KONERU LAKSHMAIAH EDUCATION FOUNDATION

(Deemed to be University estd, u/s, 3 of the UGC Act, 1956)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
III ECE B.Tech
A.Y.2019-20, Semester-II
17EC3614 - IoT Applications for Smart Cities

INTRODUCTION TO IoT AND ARCHITECTURE

There are many ways to begin an enterprise or industrial Internet of Things (IoT)
journey. What's important is not to let the perceived complexity of the IoT obscure the
possibilities for implementing what should be very rewarding projects. You can get
started by laying a solid framework for your IoT system.
The IoT is more than Internet-connected consumer devices. Sooner or later, your
IT organization will need you to create an infrastructure to support it. Energy
companies already use networked sensors to measure vibrations in turbines. They feed
that data through the network to computing systems that analyze it to predict when
machines will need maintenance and when they will fail. Jet engine manufacturers
embed sensors that measure temperature, pressure, and other conditions to improve
their products. Even a gift basket business can deploy sensors to constantly monitor the
temperature of perishable products. If temperatures in storage or in transit start to rise,
they can expedite deliveries. This has the dual advantage of increasing customer
satisfaction while avoiding product spoilage.
The IoT opens far more opportunities than most organizations are pursuing today.
And even when they do pursue them, IT leaders don’t always fully engage in
IoT-related requests. Industry discussions of IoT initiatives often emphasize
complexity and involve areas of the business in which IT hasn’t traditionally been
involved. The proliferation of unfamiliar IoT technologies—some of them
industry-specific—and the vast scope of the global IoT itself can intimidate IT and
obscure the possibilities for what should be very achievable and compelling projects.
So, how can your infrastructure support IoT?
The four-stage architecture of an IoT system
Stage 1 of an IoT architecture consists of your networked things, typically wireless
sensors and actuators. Stage 2 includes sensor data aggregation systems and
analog-to-digital data conversion. In Stage 3, edge IT systems perform preprocessing of
the data before it moves on to the data center or cloud. Finally, in Stage 4, the data is
analyzed, managed, and stored on traditional back-end data center systems. Clearly, the
sensor/actuator state is the province of operations technology (OT) professionals. So is
Stage 2. Stages 3 and 4 are typically controlled by IT, although the location of edge IT
processing may be at a remote site or nearer to the data center. The dashed vertical line
labeled "the edge" is the traditional demarcation between OT and IT responsibilities,
although this is blurring. Here's a look at each in detail.

Stage 1. Sensors/actuators
Sensors collect data from the environment or object under measurement and turn it into
useful data. Think of the specialized structures in your cell phone that detect the
directional pull of gravity—and the phone's relative position to the “thing” we call the
earth—and convert it into data that your phone can use to orient the device. Actuators
can also intervene to change the physical conditions that generate the data. An actuator
might, for example, shut off a power supply, adjust an air flow valve, or move a robotic
gripper in an assembly process.
The sensing/actuating stage covers everything from legacy industrial devices to robotic
camera systems, water-level detectors, air quality sensors, accelerometers, and heart
rate monitors. And the scope of the IoT is expanding rapidly, thanks in part to
low-power wireless sensor network technologies and Power over Ethernet, which
enable devices on a wired LAN to operate without the need for an A/C power source.
In an IoT architecture, some data processing can occur in each of the four stages.
However, while you can process data at the sensor, what you can do is limited by the
processing power available on each IoT device. Data is at the heart of an IoT
architecture, and you need to choose between immediacy and depth of insight when
processing that data. The more immediate the need for information, the closer to the
end devices your processing needs to be.
For deeper insights that require more extensive processing, you'll need to move the data
into a cloud- or data center-based system that can bring several sources of data together.
But some decisions simply can’t wait for deep processing. Did the robotic arm
performing the surgery cut an artery? Will the car crash? Is the aircraft approaching the
threat detection system a friend or a foe? You don't have time to send that data to your
core IT assets. You must process the data right at the sensor— at the very edge of the
edge network—for the fastest response.
Stage 2. The Internet gateway
The data from the sensors starts in analog form. That data needs to be aggregated and
converted into digital streams for further processing downstream. Data acquisition
systems (DAS) perform these data aggregation and conversion functions. The DAS
connects to the sensor network, aggregates outputs, and performs the analog-to-digital
conversion. The Internet gateway receives the aggregated and digitized data and routes
it over Wi-Fi, wired LANs, or the Internet, to Stage 3 systems for further processing.
Stage 2 systems often sit in close proximity to the sensors and actuators. For example,
a pump might contain a half-dozen sensors and actuators that feed data into a data
aggregation device that also digitizes the data. This device might be physically attached
to the pump. An adjacent gateway device or server would then process the data and
forward it to the Stage 3 or Stage 4 systems.
Why preprocess the data? The analog data streams that come from sensors create large
volumes of data quickly. The measurable qualities of the physical world in which your
business may be interested—motion, voltage, vibration, and so on—can create
voluminous amounts of constantly changing data. Think how much sensor data a
complex machine like an aircraft engine might generate in one day, and there’s no
theoretical limit to the number of sensors that could be feeding data into an IoT system.
What’s more, an IoT system is always on, providing continuous connectivity and data
feeds. IoT data flows can be immense—I've seen as much as 40 TB/second in one case.
That's a lot of data to transport into the data center. It's best to preprocess it.
Another reason not to pass the data on to the data center in this form is that analog data
has specific timing and structural characteristics that require specialized software to
process. It's best to convert the data into digital form first, and that's what happens in
Stage 2.
Intelligent gateways can build on additional, basic gateway functionality by adding
such capabilities as analytics, malware protection, and data management services.
These systems enable the analysis of data streams in real time. Although delivering
business insights from the data is a little less immediate at the gateway than it would be
when sent directly from the sensor/actuator zone, the gateway has the compute power
to render the information in a form that is more understandable to business
stakeholders.
Gateways are still edge devices—they’re external to the data center—so geography and
location matter. In the pump example, if you have 100 pump units and want to process
data on-premises, you might have instant data at the pump level, aggregate the
information to create a plantwide view for the facility, and pass the data on to the data
center for companywide view. DAS and gateway devices may end up in a wide variety
of environments, from the factory floor to mobile field stations, so these systems are
usually designed to be portable, easy to deploy, and rugged enough to withstand
variations in temperature, humidity, dust, and vibration.
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Stage 3. Edge IT
Once IoT data has been digitized and aggregated, it's ready to cross into the realm of IT.
However, the data may require further processing before it enters the data center. This
is where edge IT systems, which perform more analysis, come into play. Edge IT
processing systems may be located in remote offices or other edge locations, but
generally these sit in the facility or location where the sensors reside closer to the
sensors, such as in a wiring closet.
Because IoT data can easily eat up network bandwidth and swamp your data center
resources, it's best to have systems at the edge capable of performing analytics as a way
to lessen the burden on core IT infrastructure. If you just had one large data pipe going
to the data center, you'd need enormous capacity. You'd also face security concerns,
storage issues, and delays processing the data. With a staged approach, you can
preprocess the data, generate meaningful results, and pass only those on. For example,
rather than passing on raw vibration data for the pumps, you could aggregate and
convert the data, analyze it, and send only projections as to when each device will fail
or need service.
Here's another example: You might use machine learning at the edge to scan for
anomalies that identify impending maintenance problems that require immediate
attention. Then you could use visualization technology to present that information
using easy-to-understand dashboards, maps, or graphs. Highly integrated compute
systems, such as hyper-converged infrastructure, are ideally suited to these tasks
because they're relatively fast, and easy to deploy and manage remotely.

