plate are
considered and this data is compared to the values obtained in [21] to understand the process
of laser welding and determine the error between the experimental values and values from
numerical simulation. Fig 4.5 shows some of the weld geometry after transient thermal study
for dimension analysis and table 4.2 compares the simulated values with experimental values.

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(a) Weld dimensions for 0.85 mm thickness

(b) Weld dimensions for 0.56 mm thickness

(c) Weld dimensions for 0.2 mm thickness

Fig 4.5 Calculations for weld width from transient thermal study

From fig 4.5, the red region over the sheets shows the region of maximum temperature after
transient thermal analysis whereas the orange zone indicates the approximate heat affected
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zone. Thus, it can be said that during transient thermal analysis, this is the same region of
peak temperature that reached liquidus temperature and melting took place for fusion welding
process. Conditions stated above are considered after thermal analysis because weld
dimension is formed after the heat source moves from its position and heat losses due to
modes of heat transfer results in cooling and lead to solidification of weld zone. Values
obtained from simulation study and experimental study [21] are compared in table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Comparison of weld geometry

Exp Sheet Laser Scanning Focal Weld Width Weld Error

No. Thickness Power Speed Distance (μm) Width (%)
(mm) (P) (S) (mm)
Experiment (μm)
(Watts) (mm/min)
values Numerical
Analysis
Values

1 0.85 841.2 3926 0.64 603.5 630.2 4.4241

2 0.85 1108.8 3926 0.64 675.5 684 1.2583
3 0.85 848.56 2975.06 0.16 717.4 700 -2.4254
4 0.56 831.11 5446 0.45 522.76 520.5 -0.4323
5 0.56 831.1 5446 0.11 522.756 521.2 -0.2976
6 0.56 1068.9 5445.82 0.45 560.131 570.8 1.9047
7 0.2 320.27 4906 0.16 442.428 450.2 1.7566
8 0.2 320.92 4919.76 0.04 442.236 451.1 2.0043
9 0.2 379.51 4905.4 0.04 523.126 516.2 -1.3239

Error calculation from table 4.2 shows that the simulations study and experimental study [21]
are in good agreement with each other over weld dimensions. The maximum error is of
4.42% while minimum error is of 0.29% which is appreciable. Error from numerical study
can be contributed to the facts that there is no clear method of differentiating the red zone and
orange zone distinctly other than manual vision dealing in the micrometre range and thus
errors are inherent. Fig 4.6 shows the graphical representation of weld dimension comparison
with respect to numerical and experimental values.

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Weld Dimension Comparison

800

700

600
Weld Width in μm

500

400
Experimental
300
Numerical
200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Experiment Number

Fig 4.6 Graphical comparison of weld dimension values

4.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF LASER WELDING

The structural analysis is next step to understand and evaluate the welding strength by laser
welding obtained in the transient analysis. In the ANSYS workbench system the transient
analysis results are attached to the structural analysis system. As per the reference, the
experiments were carried out by using UTM machine and the welded edge is kept under the
loading UTM loading, same conditions are going to be simulated in static structural analysis.
The transient thermal analysis results are carried to structural analysis as the temperature
distribution by the moving heat source caused the structural changes and joined the plates
with weld. These welded plates are placed under the 0.1 kg load for dwell time to simulate
the UTM loading conditions for 10 sec. The loading given by tabular data at the joining edge
of the plates is the one which goes under the moving heat source. The laser welding is
obtained at the edge; the loading is in normal direction to the welded surface. The fixed
support is given to the side surfaces of the plate. The analytical study showed the slightly
difference in the UTS values than that of the numerical and experimental values.

Following steps show the procedure used in ANSYS software for the simulation of structural
analysis in ANSYS Static Structural module,

1. Loading transient thermal analysis as basic loading condition for structural analysis.
2. Selection of force load with value of 0.1 kg or 0.981 N.
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3. Selection of analysis setting as dwell loading with 15 steps for duration of 10 sec.
First 10 steps with interval of 0.5 sec and remaining 5 steps with interval of 1 sec.
4. Selection of fixed load condition for outer sheet edges to eliminate all degree of
freedoms for motion.
5. Selection of imported loading conditions as solution of transient thermal analysis,
specifically temperature field.
6. Solution for structural analysis.

