Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Basic Radio Systems
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already
in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or
disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without
the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi
Aramco.
Chapter : Communications For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: CTR10102 J.S. Phillips on 873-0228
Engineering Encyclopedia Communications
Basic Radio Systems
CONTENTS PAGES
FUNCTIONS AND SIGNAL PATH OF A BASIC RADIO SYSTEM ................. 1
FUNCTIONS AND SIGNAL PATH OF A BASIC TRANSMITTER................... 3
EFFECTS OF TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA ON A BASIC RADIO
SYSTEM................................................................................................................. 5
Types of Transmission Media ..................................................................... 5
Effects on a Basic Radio System................................................................. 5
FUNCTIONS AND SIGNAL PATH OF A BASIC RECEIVER ........................... 7
DIVERSITY SYSTEMS APPLIED TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS......... 8
Frequency Diversity .................................................................................... 8
Space Diversity............................................................................................ 9
Quad Diversity .......................................................................................... 10
Polarization Diversity................................................................................ 11
SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATIONS OF BASIC RADIO SYSTEMS................ 12
Analog Microwave Systems...................................................................... 12
Digital Microwave Systems....................................................................... 12
IPSA Pipeline Communications ................................................................ 12
Broadcast Television Systems ................................................................... 12
Deep Desert Exploration Communications Systems ................................. 13
VHF/UHF Mobile Radio Systems............................................................. 13
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................... 14
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Basic Radio Systems
FUNCTIONS AND SIGNAL PATH OF A BASIC RADIO SYSTEM
A basic radio system must provide communications between two or more points. Figure 1
shows a block diagram of a basic radio system. There are many possible variations of the
system, but all contain three major components:
• Source.
• Transmission medium.
• Destination.
Basic Radio System Block Diagram
Figure 1
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FUNCTIONS AND SIGNAL PATH OF A BASIC RADIO SYSTEM (CONT’D)
The source takes an input that is some form of information. This information is the voice
or data to be communicated. The source converts this information into another form that
can be transmitted. Typically, this is in the form of radio frequency (RF) waves. In a
radio system, the source is usually called a transmitter.
Once the source generates the correct RF signal, this signal must be transmitted to the
destination. The RF signals can travel to the destination by several different methods.
The material that the waves travel through is called the transmission media. Possible
examples of transmission media include:
• Free space.
• Metallic conductors.
• Waveguides.
• Optical fibers.
The destination is the final component in the radio system. The destination must capture
some of the signal from the transmission media and convert this signal to a usable form.
Typically, the destination is referred to as a receiver in a basic radio system.
In the example shown, the signal path is from the source, through the transmission media,
to the destination. This represents one-way communications. In a two-way system, both
ends of the radio system would serve as both source and destination.
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FUNCTIONS AND SIGNAL PATH OF A BASIC TRANSMITTER
A transmitter is a device used to generate, modulate, amplify and radiate an RF signal for
transmission. Figure 2 shows a block diagram of a basic transmitter. While many
different types of transmitters exist, this figure shows a transmitter that converts voice
frequency information signals to a form suitable for communications through free space.
Nearly all radio transmitters will include the following functions:
• Oscillator.
• Buffer amplifier.
• Microphone.
• Audio amplifier.
• Modulator.
• Power amplifier.
• Transmission line.
• Antenna.
Basic Transmitter Block Diagram
Figure 2
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The oscillator generates a sinusoidal signal that has a constant amplitude and constant
frequency. This signal is the RF carrier. The carrier is typically at the transmission
frequency and at very low power.
The buffer amplifier serves as an isolation stage. It gives isolation and impedance
matching between the oscillator and the downstream transmitter functions. Isolation and
impedance matching are critical to make sure that the oscillator operates at the right
frequency. Oscillators are inherently unstable devices and any change in loading can
cause a drift in output frequency. The buffer amplifier helps to maintain oscillator
stability. It typically does not provide any amplification of the signal.