Stage 4. The data center and cloud

Data that needs more in-depth processing, and where feedback doesn't have to be
immediate, gets forwarded to physical data center or cloud-based systems, where more
powerful IT systems can analyze, manage, and securely store the data. It takes longer to
get results when you wait until data reaches Stage 4, but you can execute a more
in-depth analysis, as well as combine your sensor data with data from other sources for
deeper insights. Stage 4 processing may take place on-premises, in the cloud, or in a
hybrid cloud system, but the type of processing executed in this stage remains the same,
regardless of the platform.
IoT FOR SMART CITIES
In general, the term IoT (Internet of Things) refers to the rapidly growing number
of digital devices – the quantity is now billions – these devices can communicate and
interact with others over the network/internet worldwide and they can be remotely
monitored and controlled. The IoT includes only smart sensors and other devices. On
the operational level of IoT, for example weather data is collected. IoT offers new
opportunities for cities to use data to manage traffic, cut pollution, make better use of
infrastructure and keep citizens safe and clean.
Advantages of IoT
 Companies use IoT for innovative management and for monitoring widely
dispersed processes. As a result, they even can control the latter even from distant
places as information is continuously fed into applications and data storage. IoT
provides an advantage of knowing things in advance. Due to the low cost of IoT, it is
now possible to monitor and manage activities that were previously unreachable. The
financial aspect is the best advantage, because this new technology could replace
humans who are in charge of monitoring and maintaining supplies. Consequently, costs
can be significantly reduced and optimized. IoT also makes it possible to gain
completely new insights e.g. associating weather influences to industrial productions.
Understanding the role of smart city and its components in the IoT era
Tokyo, the city with the world’s largest population density keeps growing and
boasting the largest number of people of all the cities in the world. Japan’s capital is the
largest urban area worldwide with a population of more than 38 million people
(38,050,000 people). In addition, more than 31 million people (32,275,000 people) live
in Jakarta, Indonesia and around 26 million in Delhi, India. According to forecasts,
60% of the world’s population will live in major cities by 2030.
The consequences: freshwater scarcity, pile of garbage, collapse of traffic and air
pollution. How can we cope with these challenges? One key is Smart City - the
networked and intelligent city. It stands for better quality of life and lower consumption
of resources. Here are five components of the smart city and their impact in the IoT era:
1. Smart Infrastructure
 Cities must create the conditions for continuous development: digital technologies
are becoming increasingly important, urban infrastructures and buildings must be
planned more efficiently and sustainably
 CO2 emissions should be kept as low as possible for example investing in electric
cars and self-propelled vehicles
 Smart cities use intelligent technologies to achieve an energy-efficient and
environmentally friendly infrastructure
 Smart lighting should only give light when someone actually walks past them like
setting brightness levels and tracking daily use to reduce the need of electrical
power.
2. The City Air Management Tool (CyAM)
 Siemens has developed a complete, cloud-based software-suite “The City Air
Management Tool”: Captures pollution data in real time and forecasts emissions
 Forecasts up to 90% accuracy is possible to gain the emissions for the next three to
five days
 It is the prediction of air pollution with the measurement of the effectiveness and
the technologies that are used which make the City Air Management tool unique
 The prediction is based on an algorithm that works with an artificial neural network
 CyAM is a cloud-based software suite with a dashboard that displays real-time
information on the air quality detected by sensors across a city and predicts values
for the upcoming three to five days
 Cities can choose from 17 measures to simulate the next three to five days (effects
of the air quality for the upcoming three to five days)
 Consequences: Introduction of new environmental zones (low-emission zones),
speed limits or free public transport
 CyAM is based on MindSphere, Siemens' cloud-based, open operating system for
Internet of Things (IoT)
3. Traffic Management
 Challenge for large smart cities is to optimize traffic
 Los Angeles: As one of the busiest cities in the world, the city has implemented an
intelligent transport solution to control the traffic flow
 Pavement integrated sensors send real-time updates of traffic flow to a central
traffic management platform which analyses the data and automatically adjusts
traffic lights to the traffic situation within seconds
 It uses historical data to predict where traffic can go – everything without human
involvement
4. Smart Parking
 Intelligent parking solutions identify when a vehicle has left the parking area
 The sensors in the ground report via smartphone the driver, where they can find a
free parking space
 Others use vehicle feedback to tell precisely where the openings are and nudge
waiting cars towards the path of least resistance
 Smart Parking is reality today and does not require complicated infrastructure and
high investment making them ideal for a mid-size Smart City
5. Smart Waste Management
 Waste management solutions help to optimize the efficiency of waste collection
and to reduce operational costs and better address the environmental issues
associated with an inefficient waste collection.
 Waste container receives a level sensor; when a certain threshold is reached, the
management platform of a truck driver receives a notification on the smartphone.
The message appears to empty a full container, which avoids half empty drains.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SMART CITIES

