SUB MODULE 03 – TOOLS
GENERAL PURPOSE TOOLS
PUNCHES
Punches are used to locate centers for drawing circles, to start holes for drilling, to punch holes in
sheet metal, to transfer location of holes in patterns, and to remove damaged rivets, pins or bolts.
A hand punch is a tool held by hand against a workpiece. The end in contact with the workpiece
is shaped to do a particular job, whereas the other end is flat so that it could be struck easily by a
hammer. Punches come in many sizes and shapes to do a variety of jobs.
Although most punches are made of hardened and tempered tool steel for greater strength
and longer wear, it is sometimes necessary to use punches made of a soft metal such as brass to
prevent damage to parts being assembled or disassembled.
TYPES
The punches used most often by the machinist are the drift punch, pin punch, prick punch,
center punch, and automatic center punch.
Solid or hollow punches are the two types generally used. Solid punches are classified
according to the shape of their points.
PRICK PUNCH
Prick punches are used to place reference marks on metal. This punch is often used to transfer
dimensions from a paper pattern directly on the metal.
A prick punch should never be struck a heavy blow with a hammer because it may bend the
punch or cause excessive damage to the material being worked.
A prick punch is made of hardened tool steel and ground to a slender point having a 30° to
60° included angle.
PRICK PUNCHES WITH DIFFERENT POINT DIAMETERS
It is used to mark lightly or indent the intersections of layout lines, to locate hole centers, and to
provide a small center mark for divider points when laying out circles or spacing dimensions.
A lightly made prick-punch mark can be moved to correct an error by tilting the punch and
striking it with the hammer.
Never use a prick punch or center punch to remove objects from holes because the point of
the punch will spread the object and cause it to bind even more.
CENTER PUNCH
Large indentations in metal, which are necessary to start a twist drill, are made with a center
punch. A center punch has a heavier body than a prick punch and is ground to a point with
an angle of about 60°.
A center punch is similar to a prick punch in appearance except for the point, which is
ground to a 90° included angle. The center punch is used to enlarge a prick-punch mark so a drill
can be started in the exact location.
CENTER PUNCHES WITH DIFFERENT POINT DIAMETERS
A center-punch mark is deeper and larger than a prick-punch mark. When used correctly,
the point of the center punch is placed in the prick-punch mark. The punch, hand held in a vertical
position, is struck squarely once with a hammer
DRIVE PUNCH
The drive punch, which is often called a tapered punch, is used for driving out damaged rivets,
pins, and bolts that sometimes bind in holes.
The drive punch is made with a flat face instead of a point. The size of the punch is determined
by the width of the face, which is usually 1/8 inch to 1/4 inch.
DRIVE PUNCHES WITH DIFFERENT POINT DIAMETERS
A drive-pin punch should be used to drive the pin through the hole. Drive-pin punches are
used to set in place or remove straight and taper pins and some types of small parts requiring a
drive fit.
The diameters of the punch ends are made slightly smaller than the nominal size so that the punch
will not bind in the hole. For use on precision parts, the punch ends should be smooth, flat, and
square, to avoid damaging the parts.
Smaller diameter punches require greater care to prevent bending or breaking. When assembling
or removing pins, the work must be correctly supported as in a V block. To install a taper pin, a
punch slightly larger in diameter than the large diameter of the pin is used.
To remove a pin, it is better to hit the punch with a quick sharp blow of the hammer than to hit it
a number of light taps because this will mushroom the pin, making it difficult to remove
DRIFT PUNCH
Drift punches, are similar to drive punches and are used for the same purposes. The difference
between the two is that the sides of a drive punch taper all the way to the face while the pin
punch has a straight shank.
Drift punches are sized by the diameter of the face, in thirty-seconds of an inch, and range from
1/16 to 3/8 inch in diameter.
DRIFT PUNCHES WITH DIFFERENT POINT DIAMETERS
A drift punch is a long, tapered punch used for loosening straight pins, taper pins, rivets,
and other small parts being disassembled. The gradual, uniform taper end provides strength
needed to withstand the powerful impact of the punch against the pins or parts being loosened.