The RF carrier output of the buffer amplifier could be applied directly to the antenna for
transmission, but it would not contain any information. To add information to the RF
signal, more circuits are needed.
The microphone converts sound energy to electrical energy. Sound energy is physical
vibrations in the air. The output of the microphone is an audio frequency (AF) signal that
is proportional to the soundwave input.
The audio amplifier amplifies the audio signal from the microphone. It gives an output
level of enough amplitude to drive the modulator.
The modulator varies some characteristic of the RF carrier in proportion to the audio
information. Some possible modes of modulation include:
• Amplitude modulation.
• Frequency modulation.
• Phase modulation.
The transmitter, shown in Figure 2, shows amplitude modulation. The output of the
modulator is a complex waveform whose amplitude varies in proportion with the audio
information.
The RF power amplifier amplifies the modulated RF signal to the power level needed for
reliable transmission. These amplifiers are typically high power linear amplifiers.
The output of the RF power amplifier goes through a transmission line to the antenna.
The antenna radiates the RF signal into free space in the form of electromagnetic energy.
Two main signal paths exist in the basic transmitter. The RF signal path starts at the
oscillator, and goes through the buffer amplifier, modulator, and RF power amplifier. The
signal propagated by the antenna is an RF signal. The AF Signal Path starts at the
microphone. The AF signal continues through the audio amplifier to the modulator. The
output of the modulator normally will not contain any audio components.
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EFFECTS OF TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA ON A BASIC RADIO SYSTEM
The term “transmission media” refers to the physical material through which the RF
energy travels from source to destination.
Types of Transmission Media
Transmission media include the following types:
• Free space.
• Metallic conductors.
• Waveguides.
• Optical fiber.
Free space is the earth’s atmosphere and is the transmission medium normally associated
with radio systems. Signals transmitted through free space take the form of transverse
electromagnetic waves.
Metallic conductors are another form of transmission medium. They usually take the form
of wire or cable. These wires or cables transfer electromagnetic energy in a manner like
free space, except that the energy is contained within the dielectric material found in, and
around, the wires.
Waveguides are another form of transmission medium. Waveguides are essentially
electromagnetic energy pipes that propagate transverse electromagnetic waves in the same
manner as free space, except the energy is contained between the walls of the waveguide.
Optical fibers are, perhaps, the fastest growing form of transmission medium. Optical
fibers transfer information in the form of light. The light may be visible or non-visible to
the human eye. Optical fibers are made of glass or plastic and transfer light through the
process of internal reflection or refraction. In essence, the fiber guides light down the
cable.
Effects on a Basic Radio System
Each type of transmission medium has its own characteristics and affects the system
operation in different ways. Free space is the best transmission media when establishing a
physical connection is not practical, such as over long distances or to unpopulated areas.
Free space also has the effect of not requiring that the source and destination remain in
fixed locations. This makes free space the only practical transmission medium for mobile
communications or broadcast applications.
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Metallic conductors, waveguides, and optical fibers are more suited to fixed point-to-point
communications. For long distance applications, the cost of installing these transmission
media becomes a major factor.
Free space has the disadvantage of being susceptible to eavesdropping. The other media
give higher system security with optical fiber providing the highest security. Optical
fibers are also not susceptible to noise and interference, and are ideally suited for
electrically noisy environments.
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FUNCTIONS AND SIGNAL PATH OF A BASIC RECEIVER
The basic function of a receiver is to select and deliver the intelligence that was originally
introduced at the transmitter. The receiver must select the correct frequency from the
various frequencies that are provided by the antenna.
Figure 3 shows a simplified block diagram of a basic receiver. All receivers contain the
same basic functions. The RF section is the first stage of the receiver and is often called
the receiver front end. The RF section provides band limiting and amplification of the RF
signals that are received by the antenna. The RF section consists of the following circuits:
antenna, antenna coupling network, receiver input filter (preselector), and one or more RF
amplifiers.