As the static structural analysis is not so complicated, the results of the given input conditions
obtained in numerical analysis are stated in following graph of Stress Vs. strain plot. Fixed
support is provided at the side of the plates as a boundary condition. The stress strain curve
show the material durability for the various loading condition, including both thermal and
structural, for SS316. The following discussion elaborates the values obtained with respect to
the selection criteria are likely to be accurate for the laser welding of SS316. Values obtained
from the experimental study which are used for comparison are stated in table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Values of ultimate tensile strength from experimental study [21]

Exp. Sheet Laser Power Scanning speed Focal Distance UTS

No Thickness (P) (S) (mm) (MPa)
(mm) (watt) (mm/min)

1 0.85 841.2 3926 0.64 531.044

2 0.85 1108.8 3926 0.64 527.791

3 0.85 848.56 2975.06 0.16 497.941

4 0.56 831.11 5446 0.45 408.007

5 0.56 831.1 5446 0.11 403.19

6 0.56 1068.9 5445.82 0.45 401.379

7 0.2 320.27 4906 0.16 342.72

8 0.2 320.92 4919.76 0.04 340.343

9 0.2 379.51 4905.4 0.04 353.479

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 Stress (MPa) Stres (Mpa)

100
200
300
400
500
600

0
100
200
300
400
500
600

0
1.07E-03 0.0010655
1.15E-03 0.0017474
0.004145
1.23E-03 0.0041839
1.32E-03 0.0031469
1.40E-03 0.0035423
1.49E-03 0.0043556
0.0044785
1.57E-03 0.0036457
1.66E-03 0.0032643
2.53E-03 0.0041859
2.54E-03 0.0047604
0.0041616
2.54E-03

72
(a)

(b)
0.003389
2.56E-03 0.0037279
2.56E-03 0.0044063
2.57E-03 0.0046172
0.0039664
2.57E-03
Strain (mm/mm)
0.0032811

Strain (mm/mm)
2.58E-03 0.0040559
2.58E-03 0.0046104
2.59E-03 0.0046442
0.0036688
P=841.2 W, S=3926 mm/min, W=0.85mm

P=1108.8 W, S=3926 mm/min, W=0.85mm

2.61E-03 0.0035399
2.62E-03 0.0042761
2.63E-03 0.0047964
2.64E-03 0.0042863
0.0031509
2.64E-03 0.0039063
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P=1108.8 W, S=3926 mm/min, W=0.85mm

600

500

400
Stress (MPa)

300

200

100

Strain (mm/mm)

(c)
Fig 4.7 Stress vs. Strain curve of the thickness 0.85mm (a) P=841.2 W, S=3926 mm/min, (b) P=1108.8 W,
S=3926 mm/min, (c) P=1108.8 W, S=3926 mm/min

Stress vs. strain curve from fig 4.7 shows the material behaviour under dwell loading
condition for 0.1 kg. The stress strain curve is best measure to evaluate the material strength.
In all simulation cases the transient thermal simulation is the base condition. All the inputs
for 0.85 mm width plate are given in the transient thermal analysis as discussed before. The
loading conditions are kept same for the all width 0.85mm, 0.56 mm and 0.2 mm.

Fig 4.7 (a) is first selected criteria of values from various experiment for the thickness 0.85
mm. As the temperature reached about 1027.80C the internal structure changed near the heat
source incident area and the welding is obtained. The welding area affects the material Stress
vs Strain curve and gives the maximum UTS around 529.4 MPa which is near to the
numerically evaluated result mentioned in the table 4.3. Fig 4.7 (b) is second selected criteria
of values for the same width 0.85 mm. The maximum temperature is 995.720C. The welding
area affects the material Stress vs Strain curve and gives the maximum UTS around 507.24
MPa which is compared with the numerically evaluated result mentioned in the table 4.3. Fig
4.7 (c) is third of the selected criteria values. The temperature reached about 1185.40C at
incident area and the welding is obtained. The maximum UTS is around 487.5 MPa which is

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near to the numerically evaluated result mentioned in the table 4.3. As the above results
shows for the 0.85mm thickness, the maximum UTS values are obtained for the same.