Six key characteristics of smart cities are shown. These factors include the following:

Characteristics of a smart city

1. Smart Economy
Economy often refers to the wealth and resources of a city, especially in terms of
production and consumption of goods and services. The factors that a smart economy
should include are entrepreneurship, innovation, trademarks, the flexibility of the labor
market, productivity, the integration in the international market, etc. Smart cities are
expected to experience economic growth since the population increase will open
opportunities to accommodate the needs.
Currently, top 100 urban cities account for 25% of the gross domestic product
worldwide [5]. The growing population in cities will result in a greater demand for
products and more trade will be required in the international market. Creativity and
entrepreneurship are required to accommodate the growth in population. In addition,
many smart cities encourage new talent to turn their attention towards smart city
projects. Some estimate that $40 trillion will be spent worldwide on new urban
infrastructure by 2030 [6], which presents huge innovation opportunities. As a result,
there will be a huge availability in the labor market for the upcoming construction of the
new urban infrastructures.
2. Smart People
Smart cities will continue to grow and mature as long as there are smart people and
smart technologies to support. Smart people can be measured from some indicators
such as education, creativity, innovations, participation, etc. How well educated are the
residents can easily be measured in terms of the number of secondary education,
college, or university education degrees within the population. Creativity and
innovation are important and many smart cities encourage entrepreneurship by a safety
net in case of failure. According to the authors in [7], the key success factor of a city is
participation by people. If residents are not engaged to co-create and share knowledge,
then a smart city goal is bound to fail.
3. Smart Governance
Governance can be interpreted as the way a city is internally organized. Each smart city
is different because they all have their own goals. This results in a new form of
economic dynamics. Therefore, smart cities usually have their own form of governance.
Factors of smart governance include participation in decision-making, public and social
services, transparent governance, political strategies and perspectives, etc. For example,
SmartTrack in Toronto is proposed as regional express rail route which is expected to
bring economic benefits to the city [8].
4. Smart Mobility
Transportation is probably one of the most important aspects of a city. Residents need
to quickly and efficiently get from one point to another. Most smart cities focus on
intracity transportation. For example, New York has a really large underground subway
system for people to get around. Seoul has the underground subway system in which
passengers can also enjoy the Internet. Barcelona aimed for a more eco-friendly option
by using electric vehicles and bicycles. More efficient and greener methods of
transportation are inherently considered smarter. In addition, smart cards or access to
real-time information for transport systems is a big trend in many smart cities.
 5. Smart Environment
Green communication is one of the common themes in smart cities. Cities want to
reduce their carbon footprint. Several efforts have been made in different ways such
like upgrading to greener vehicles (electric vehicles) and more efficient waste
management. Also, smart buildings can improve the environment and attractivity. For
example, in Amsterdam, drinking water is used to cool down buildings by passing it
through the building. As a result, buildings are efficiently cooled down without any
waste. Essentially, the smart environment includes the following factors: urban
infrastructure, carbon footprint, water and energy usage, environmental protection,
sustainable resource management, etc.
6. Smart Living
Residents are the key to a city’s development. Improving the quality of life for residents
is essential, and attention is required for cultural facilities, health conditions, individual
safety, housing quality, education facilities, tourist attraction, and social cohesion.
These factors can promote and bring the cultural agenda, tourist guide services for
visitors, education, and health.

IoT-BASED SOLUTIONS FOR SMART CITIES

There are numerous IoT-based smart solutions worldwide that have been imple-mented.
However, the most common solutions in smart cities are smart grids, smart homes,
transportation and traffic management, e-health, waste management, public Wi-Fi, etc.
An illustration of the smart city is shown.