The output of the RF section is sent to the mixer/converter section. The mixer/converter
section converts the received RF frequencies to a lower intermediate frequency (IF).
The output of the mixer/converter section is sent to the IF section The IF section includes
several cascaded amplifiers and bandpass filters. The primary functions of the IF section
are amplification and selection of the desired signal from the other frequencies available.
The output of the IF section is sent to the detector. The dector recovers the original source
information. The output of the detector is typically an audio frequency signal. This
recovered information is then sent to the audio section, which amplifies the recovered
information to a usable level for the speaker.
Basic Receiver
Figure 3
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DIVERSITY SYSTEMS APPLIED TO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
A diversity system is a system that provides more than one path or means of transmission.
The purpose of diversity systems is to improve overall system reliability and resistance to
the effects of fading. Fading is the loss of signal strength at the receiving antenna. The
exact causes of fading are explained in a later Module.
Diversity systems are most often applied to microwave communications systems. In some
cases, diversity systems may be applied to point-to-point high frequency systems.
Several methods of providing diversity exist. The most common types of diversity
systems are as follows:
• Frequency Diversity
• Space Diversity
• Quad Diversity
• Polarization Diversity
Frequency Diversity
Frequency diversity operates under the principle that two different frequencies are
unlikely to experience the same fading conditions at the same time. Figure 4 shows an
application of frequency diversity. The system shown uses two transmitters that operate at
two different frequencies (F1 and F2). A 2 to 3% difference in frequency is adequate to
provide diversity.
Application of Frequency Diversity
Figure 4
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Both signals (F1 and F2) are transmitted by the same antenna and travel by the same
physical path. A single antenna at the receiving end captures both signals. The system
has two receivers, each tuned to a different frequency. Each receiver will detect and
demodulate only the frequency for which the receiver is tuned.
The diversity combiner samples the outputs of both receivers and determines which output
has a higher signal strength. Some diversity combiners act as a switch and route only the
input with the highest signal strength tot he output. Other types of diversity combiners
combine portions of both input signals to provide an output that is of higher quality than
either input.
Space Diversity
Space diversity relies on the fact that simultaneous fading is not likely, over two paths that
are separated by physical distance. Figure 5 shows a simplified block diagram of a space
diversity system. The system uses a single transmitting antenna and dual recieving
antennas.
The microwave transmitter generates a microwave signal that is sent to a single
transmitting antenna. The transmitting antenna is positioned so that the signal beam will
intersect both receiving antennas. Two separate receiving antennas are separated by
enough physical distance to provide two separate and distinct transmission paths. A
condition that causes a fade in one transmission path will most likely not affect the other
transmission path at the same time.
Each receiving antenna is connected to its own microwave receiver. Both recievers
operate at the same frequency and provide an output to the diversity combiner. The
operation of the diversity combiner is the same as in the frequency diversity system.
Space Diversity System Block Diagram
Figure 5
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To ensure that there is enough protection from fading, the receiving antennas must be
spaced far enough from each other to prevent atmospheric effects from affecting both
paths simultaneously. Practical applciations usually space the antennas by a factor of
several wavelingths.
Space diversity has the advantage of conserving frequency spectrum, because only one
transmitting frequency is used. Cost is a major objection to space diversity. Because
more antennas and waveguides are needed to achieve the vertical separation.
Quad Diversity
Quad diversity or quadrature diversity is a combination of space and frequency diversity
and quad diversity combines the benefits of both types of systems. Figure 6 shows a
simplified block diagram of a quad diversity system.
Quad Diversity System Block Diagram
Figure 6
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The IF input goes to the power splitter. The power splitter sends the input signal to two
transmitters. Transmitters A and B operate at different frequencies, which provides
frequency diversity. Each transmitter supplies separate transmitting antennas.