P=831.11 W, S=5446 mm/min, W=0.56mm

450
400
350
Stress (Mpa)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Strain (mm/mm)

(a)

P=831.1 W, S=5446 mm/min, W=0.56mm

450
400
350
Stress (Mpa)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Strain (mm/mm)

(b)

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P=1068.9 W, S=5445.82 mm/min, W=0.56mm

450
400
350
Stress (Mpa)

300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Strain (mm/mm)

(c)
Fig 4.8 Stress vs. Strain curve of the thickness 0.56mm (a) P=831.11 W, S=5446 mm/min, (b) P=831.1 W,
S=5446 mm/min, (c) P=1068.9 W, S=5445.82 mm/min

Fig 4.8 (a) is first of the selected criteria values from various experiment for the thickness
0.56 mm. As the temperature reached about 984.270C the internal structure changes near the
heat source incident area and the welding is obtained. The welding area affects the material
Stress vs Strain curve and gives the maximum UTS around 397.55 MPa which is near to the
numerically evaluated result mentioned in the table 4.3. Fig 4.8 (b) is second of the selected
criteria values for the same thickness 0.56 mm. Maximum temperature reached about
938.410C. The welding area affects the material Stress vs Strain curve and gives the
maximum UTS around 405.1 MPa which is compared with the numerically evaluated result
mentioned in the table 4.3. Fig 4.8 (c) is third of the selected criteria values. The temperature
reached about 932.420C at incident area and the welding is obtained. The maximum UTS is
around 399.66 MPa which is near to the numerically evaluated result mentioned in the table
4.3.

Fig 4.9 (a) is first of the selected criteria values from various experiment for the thickness 0.2
mm. As the temperature reached about 330.220C the internal structure changes near the heat
source incident area and the welding is obtained. The welding area affects the material Stress
vs Strain curve and gives the maximum UTS around 340.95 MPa which is near to the
numerically evaluated result mentioned in the table 4.3. Fig 4.9 (b) is second of the selected
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 Stress (Mpa) Stress (Mpa)

100
150
200
250
300
350
400

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400

0
50
0.00094414 0.00094414
0.0015984 0.0015984
0.0020302 0.0020302
0.0020643 0.0020643
0.0020643 0.0020643
0.0020749 0.0020749
0.0020749 0.0020749
0.0020855 0.0020855

76
(a)

(b)
0.0020855 0.0020855
0.0020961 0.0020961
0.0020961 0.0020961

Strain (mm/mm)
Strain (mm/mm)
0.0021068 0.0021068
0.0021068 0.0021068
0.0021174 0.0021174
P=320.27 W, S=4906 mm/min,W=0.2mm
0.0021174 0.0021174
P=320.27 W, S=4906 mm/min, W=0.2mm

0.002128 0.002128
0.0021387 0.0021387
0.0021387 0.0021387
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P=320.27 W, S=4906 mm/min, W=0.2mm

400

350

300
Stress (Mpa)

250

200

150

100

50

0
0.0015984
0.0020302
0.0020643
0.0020643
0.0020749
0.0020749
0.0020855
0.0020855
0.0020961
0.0020961
0.0021068
0.0021068
0.0021174
0.0021174

0.0021387
0.0021387
0.002128
0.00094414

Strain (mm/mm)

(c)
Fig 4.9 Stress vs. Strain curve of the thickness 0.2mm (a) P=320.27 W, S=4906 mm/min, (b) P=320.27 W,
S=4906 mm/min, (c) P=320.27 W, S=4906 mm/min

criteria values for the same thickness 0.2 mm. Maximum temperature reached about
476.480C. The welding area affects the material Stress Strain curve and gives the maximum
UTS around 335.67 MPa which is compared with the numerically evaluated result mentioned
in the table 4.3. Fig 4.9 (c) is third selected criteria values. The temperature reached about
308.810C at incident area and the welding is obtained. The maximum UTS is around 352.96
MPa which is near to the numerically evaluated result mentioned in the table 4.3.

The experimental selected values are observed numerically for the selected thickness of sheet
for the welding by using laser welding. The values are obtained near about the experimentally
obtained values. It indicates the selection criteria for those values of input to the laser welding
setup is likely to be more accurate for the given sheet thicknesses. A comparison in the
ultimate tensile strength value with numerical value is stated in table 4.4. The experimental
results for the maximum stress value for the optimum input conditions shows the very
minimum variation from the numerically obtained results.