The diameter at the small end should be slightly smaller than the diameter of the part to be knocked
loose. The punch end should be located squarely on the part and held firmly against the part.
The head of the punch should then be struck squarely, using a quick sharp blow with a hard
hammer. Once the part has been loosened, the drift punch should not be used because the tapered
end will become wedged in the hole.
AUTOMATIC CENTER PUNCH
The automatic center punch makes punch marks of a uniform size without the use of a
hammer. The knurled cap may be turned to control the depth of the punch mark.
To make a punch mark it is only necessary to locate the punch point and push down. When used
with a spacing attachment, this tool can lay out uniformly spaced dimensions rapidly.
AUTOMATIC CENTER PUNCH
TRANSFER PUNCH
The transfer punch is usually about 4 inches long. It has a point that tapers, and then turns
straight for a short distance in order to fit a drill locating hole in a template.
The tip has a point similar to that of a prick punch. The transfer punch is used to transfer the
location of holes through the template or pattern to the material.
TRANSFER PUNCHES OF DIFFERENT END DIAMETER
WRENCHES
A wrench is a tool for turning nuts or bolts. It is usually made of steel / chrome-vanadium steel.
There are many kinds of wrenches. They may consist of a slot, socket, pins, or movable jaws for
grasping the nut, with the rest of the tool serving as a handle for applying pressure
The wrenches most often used in aircraft maintenance are classified as open-end, box-end,
socket, adjustable, ratcheting and special wrenches. The Allen wrench, is required on one
special type of recessed screw.
A single-ended wrench is one that is made to fit one size of nut or bolt. This is the most
inexpensive type of wrench and is quite efficient in ordinary situations. A double-ended wrench
has two openings, one at each end of the handle, to fit two different sizes of nuts or bolt heads.
Open-end wrenches may have their jaws parallel to the handle or at an angle of up to 90°;
most are set at an angle of 15°. The wrenches are designed to fit on a nut, bolt head, or other
object, which makes it possible to exert a turning action.
A closed-end or box wrench is similar .to a single-ended wrench, but, because it entirely encloses
a nut, there is little danger of the wrench slipping off the nut or of the jaws spreading apart.
Practically all well-manufactured box-end wrenches are made with 12 points so they can be
used in places having as little as 15° swing.
A 12 POINT BOX WRENCH
An adjustable wrench has a movable jaw, which makes it adjustable to various sizes of nuts.
One jaw is fixed, but the other may be moved by a thumbscrew or spiral screwworm adjustment
in the handle.
AN ADJUSTABLE WRENCH A MONKEY WRENCH
The width of the jaws may be varied from 0 to 1/2 inch or more. The angle of the opening to
the handle is 22½ degrees on an adjustable wrench.
A heavy type of adjustable wrench is the monkey wrench shown in figure. When using this
type of tool, point the jaws in the direction of the force applied.
This will prevent the jaws from springing apart, and the wrench will be less likely to slip off a nut.
The movable jaw should be adjusted so that it is tight against a flat surface of the part to be turned.
HANDLING A WRENCH
It is not good practice to use a wrench as a hammer. Figure above shows the right and wrong
way to use adjustable wrenches.
Socket wrenches are round box type wrenches having two openings. One opening is a square
hole into which the various driving attachments used for turning the socket wrench are plugged.
The socket end has an opening with angular notches to fit bolt heads and nuts.
This notched opening is made with either 4, 6, 8, or 12 points. The 6- and 12-point sockets are
used for hexagon-head bolts and nuts, while the 4- and 8-point sockets are used for square-head
bolts and nuts.
Another option for removing a nut from a bolt is the ratcheting box-end wrench, which can be
swung back and forth to remove the nut or bolt. A ratchet wrench may be either of the socket
type or the open-end type.
A SOCKET WRENCH SET
The handle turns the interchangeable sockets through a ratchet mechanism. This mechanism may
be adjusted to operate in the clockwise or the counter clockwise direction so that the ratchet
wrench may be used to tighten or loosen nuts or bolts.