At the receiving end, two antennas recieve the transmitted signals. The receiving antennas
are physically separated by multiple wavelengths from each other. This physical
separation provides space diversity. Each receiving antenna is capable of receiving
signals of both frequencies from both antennas. This arrangement actually gives four
possible transmission paths/methods, thus the name, quad diversity.
Each antenna supplies two receivers, one for each of the transmitted frequencies. The
system uses two stages of diversity combiners. At the first stage, diversity combiners
select the “best” signal between the two frequency diversity paths. At the second stage, a
diversity combiner selects between the two space diversity paths.
By combining the benefits of space and frequency diversity, quad diversity systems can
increase the overall reliability of the system. Saudi Aramco uses quad diversity in many
microwave applications.
Polarization Diversity
Polarization diversity makes use of the fact that an electromagnetic wave can be
transmitted with different polarizations. Polarization refers to the direction of the
transmitted electric field with respect to the Earth’s surface.
Typically, a polarization diversity system transmits two different polarizations: one
vertical and one horizontal. In many cases, an atmospheric condition that affects one
polarization will not affect the other polarization. Polarization diversity is most effective
in the HF range and below. Polarization diversity has limited uses in the microwave
region. Saudi Aramco does not presently use polarization diversity in any applications.
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SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATIONS OF BASIC RADIO SYSTEMS
Saudi Aramco employs a vast network of radio systems to serve its communications
needs. Nearly every imaginable type of radio system exists at some point in the network.
Representative applications of basic radio systems are discussed below.
Analog Microwave Systems
Saudi Aramco operates an extensive network of microwave systems. The typical analog
microwave
link consists of an FM microwave transmitter and antenna system, along with an FM
microwave receiver and antenna system. Saudi Aramco microwave systems use free
space as the transmission medium. Frequency diversity and quad diversity are commonly
used in Saudi Aramco analog microwave systems.
Digital Microwave Systems
Saudi Aramco operates two digital microwave systems. These systems use a form of
digital modulation called 8-phase shift keying (8PSK). A typical digital microwave
system consists of 8PSK transmitters, receivers, and their associated antenna systems. All
microwave systems use free space as the transmission medium. Saudi Aramco digital
microwave systems use quad diversity.
IPSA Pipeline Communications
Saudi Aramco operates a fiber optic system from the northern Saudi border to Pump
Station 3 and west to Yanbu. This system sends digital information over the fiber optic
transmission media at rates of 8 MBits/sec and 34 MBits/sec.
Broadcast Television Systems
Saudi Aramco operates two television transmitters in Dhahran and several low power
transmitters in remote areas. A television system consists of a broadcast transmitter and
its associated antenna system. Transmissions occur via free space to a large number of
television receivers. Metallic conductors (coaxial cables) are used as an alternate
transmission media in the case of “cable” TV. Each television transmitter transmits an
amplitude modulated video signal and a frequency modulated audio signal.
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Deep Desert Exploration Communications Systems
Saudi Aramco uses high frequency communications systems to communicate to deep
desert exploration sites. These systems consist of single sideband AM transmitters and
receivers that use free space as the transmission medium. Some deep desert sites are
equipped with satellite communications systems.
VHF/UHF Mobile Radio Systems
Saudi Aramco uses mobile radio systems for operations and security. A typical mobile
radio system consists of a frequency modulated tranceiver with less than 100 watt output.
These systems can operate in the VHF or UHF frequency bands. Vehicle-mounted
antennas allow the use of free space as the transmission medium.
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GLOSSARY
amplitude modulation The process of varying the amplitude of an RF
carrier in proportion to the information to be
tramitted.
carrier An unmodulated radio frequency signal that is
usually at the transmission frequency.
diversity The process of providing more than one method
of transmission from source to destination.
frequency modulation The process of varying the frequency of an RF
carrier in proportion to the information to be
transmitted.
original That from which a copy, reproduction or
translation is made.
phase modulation The process of varying the phase of an RF carrier.
sinusoidal Having the form of a sine wave.
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