Fig. 1.3 An illustration of a smart city

1.Smart Grid
The traditional electrical grids use a hierarchical infrastructure in which electricity
flows in one direction from a centralized power plant to consumer households.
However, the current electrical grids are unable to accommodate the rising demand of
the present-day growing population. The infrastructure lacks automated analysis,
situational awareness, real-time information, and self-healing. Additional factors that
need to be taken into consideration include the capacity limitations of energy
generation, one-way communication, and the decrease in fossil fuels [9].
A smart grid is a modernized electrical grid that uses ICTs to manage information
between utility and consumers in an automated manner [10]. Furthermore, the grid
allows two-way power flow with full visibility and control of assets within the system.
The smart grid utilizes advanced sensors deployed throughout the grid to improve fault
detection and enables self-healing of the network by re-routing power around the failed
equipment and notifying the utility. Robust two-way communication and sensors on the
grid will provide customers with access to real-time information of their power usage
for better energy management. Generators often have to produce more energy than that
required to power cities and prevent blackouts. As a result, a lot of energy ends up being
wasted. In a smart grid, sensors monitor power usage and relay that information back to
the generators to distribute energy in a more flexible and efficient manner, resulting in
larger profits. .
Smart Meter
Before automated meters, humans would manually record household usage and
customers were often overcharged. In the 1990s, utilities began introducing auto-mated
meter reading, with the ability to measure electricity, natural gas, or water consumption
of households. As a result, billing costs were significantly reduced and measurements
were more accurate. A smart meter is an electronic device that is highly accurate and
has two-way communication with the utility and consumers for various applications.
Applications of smart meters include anti-theft, remote connect/disconnect, real-time
pricing, power-quality measurement, load management, outage notification, etc. Smart
meters maintain the continuous flow of information from households to utilities which
allows for real-time system analysis and upload feedback on energy usage to the smart
meter. Thus, users can monitor their usage real time for better energy management.

Communication Technologies for Smart Grids

There are several types of communication technologies available for smart grid such as
power line communication (PLC), ZigBee, WiMAX, third-generation (3G) cellular
networks, global system for mobile communication (GSM), general packet radio
service (GPRS), etc. However, each type has its own pros and cons. Gungor et al. in [12]
briefly summarized them as shown in Table.

ZigBee is ideal for energy monitoring, home automation (see more in smart homes
section), and automatic meter reading. Moreover, deployment of ZigBee devices is low
cost and the performance is optimal for demand response, real-time pricing programs,
real-time system monitoring, and advanced metering support [13, 14]. However,
ZigBee has a short range and cannot cover the larger distance as required by the smart
grid.
Wireless mesh is a flexible network consisting of a group of nodes. Data travels
through the nodes of the network, where each node acts as a repeater. This enables
self-healing characteristics in the network where if a node drops out of the network,
then information can be rerouted through other nodes. Smart grid uses this method for
self-healing and situational awareness within the grid.
Cellular networks such as GSM, 3G, fourth-generation (4G) cellular networks, and
WiMAX are also available for smart grids. Cost can be saved by using already existing
communication infrastructure. Further, the data transfer speed of cellular networks is a
lot faster compared to other technologies. However, existing cellular networks also
share data flow with the customer market which can affect network performance
negatively.
PLC utilizes existing power lines to transmit data at high speeds. Since this method
uses existing power lines, deployment costs are significantly reduced inmany countries.
PLCs are the primary choice for electrical grids because they already exist and
connected to meters. Also, the security of PLC is stronger than other technologies.
However, the transmission medium of the power lines is very noisy and harsh. In
addition, the more devices that are connected to the power line in a neighborhood affect
the overall quality of the data transmitted as well. In short, PLCs are sensitive to
disturbances and are poorly suited for data transmission.
2.Smart Home
The residential, tertiary, and commercial buildings account for 50% of electricity
consumption in Europe [15]. Home and work environments have several
energy-consuming units such as lighting, heating, air conditioning, computers,
appliances, etc. However, these units are isolated and are often used in a manner with
poor energy efficiency and sustainability. As a result, these environments unnecessarily
waste a lot of energy. If the units are used in a more coordinated manner, they can
provide leverage for energy and cost savings.
The concept of smart homes is a system that constructs an intelligent network which
considers each energy-consuming unit as a node. All the units are capable of
communicating with each other through the network and can be controlled from
anywhere in the household or even remotely through the Internet. The potential of this
system is vast as it can be used for security, energy-efficiency, comfort, and
convenience.
Smart Home Energy Management
Smart homes intelligently manage each device in an energy-efficient manner to reduce
the amount of wasted energy [11]. The system will monitor energy usage trends over
the time to better manage and automate each device in an optimal manner. For example,
the system could operate appliances during off-peak hours such as dishwashers or
laundry machines during the night when electricity is cheaper, saving both time and
money. Overall, smart homes will provide an energy management system, remote
control of devices, timed schedule for usage of appliances, and real-time monitoring
among others.
 Traditional thermostats operate according to the hysteresis principle. A smart
thermostat such as Nest demonstrates to have the ability to learn user behavior patterns.
For example, the thermostat will turn off the air conditioning when it detects the users