The sockets may be standard or extra deep sockets. For hard-to-reach nuts or bolts, extension bar
sockets can be used. Sockets have a lock-on feature in the form of a small hole on the side of
the square hole into which a small spring-loaded ball in the driving attachment fits.
When the socket is pushed on the drive attachment and the hole and ball are aligned, the ball is
forced into the hole, thus preventing the socket from dropping off.
A lever-jaw wrench is a combination -gripping tool with adjustable jaws, which may be locked
in place. It may be used as a wrench, clamp, pliers, or vise.
A combination wrench has two types of openings of the same size. One end has a box type
opening with the opposite end designed as an open end.
It is a very practical wrench because it can be used in places where the space for movement is
limited; if one end will not work conveniently, the other end will.
A check-nut wrench is a thin, single - ended or double-ended wrench used for turning check or
jam nuts. The thinness of these nuts, often used in narrow spaces, requires the use of a thin wrench.
These wrenches are not intended for hard use. The openings are offset at an angle of 15°.
A tool-post wrench is a combination box and open-end wrench. The open end is straight rather
than offset. The square box end is designed to fit tool-post screws and setscrews on lathes and
other machine tools. It is ruggedly designed to withstand wear and hard use.
A square box wrench is a single-head closed-end wrench having a rather short handle. It is
widely used for square-head setscrews on tool holders for the lathe and other machine tools. The
square opening is made at an angle of 22 ½ 0 for convenience.
A T - handle tap wrench (sometimes called a T-tap wrench) is used to hold and turn small taps
up to about 1/2 in. It usually has two inserted jaws, which can be adjusted to fit the square end of
the tap. The chuck when tightened holds the tap securely.
This type of wrench is made in several sizes, each size having a capacity for several sizes of taps.
This wrench may also be made with a long shank for tapping holes that are difficult to reach. It is
also useful for turning small hand reamers.
An adjustable tap wrench is a straight type of wrench having a solid V-shaped opening in
the center. A sliding member; or adjustable jaw, operated by one of the handles makes it possible
to hold taps of various sizes. This type of wrench is made in many sizes to turn taps and reamers
of all sizes.
AN ADJUSTABLE TAP WRENCH
A 12-point box wrench is designed with 12 notches, or points, inside a closed end. The points
of a nut may be gripped by any one of the notches of the wrench, which permits the turning of a
nut where only a short pull of the wrench is possible.
A T-socket wrench is made in the form of a T. The hole, or socket, in the end is made in a
variety of shapes such as square, hexagonal, or octagonal. It is generally used on jobs where
there is insufficient space to permit the use of an ordinary wrench.
The handle may be removed from the hexagon-shaped head of the wrench to permit the use of
another wrench to turn it when more pressure is required than can be applied with the handle.
An offset socket wrench is made with the same variety of sockets as a T-socket wrench. It is
designed to be used on nuts requiring great leverage or in places where a T-socket wrench cannot
be used.
A Stillson-type pipe wrench is designed with adjustable jaws that are serrated, making it
possible to grip round pipe and other cylindrical parts.
The serrated edges tend to cut into the metal being gripped, so care should be used to protect plated
or finished surfaces being turned with this kind of wrench.
A hex key wrench, sometimes called an Allen wrench, is made of hexagon-shaped stock to fit
the holes in the head of setscrews or socket-head screws. They· are available in many sizes.
Allen wrenches are six-sided bars in the shape of an L, or they can be hex-shaped bars mounted
in adapters for use with hand ratchets. They range in size from 3/64 to 1/2 inch and fit into a
hexagonal recess in the setscrew.
SPECIAL WRENCHES
The category of special wrenches includes the crowfoot, flare nut, spanner, torque, and Allen
wrenches.
The crowfoot wrench is normally used when accessing nuts that must be removed from studs or
bolts that cannot be accessed using other tools.
The flare nut wrench has the appearance of a box-end wrench that has been cut open on one
end. This opening allows the wrench to be used on the B-nut of a fuel, hydraulic, or oxygen
line.