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Table 4.4 Comparison of ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

Exp. Sheet Laser Scanning Focal UTS (MPa) UTS (MPa) Error (%)
No Thickness Power speed Distance Experimental Numerical
(mm) (Watt) (mm/min) (mm)

1 0.85 841.2 3926 0.64 531.044 529.4 -0.3095

2 0.85 1108.8 3926 0.64 527.791 507.24 -3.8937

3 0.85 848.56 2975.06 0.16 497.941 487.5 -2.0968

4 0.56 831.11 5446 0.45 408.007 397.55 -2.5629

5 0.56 831.1 5446 0.11 403.19 405.1 0.4737

6 0.56 1068.9 5445.82 0.45 401.379 399.66 -0.4282

7 0.2 320.27 4906 0.16 342.72 340.95 -0.5164

8 0.2 320.92 4919.76 0.04 340.343 335.67 -1.3730

9 0.2 379.51 4905.4 0.04 353.479 352.96 -0.1468

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) Comparison

600
Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa)

500

400

300
Experimental
200 Numerical

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Experiment Number

Fig 4.10 Graphical comparison of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) values

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Fig 4.10 and table 4.4 show that there is a very good agreement between the experimental
values [21] and the numerically simulated results. The maximum error 3.89% while the
minimum error is 0.14 %. Error in the values can be contributed to the reasons that various
assumptions are considered to simplify the numerical simulation process which do not
consider the complex processes that occur during laser welding. Such assumptions will
approximate the answer but are useful in reducing process time and costs and multiple
simulations tend to give a general idea over the laser welding process. The average error for
weld geometry is 1.75% and average error for UTS value is 1.31% which is acceptable and
both numerical studies support the experimental values obtained by Waghmare et al. [21]
throughout the study and methods and observations in [21] and thus can be used to validate
the experimental study [21] numerically.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION
5.1 CONCLUSION

This study is performed with a motive to support the results obtained from an existing
experimental study [21] and to numerically validate it in terms of thermal and structural
properties. Simulations are conducted for already approved optimized values of three
thicknesses 0.85 mm, 0.56 mm and 0.2 mm SS 316 sheets with each thickness having three
cases attached to it. Total 9 cases are run with average computational time for each case of
6.5 hours on ANSYS software. The following conclusions are drawn from the results from
numerical simulation,

1. Computed temperature profiles are able to correctly approximate the values of

weld width near to experimental study values and are in good agreement with
each other.
2. Average error for weld dimension analysis (weld width) is 1.75% and for
structural analysis (UTS) is 1.31%. Error margin for the values from simulation
study is very low and can be attributed to modelling assumptions to make
simulation computation easy.
3. Low average error in weld width calculations suggests that the modelling of
moving heat source is successful and is able to provide appropriate temperature
profiles.
4. Modes of heat transfer, especially convection and radiation play an important role
in thermal profiles formed as can been seen from the results that the temperature
after the heat source has moved on, there is decrease in temperature below solidus
temperature (1370℃) of SS 316.
5. Successful transient thermal analysis is used as loading condition to perform
structural analysis for UTS values. Consideration of dwell load is also applied to
structural simulation. The results are in good agreement with experimental values.
6. Low average error in UTS values suggest that loading conditions and boundary
conditions applied to the simulation study are appropriate.
7. It can be concluded that material properties and input parameters considered for
the experimental and numerical study play an important role in shaping the laser
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welding process and numerical study performed supports the findings related to
input parameters in experimental study.
8. Good agreement between experimental and numerical values suggests that the
simulation model generated along with modelling of moving heat source can be
used to predict output parameters successfully and can be applied to future
studies.
9. As the numerical values are very close to experimental values, taking into
consideration the assumptions made in numerical simulation, this study is able to
support the experiment study carried out and can be used to validate the results,
findings and observations of experimental study [21].

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

This study can be extended by using the simulation model to find other influencing input
parameters on laser welding of SS 316 sheets for different outputs and varied thicknesses.
This study can also be used for steel grades other than SS 316 by providing correct material
properties as an input to the simulation model. Changes in application of mathematical
modelled heat source will depend on the type of laser system and welding penetration
achieved for respective study. Parametric study can be incorporated in the simulation model
to further provide optimum values similar to that which are done by optimization techniques
and generalise the model for research and commercial purposes.