leaving the household and then turn the air conditioning back upon arrival. By
auto-scheduling of appliances, the energy consumption can be reduced significantly.
Smart Appliances
Smart appliances (lighting, heating, air conditioning, computers, etc.) and systems are
often found in newer homes. In contrast, most traditional homes do not have these
appliances and systems built in. However, an affordable approach for homeowners is to
retrofit them into their households. Smart appliances can be found from many smart
home companies such as Notion, Canary, Iris, HomeSeer, Control4, Vera, Savant,
Wink, SmartThings, etc.
Communication Technologies for Smart Homes
Communication technologies are used to connect devices together in a smart home.
ZigBee and Wi-Fi are the most common technologies used among smart home
appliances. As mentioned earlier, ZigBee is ideal for energy monitoring and home
automation. It has simplicity, robustness, low deployment cost, and easy network
implementation.
3.Transport and Traffic Management
Most highly populated cities experience heavy traffic loads on the road, which
ultimately leads to huge amounts of greenhouse gas emissions and waste of money. In
2012, the US Treasury Department reported that approximately 1.9 billion gallons of
gasoline have been wasted due to traffic congestion every year at the cost of more than
100 billion in wasted fuel and time [16].
Electric Vehicles
Electric vehicles are considered as a potential replacement for the conventional
gas-powered vehicles. They are able to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and pollution.
Considering that road transport is expected to double by 2050, switching to electric
vehicles will significantly reduce the emissions over the long run. Many cities such as
Malaga, Paris, Amsterdam, and Barcelona have switched to electric vehicles and
installed charging stations across their cities.
Intelligent Transport System
An intelligent transport system (ITS) can be defined as a control system that uses ICTs
to communicate between vehicles and the highway so as to improve the safety, vehicle,
and road efficiency. Vehicles that are equipped with ITS are capable of predicting any
vehicle hazards and reduce reaction times to prevent accidents andincrease safety. The
ITS solutions cover a broad range of situations such as adaptive cruise control, obstacle
warning, lane detection, collision notification, etc.
Adaptive cruise control is a system that ensures that a car has a set distance behind
another vehicle. Sensors on the front side will monitor the relative speed of the vehicle
ahead. The adaptive cruise control system will then adjust the vehicle speed to maintain
a safe distance. In the case of a vehicle in front slowing down or another car cuts in
front, the system will alert the driver to slow down.
Obstacle warning is another approach that prevents accidents from occurring. This
technology uses radar, ultrasound, infrared, and laser to detect obstacles while the
vehicle is moving. The driver will be alerted if any obstacle is detected while the
vehicle is moving forward or backward.
Lane detection estimates the direction of the road and the position of the moving
vehicle along with sensors watching the road. When a vehicle is not properly aligned
with a lane, then the driver will be alerted. Furthermore, the vehicle is able to guide the
driver back into the lane.
Physical Infrastructure
Vehicles are getting safer and smarter. Investing more resources for physical
infrastructure of transport management will be more effective in dropping emissions
and wasted fuel. For example, traffic is sometimes caused by drivers trying to find the
parking spot. However, if sensors are deployed in parking spots, then a system can be
implemented to find empty spots. This can help to reduce traffic significantly and
drivers will have an easier time finding empty parking spots.
Public Wi-Fi
Many smart cities provide free public Wi-Fi which enables any device to connect to the
Internet. In addition, residents will be able to access a broad range of citywide services
through the network. A large amount of public data will be easily accessible for open
data projects. Thus, startups are getting encouragement and ultimately they are
improving the city economy. Common applications using data from public Wi-Fi are
real-time updates for bus stops, parking availability, monitoring traffic on the highway,
etc.
Copenhagen intelligent traffic solutions (CITSs) [17] is a project that installs Wi-Fi
access points in a mesh network with the ability to geo-locate Wi-Fi-enabled devices on
the street without compromising security. The data is aggregated and anonymized and
then fed back to a cloud-based software for city officials to monitor real-time traffic
conditions and run simulations. The software can look for patterns and predict traffic
behaviors using historical patterns, weather conditions, roadworks, and special events
4.Smart Healthcare
Healthcare has become too expensive for many individuals and it suffers from the
availability of services, medical errors, and wastes. Every year, there are millions of
preventable medical errors that lead to casualties. However, incorporating ICTs within
the healthcare sector led to the concept of electronic health (e-health). ICTs help
decrease costs and increase efficiency in many healthcare practices. As a result,
healthcare facilities are becoming more affordable, and yield better results and
increased satisfaction among patients. It encompasses a variety of uses such as
communication between patients and doctors, distant diagnostics for patients,
electronic medical records, telemedicine, teleconsultants, etc. E-health also removes
the need to travel and reduces the costs of medical resources.
The usage of mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets has significantly
increased over the past decade. Following the growing trend in mobile devices is the
idea of mobile health (m-health) which delivers healthcare services via mobile devices.
M-health extends the advantages of e-health to mobile devices. M-health focuses on
three important aspects: easy access to services and knowledge, user-oriented, and
personalized. A wide variety of services that m-health can provide include but are not
limited to health tips and education, health tools, health facility information, medical
calculator, clinical and educational use, etc. Numerous mobile health applications have
been released for iOS and Android OS devices such as Weight Watchers Mobile, Lose
It!, First Aid, Instant Heart Rate, Fooducate, Glucose Buddy—Diabetes Log, etc.