The hook spanner is for a round nut with a series of notches cut in the outer edge. This wrench
has a curved arm with a hook on the end that fits into one of the notches on the nut. The hook
is placed in one of these notches with the handle pointing in the direction the nut is to be turned.
CROWFOOT WRENCH FLARE NUT WRENCH
An adjustable-hook spanner wrench is used on round nuts having notches or slots cut on their
periphery to receive the hook at the end of the wrench. Being adjustable, it will fit many sizes of
nuts.
A HOOK SPANNER
U-shaped hook spanners have two lugs on the face of the wrench to fit notches cut in the face
of the nut or screw plug. Pin spanners have a pin in place of a lug, and the pin fits into a round
hole in the edge of a nut. Face pin spanners are similar to the U - shaped hook spanners except
that they have pins instead of lugs.
A PIN SPANNER U SHAPED PIN SPANNER
The strap wrench can prove to be an invaluable tool for the AMT. A strap wrench is used for
turning cylindrical parts or pipes, removing bezels, or holding or revolving any job on which
the surface finish must be preserved.
A STRAP WRENCH ADJUSTABLE FACE PIN SPANNER
By their very nature, aircraft components such as tubing, pipes, small fittings, and round or
irregularly shaped components are built to be as light as possible, while still retaining enough
strength to function properly.
Struck with a mallet, the impact driver uses cam action to impart a high amount of torque in a
sharp impact to break loose a stubborn fastener. The drive portion of the impact driver can
accept a number of different bits and sockets. The use of special bits and sockets specifically
manufactured for use with an impact driver is required.
AN IMPACT DRIVER
Torque wrenches are used when it is necessary to know the amount of turning or twisting
force being applied to a nut. The amount of force is usually indicated on a dial or scale, which
is mounted on the wrench handle.
On some models the amount of torque required can be preset on the dial and an indicator will
signal when that amount of force is reached. Commonly used torque wrenches include the
deflecting beam, dial indicating, micrometer, and electronic setting types.
In the deflecting beam and dial indicating torque wrenches, the torque is read visually on a dial
or scale mounted on the handle of the wrench.
A DEFLECTING BEAM TORQUE WRENCH
The micrometer setting torque wrench is preset to the desired value. When this torque is
reached, the operator notices a sharp impulse or breakaway "click".
A DIAL INDICATING TORQUE WRENCH
The amount of force required to turn a fastener is directly related to the tensile strength of
the fastener.
A MICROMETER TORQUE WRENCH
The amount of torque, measured in inch-pounds or foot-pounds, is the product of the force required
to turn the fastener multiplied by the distance between the center of the fastener and the point at
which the force is applied.
AN ELECTRONIC TORQUE WRENCH
The force is measured by the amount the beam deflects or by the tension set by a calibrated spring
inside the wrench handle. Hooke's Law states that the amount a beam deflects is directly related
to the force applied.
For example, If the lever is exactly 12 inches long, and a force of 30 pounds is applied to the
handle, a torque of 360 inch-pounds is produced on the fastener.
12 inches x 30 lbs = 360 inch-pounds
When an extension is needed to reach a particular fastener, the length of the torque wrench
changes and so the indication of torque needs to be recalculated to find the actual torque
being applied.
TORQUE WRENCH WITH EXTENSION
For example, if the length from the drive head to the handle is 20 inches and a 5-inch extension is
added, a reading of 120 inch-pounds results in 150 inch-pounds of torque actually applied. To find
the torque applied to a fastener when using an extension, use this formula:
TA = {[TW (L+E)] / L}
By shifting the variables, this similar formula can be used to determine what a torque wrench will
indicate for a given torque on a fastener.
TW = [(TA x L) / (L + E)]
Where
TA = desired torque TW = indicated torque
L = length of torque wrench without extension
E = added or subtracted length of extension from hub of wrench
Using the figures above, we find that in order to apply 150 inch-pounds on a fastener with a
straight 5 inch extension, the torque indicator needs to read 120 inch - pounds.