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REFERENCES
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Processing, Physics Procedia 39(2012) 843-852, 2012.
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Physics, 42-53, 2016.
12. Tomashchuk I., Benaoud I., Sallamand P., Cicala E., Lafaye S., Almuneau M.,
Multiphysical modelling of keyhole formation during dissimilar laser welding,
COMSOL Conference Proceedings, Munich, 2016.
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of 316L Stainless Steel using pulsed Nd:YAG Laser, Volume 12, Number 2,
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thermal phenomena in surface heating process using real distribution of Yb:YAG
laser power, MATEC Web of Conferences 157, 02021, MMS 2017.

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15. H.A. Salman, K.A. Hubeatir, M.M. Al-Khafaji, Modeling of Continues Laser
Welding for Ti-6Al-4V Alloys using COMSOL Multiphysics software, Engineering
and Technology Journal, Vol. 36, Part A, No. 8, 914-918, 2018.
16. Acherjee B., Kuar A.S., Mitra S., Misra D. Modeling and analysis of simultaneous
laser transmission welding of polycarbonates using FEM and RSM combined
approach, Optics & Laser Technology 44(2012) 995-1006, Elsevier, 2011.
17. Xu H., Guo X., Lei Y., Lin J., Fu H., Xiao R., Huang T., shin Y.C., Welding
deformation of ultra-thin 316 stainless steel plate using pulsed laser welding process,
Optics and Laser Technology 119 (2019) 105583, Elsevier, 2019.
18. Chen L., Mi G., Zhang X., Wang C., Numerical and experimental investigation on
microstructure and residual stress of multi-pass hybrid laser arc welded 316L steel,
Materials and Design 168 (2019) 107653, Elsevier, 2019.
19. Tomasz Kik, Computational Techniques in Numerical Simulations of Arc and Laser
Welding Process, Materials-MDPI, Materials 2020.
20. Fey A., Ulrich S., Jahn S., Schaaf P., Numerical analysis of temperature distribution
during laser deep welding of duplex stainless steel using a two beam method, Welding
in the World, Springer, 2020.
21. Waghmare D., Saha P., Parametric optimization for autogenous butt laser welding of
sub-millimeter thick SS 316 sheets using central composite design, Optics and Laser
Technology 122(2020) 105833, Elsevier, 2020.
22. Sonawane H., Deore E., Finite element model for the effect of heat input & speed on
residual stress during welding, Vol. 3, No. 3, IJMERR, 2014.
23. Chukkan J.R., Vasudevan M., Muthukumaran S., Kumar R.R., Chandrashekar N.,
Simulation of laser butt welding of AISI 316L stainless steel sheet using various heat
sources and experimental validation, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 219
(2015) 48-59, Elsevier, 2014.
24. Volume 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels and High Performance Alloys, ASM
Handbook, ASM International, 1998.
25. Volume 22B, Metals Process Simulation, ASM Handbook, ASM International, 2010.
26. AISI Type 316 Stainless Sheet, ASM Aerospace Specification Metals Inc., November
2 2019, (http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=mq316)
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28. PrimaPower-LaserDyne, Applications Welding, PrimaPower, March 5 2020,

(https://www.primapowerlaserdyne.com/selecting-and-delivering-shield-gas-in-laser-
welding/#:~:text=Helium%20is%20technically%20the%20most,a%20range%20of%2
0aluminum%20alloys.)

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APPENDIX
Table 1 Maximum stress and strain values obtained for 0.85 mm thickness sheet

0.85 mm Thickness

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Stress (MPa) Strain (mm/mm) Stress (MPa) Strain (mm/mm) Stress (MPa) Strain (mm/mm)