CHALLENGES

It can take a decade for cities to transform into smart cities. There are several factors
and challenges that are to be taken into consideration before moving forward. The
reasons behind why a city may want to transition can gauge how fast it will take.
Sometimes, cities want to channel their resources to improve the city for higher quality
of life and other times cities may be rebuilding itself after a natural disaster or
catastrophe. Following are some major challenges that need to be considered for smart
cities.
1.Planning
Cities are shaped by the inhabitants and understanding the human behavior is critical.
For better decision-making, it is essential to investigate urban dynamic open data, and
residents participation. A common issue with many cities is that they are often in a rush
to become a smart city. As a result, projects are often insular, creating an information
island that wastes funds because of repeated and redundant construction.
Many cities do not have a master plan or city development plan. It is essential to plan
a smart city and act based on a city’s needs in order to improve and provide better
facilities to residents. Retrofitting existing legacy city infrastructure to make it smarter
is another common issue that cities face. There are many challenges when reviewing
smart city strategies. One of them is being able to determine the areas that require
improvements. Also, integrating isolated legacy systems into the city is very difficult.

2.Costs and Quality

Choosing between low costs versus high quality has always been a tough decision.
Investing in low-cost materials and resources for smart city projects will result in
reduced performance and/or quality. On the other hand, higher quality materials and
resources often perform better; however, it is only available at a higher cost.
A perfect example of costs versus quality can be deciding which sensors to use.
Sensors are one of the primary devices used in smart cities. They are used for smart
water and electricity meters, global positioning system (GPS) devices, traffic sensors,
parking meters, weather sensors, crowdsourcing, etc. Low-cost ubiquitous sensors can
be used in large numbers; however, they produce a low-quality signal and may often
require recalibration. In contrast, expensive sensors are more accurate and can be
self-calibrated. However, the cost of the expensive sensors will be too high to install for
large area coverage.
3.Security and Privacy
Many smart solutions require the use of ICTs which raises a concern for information
security. The technology scale is so large in smart cities that even a small weakness can
cause considerable damage. Measures to strengthen this concern include enforc-ing
regulations and laws regarding information safety, implementing information security
levels and risk assessment systems, improving the network monitoring capabilities, and
strengthening network management. Data that is produced from sensors are used to
create effective models. However, the data can be intrusive to some residents making
them uncomfortable. As a result, placing sensors on everything may be impractical.
4.Risks
There are several potential risks that come with smart cities. There are technology risks,
operational risks, construction risks, market risks, and policy risks. Each type of risk is
summarized in Table

IoT Reference Architecture:

The Reference Architecture is a starting point for generating concrete architectures
and actual systems. A concrete architecture addresses the concerns of multiple
stakeholders of the actual system, and it is typically presented as a series of views that
address different stakeholder concerns. A Reference Architecture, on the other hand,
serves as a guide for one or more concrete system architects.
Reference Architecture as a set of architectural views:
• Functional View: Description of what the system does, and its main functions.
• Information View: Description of the data and information that the system handles.
• Deployment and Operational View: Description of the main real world
components of the system such as devices, network routers, servers, etc.
Functional view
The functional view for the IoT Reference Architecture is presented in Figure 8.1, and
is adapted from IoT-A (Carrez et al. 2013). It consists of the Functional Groups
(FGs), each of which includes a set of Functional Components (FCs). It is important
to note that not all the FCs are used in a concrete IoT architecture, and therefore the
actual system.

1. Device and Application functional group

The Device and Application FGs are already covered in the IoT Functional Model.
For convenience the Device FG contains the Sensing, Actuation, Tag, Processing,
Storage FCs, or simply components. These components represent the resources of the
device attached to the Physical Entities of interest. The Application FG contains either
standalone applications (e.g. for iOS, Android, Windows phone), or Business
Applications that connect the IoT system to an Enterprise system.
2. Communication functional group
The Communication FG contains the End-to-End Communication, Network
Communication, and Hop-by-Hop communication components:
• The Hop-by-Hop Communication is applicable in the case that devices are equipped
with mesh radio networking technologies such as IEEE 802.15.4 for which messages
have to traverse the mesh from node-to-node (hop-by-hop) until they reach a gateway
node which forwards the message (if needed) further to the Internet. The hop-by-hop
FC is responsible for transmission and reception of physical and MAC layer frames
to/from other devices. This FC has two main interfaces:
(a) one “southbound” to/from the actual radio on the device, and
(b) one “northbound” to/from the Network FC in the Communication FG.
• The Network FC is responsible for message routing & forwarding and the necessary
translations of various identifiers and addresses. The translations can be
(a) between network layer identifiers to MAC and/or physical network identifiers,
(b) between high-level human readable host/node identifiers to network layer
addresses (e.g. Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN) to IP addresses, a function
implemented by a Domain Name System (DNS) server), and
(c) translation between node/service identifiers and network locators in case the
higher layers above the networking layer use node or service identifiers that are
decoupled from the node addresses in the network. Potential fragmentation and
reassembly of messages due to limitations of the underlying layers is also handled by
the Network FC. Finally, the Network FC is responsible for handling messages that
cross different networking or MAC/PHY layer technologies, a function that is
typically implemented on a network gateway type of device. An example is an IPv4 to
IPv6 translation hosted in a gateway with two network interfaces, one supporting IPv4
and one supporting IPv6/6LoWPAN/ IEEE 802.15.4. The Network FC interfaces the
End-to-End Communication FC on the “northbound” direction, and the Hop-by-Hop
Communication FC on the “southbound” direction.
• The End-to-End Communication FC is responsible for end-to-end transport of
application layer messages through diverse network and MAC/PHY layers. In turn,
this means that it may be responsible for end-to-end retransmissions of missing
frames depending on the configuration of the FC. For example, if the End-to-End
Communication FC is mapped in an actual system to a component implementing the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) protocol, reliable transfer of frames dictates the
retransmission of missing frames. Finally, this FC is responsible for hosting any
necessary proxy/cache and any protocol translation between networks with different
transport/application layer technologies. An example of such functionality is the
HTTP-CoAP proxy, which performs transport-layer protocol translation. The End-to-
End FC interfaces the Network FC on the “southbound” direction.
3. IoT Service functional group
The IoT Service FG consists of two FCs: The IoT Service FC and the IoT Service
Resolution FC
• The IoT Service FC is a collection of service implementations, which interface the
related and associated Resources. For a Sensor type of a Resource, the IoT Service FC
includes Services that receive requests from a User and returns the Sensor Resource
value in synchronous or asynchronous (e.g. subscription/notification) fashion. The
services corresponding to Actuator Resources receive User requests for actuation,
control the Actuator Resource, and may return the status of the Actuator after the
action. A Tag IoT Service can behave both as a Sensor (for reading the identifier of
the Tag), or as an Actuator (for writing a new identifier or information on the Tag, if
possible).
• The IoT Service Resolution FC contains the necessary functions to realize a
directory of IoT Services that allows dynamic management of IoT Service
descriptions and discovery/lookup/resolution of IoT Services by other Active Digital
Artifacts. Dynamic management includes methods such as creation/update/ deletion
(CUD) of Service description, and can be invoked by both the IoT Services
themselves, or functions from the Management FG (e.g. bulk creation of IoT Service
descriptions upon system start-up). The discovery/lookup and resolution functions
allow other Services or Active Digital Artifacts to locate IoT Services by providing
different types of information to the IoT Service Resolution FC.
4. Virtual Entity functional group
The Virtual Entity FG contains functions that support the interactions between Users
and Physical Things through Virtual Entity services. An example of such an
interaction is the query to an IoT system of the form, “What is the temperature in the
conference room Titan?” The Virtual Entity is the conference room “Titan,” and the
conference room attribute of interest is “temperature.” Assuming that the room is
actually instrumented with a temperature sensor, if the User had the knowledge of
which temperature sensor is installed in the room (e.g. TempSensor #23), then the
User could re-formulate and re-target this query to, “What is the value of TempSensor
#23?” dispatched to the relevant IoT Service representing the temperature resource on
the TempSensor #23. The Virtual Entity interaction paradigm requires functionality
such as discovery of IoT Services based on Virtual Entity descriptions, managing the
Virtual Entity-IoT Service associations, and processing Virtual Entity-based queries.
The following FCs are defined for realizing these functionalities:
• The Virtual Entity Service FC enables the interaction between Users and Virtual
Entities by means of reading and writing the Virtual Entity attributes (simple or
complex), which can be read or written, of course.
• The Virtual Entity Registry FC maintains the Virtual Entities of interest for the
specific IoT system and their associations. The component offers services such as
creating/reading/updating/deleting Virtual Entity descriptions and associations.
• The Virtual Entity Resolution FC maintains the associations between Virtual
Entities and IoT Services, and offers services such as
creating/reading/updating/deleting associations as well as lookup and discovery of
associations. The Virtual Entity Resolution FC also provides notification to Users
about the status of the dynamic associations between a Virtual Entity and an IoT
Service, and finally allows the discovery of IoT Services provided the certain Virtual
Entity attributes.
• The Virtual Entity and IoT Service Monitoring FC includes:
(a) functionality to assert static Virtual Entity_IoT Service associations,
(b) functionality to discover new associations based on existing associations or
Virtual Entity attributes such as location or proximity, and
(c) continuous monitoring of the dynamic associations between Virtual Entities
and IoT Services and updates of their status in case existing associations are not valid
any more.
5. IoT process management functional group
The IoT Process Management FG aims at supporting the integration of business
processes with IoT-related services. It consists of two FCs:
• The Process Modeling FC provides that right tools for modeling a business process
that utilizes IoT-related services.
• The Process Execution FC contains the execution environment of the process
models created by the Process Modelling FC and executes the created processes by
utilizing the Service Organization FG in order to resolve high-level application
requirements to specific IoT services.
It is important to note the IoT services mentioned above are not only the services from
the IoT Service FG, but also from the Virtual Entity FG and the Service Organization
FG.
6. Service Organization functional group
The Service Organization FG acts as a coordinator between different Services offered
by the system. It consists of the following FCs:
• The Service Composition FC manages the descriptions and execution environment
of complex services consisting of simpler dependent services.
• The Service Orchestration FC resolves the requests coming from IoT Process
Execution FC or User into the concrete IoT services that fulfill the requirements.
• The Service Choreography FC is a broker for facilitating communication among
Services using the Publish/Subscribe pattern. Users and Services interested in specific
IoT-related services subscribe to the Choreography FC, providing the desirable
service attributes even if the desired services do not exist. The Choreography FC
notifies the Users when services fulfilling the subscription criteria are found.
7. Security functional group
The Security FG contains the necessary functions for ensuring the security and
privacy of an IoT system. It consists of the following FCs:
• The Identity Management FC manages the different identities of the involved
Services or Users in an IoT system in order to achieve anonymity by the use of
multiple pseudonyms. The component maintains a hierarchy of identities (an identity
pool), as well as group identities.
• The Authentication FC verifies the identity of a User and creates an assertion upon
successful verification. It also verifies the validity of a given assertion.
• The Authorization FC manages and enforces access control policies. It provides
services to manage policies (CUD), as well as taking decisions and enforcing them
regarding access rights of restricted resources. The term “resource” here is used as a
representation of any item in an IoT system that needs a restricted access. Such an
item can be a database entry (Passive Digital Artifact), a Service interface, a Virtual
Entity attribute (simple or complex), a Resource/Service/Virtual Entity description,
etc.
• The Key Exchange & Management is used for setting up the necessary security keys
between two communicating entities in an IoT system. This involves a secure key
distribution function between communicating entities.
• The Trust & Reputation FC manages reputation scores of different interacting
entities in an IoT system and calculates the service trust levels.
8. Management functional group
The Management FG contains system-wide management functions that may use
individual FC management interfaces. It is not responsible for the management of
each component, rather for the management of the system as a whole. It consists of
the following FCs:
• The Configuration FC maintains the configuration of the FCs and the Devices in an
IoT system (a subset of the ones included in the Functional View). The component
collects the current configuration of all the FCs and devices, stores it in a historical
database, and compares current and historical configurations. The component can also
set the system-wide configuration (e.g. upon initialization), which in turn translates to
configuration changes to individual FCs and devices.
• The Fault FC detects, logs, isolates, and corrects system-wide faults if possible. This
means that individual component fault reporting triggers fault diagnosis and fault
recovery procedures in the Fault FC.
• The Member FC manages membership information about the relevant entities in an
IoT system. Example relevant entities are the FGs, FCs, Services, Resources, Devices,
Users, and Applications. Membership information is typically stored in a database
along with other useful information such as capabilities, ownership, and access rules
& rights, which are used by the Identity Management and Authorization FCs.
• The State FC is similar to the Configuration FC, and collects and logs state
information from the current FCs, which can be used for fault diagnosis, performance
analysis and prediction, as well as billing purposes. This component can also set the
state of the other FCs based on system-wise state information.
• The Reporting FC is responsible for producing compressed reports about the system
state based on input from FCs.