90.801 0.001066 87.801 1.07E-03 85.801 1.17E-03

175.44 0.001747 169.25 1.15E-03 169.25 2.32E-03

200.96 0.004145 222.73 1.23E-03 272.73 1.62E-03

208.82 0.004184 369.97 1.32E-03 353.07 2.25E-03

239.24 0.004356 440.38 1.40E-03 399.97 2.35E-03

252 0.004479 452.5 1.49E-03 468.1 2.41E-03

290.28 0.004186 463.62 1.57E-03 468.1 2.41E-03

303.04 0.00476 475.24 1.66E-03 470.52 2.42E-03

315.8 0.004162 485.41 2.53E-03 470.52 2.42E-03

341.32 0.003728 487.84 2.54E-03 472.95 2.43E-03

379.6 0.003966 490.26 2.56E-03 472.95 2.43E-03

392.36 0.003281 492.69 2.57E-03 475.37 2.44E-03

405.12 0.004056 495.11 2.58E-03 475.37 2.44E-03

430.64 0.004644 495.11 2.58E-03 477.8 2.46E-03

460.6 0.00354 499.96 2.61E-03 480.22 2.47E-03

495 0.004796 502.39 2.62E-03 482.65 2.48E-03

512.2 0.004286 504.81 2.63E-03 485.07 2.49E-03

529.4 0.003151 507.24 2.64E-03 487.5 2.51E-03

529.4 0.003906 507.24 2.64E-03 487.5 2.51E-03

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Table 2 Maximum stress and strain values obtained for 0.56 mm thickness sheet

0.56 mm Thickness

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Strain Strain Strain
Stress (MPa) Stress (MPa) Stress (MPa)
(mm/mm) (mm/mm) (mm/mm)
86.13 0.11661 83.23 0.11661 83.23 0.11661

151.94 0.16205 165.25 0.16205 145.25 0.16205

165.82 2.02E-03 354.61 1.82E-03 349.16 1.79E-03

360.74 2.07E-03 360.22 1.85E-03 354.77 1.82E-03

363.38 2.02E-03 360.22 1.85E-03 354.77 1.82E-03

366.02 2.10E-03 365.83 1.88E-03 360.38 1.85E-03

368.66 2.02E-03 365.83 1.88E-03 360.38 1.85E-03

371.3 2.12E-03 371.44 1.91E-03 365.99 1.88E-03

373.94 2.02E-03 371.44 1.91E-03 365.99 1.88E-03

376.58 2.15E-03 377.05 1.94E-03 371.6 1.91E-03

379.22 2.02E-03 377.05 1.94E-03 371.6 1.91E-03

381.86 2.18E-03 382.66 1.97E-03 377.21 1.94E-03

384.5 2.20E-03 388.27 2.00E-03 382.83 1.97E-03

387.14 2.23E-03 393.88 2.03E-03 388.44 2.00E-03

389.78 2.26E-03 399.49 2.06E-03 394.05 2.03E-03

392.03 2.28E-03 405.1 2.08E-03 399.66 2.06E-03

397.55 2.04E-03 405.1 2.08E-03 399.66 2.06E-03

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Table 3 Maximum stress and strain values obtained for 0.2 mm thickness sheet

0.2 mm Thickness

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Stress (MPa) Strain (mm/mm) Stress (MPa) Strain (mm/mm) Stress (MPa) Strain (mm/mm)

108.43 9.44E-04 108.43 9.44E-04 108.43 9.44E-04

150.43 1.60E-03 150.43 1.60E-03 150.43 1.60E-03

296.07 2.03E-03 296.07 2.03E-03 296.07 2.03E-03

325.49 2.06E-03 320.21 2.06E-03 338.36 2.06E-03

325.49 2.06E-03 320.21 2.06E-03 338.36 2.06E-03

327.7 2.07E-03 322.41 2.07E-03 340.44 2.07E-03

327.7 2.07E-03 322.41 2.07E-03 340.44 2.07E-03

329.91 2.09E-03 324.62 2.09E-03 342.53 2.09E-03

329.91 2.09E-03 324.62 2.09E-03 342.53 2.09E-03

332.12 2.10E-03 326.83 2.10E-03 344.61 2.10E-03

332.12 2.10E-03 326.83 2.10E-03 344.61 2.10E-03

334.32 2.11E-03 329.04 2.11E-03 346.7 2.11E-03

334.32 2.11E-03 329.04 2.11E-03 346.7 2.11E-03

336.53 2.12E-03 331.25 2.12E-03 348.78 2.12E-03

336.53 2.12E-03 331.25 2.12E-03 348.78 2.12E-03

338.74 2.13E-03 333.46 2.13E-03 350.87 2.13E-03

340.95 2.14E-03 335.67 2.14E-03 352.96 2.14E-03

340.95 2.14E-03 335.67 2.14E-03 352.96 2.14E-03

87