Information view
The information view consists of
(a) the description of the information handled in the IoT System, and
(b) the way this information is handled in the system; in other words, the
information lifecycle and flow (how information is created, processed, and deleted),
and the information handling components.
1. Information description
The pieces of information handled by an IoT system are the following:
• Virtual Entity context information, i.e. the attributes (simple or complex) as
represented by parts of the IoT Information model (attributes that have values and
metadata such as the temperature of a room). This is one of the most important pieces
of information that should be captured by an IoT system, and represents the properties
of the associated Physical Entities or Things.
• IoT Service output itself is another important part of information generated by an
IoT system. For example, this is the information generated by interrogating a Sensor
or a Tag Service.
• Virtual Entity descriptions in general, which contain not only the attributes coming
from IoT Devices (e.g. ownership information).
• Associations between Virtual Entities and related IoT Services.
• Virtual Entity Associations with other Virtual Entities (e.g. Room #123 is on Floor
#7).
• IoT Service Descriptions, which contain associated Resources, interface
descriptions, etc.
• Resource Descriptions, which contain the type of resource (e.g. sensor), identity,
associated Services, and Devices.
• Device Descriptions such as device capabilities (e.g. sensors, radios).
• Descriptions of Composed Services, which contain the model of how a complex
service is composed of simpler services.
• IoT Business Process Model, which describes the steps of a business process
utilizing other IoT-related services (IoT, Virtual Entity, Composed Services).
• Security information such as keys, identity pools, policies, trust models, reputation
scores, etc.
• Management information such as state information from operational FCs used for
fault/performance purposes, configuration snapshots, reports, membership
information, etc.
 8.3 Information view 209

• Associations between Virtual Entities and related IoT Services.

• Virtual Entity Associations with other Virtual Entities (e.g. Room #123
is on Floor #7).
• IoT Service Descriptions, which contain associated Resources, interface
descriptions, etc.
• Resource Descriptions, which contain the type of resource (e.g. sensor),
identity, associated Services, and Devices.
• Device Descriptions such as device capabilities (e.g. sensors, radios).
• Descriptions of Composed Services, which contain the model of how
a complex service is composed of simpler services.
• IoT Business Process Model, which describes the steps of a business
process utilizing other IoT-related services (IoT, Virtual Entity,
Composed Services).
• Security information such as keys, identity pools, policies, trust
models, reputation scores, etc.
• Management information such as state information from operational
FCs used for fault/performance purposes, configuration snapshots,
reports, membership information, etc.

8.3.2 Information flow and lifecycle

On a high level, the flow of information in an IoT system follows two
main directions. From devices that produce information such as sensors
and tags, information follows a context-enrichment process until it reaches
the consumer application or part of the larger system, and from the appli-
cation or part of a larger system information it follows a context-reduction
process until it reaches the consumer types of devices (e.g. actuators). The
enrichment process is shown in Figure 8.2. Devices equipped with sensors
transform changes in the physical properties of the Physical Entities of
Interest into electrical signals. These electrical signals are transformed
in one or multiple values (Figure 8.2a) on the device level. These values
are then enriched with metadata information such as units of measurement,
timestamp, and possibly location information (Figure 8.2b). These
enriched values are offered by a software component (Resource) either on
the device or the network. The Resource exposes certain IoT Services to
formalize access to this enriched information (Figure 8.2c). At this point,
the information is annotated with simple attributes such as location and time,
and often this type of metadata is sufficient for certain IoT applications or for
the use in certain larger systems. This enriched information becomes context
information as soon as it is further associated with certain Physical Entities in
the form of Virtual Entity attributes (simple or complex, static or dynamic).
 Value Value Value Value

1 1 1 1

Value Value Value Virtual Value

Attribute
Container Container Container Entity 0..* 1..* Container
-entityType -attributeName
-identifier -attributeType

0..* 1
association

0..* 1
0..* Service 0 Service 0..*
Association
Description Description
MetaData MetaData MetaData
-serviceType
-metadataName -metadataName -metadataName
-metadataType 0..* -metadataType 0..* -metadataType
-metadataValue exposure -metadataValue exposure -metadataValue
0..* hosting hosting
0..* 0..* 0..*
Resource 0..* 0..1 Device Resource 0..* 0..1 Device
Description Description Description Description

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 8.2
Information-enrichment process.
 8.3 Information view 211

Further support information such as Associations between certain attributes

and IoT Services further enriches the context information of the Virtual
Entity (Figure 8.2d).
Further enrichment occurs in applications or larger systems that employ,
for example, data analytics, machine learning, and knowledge management,
which produces actionable information. Parts of the context and actionable
information may be stored to an information store for future use. Actionable
information flows into business processes that implement an action plan.
Action plans push context information about Virtual Entities to associated
IoT Services, to corresponding Actuation Resources, and finally to the real
actuators that perform the changes in the physical world (context information
reduction flow). Actual IoT systems employ a different degree of enrichment,
reduction, or storage. Certain IoT systems only employ enrichment while leav-
ing the action to humans, others employ only context reduction (e.g. remote
control of a heating element), or others employ the full feedback loop.
Virtual Entity context information is typically generated by data-producing
devices such as sensor devices and consumed either by data-consumption
devices such as actuators or services (IoT or other types of services such as
machine learning processing services). Raw or enriched information and/or
actionable information may be stored in caches or historical databases for
later usage or processing, traceability, or accounting purposes. The historical/
cache database information lifetime is often application- or regulation-
specific. Typically the information maintained in a cache is ephemeral,
while the information stored in historical databases can last for longer but
highly application-specific durations. Certain raw sensor readings may be
destroyed after fulfilling a User request, and other sensor readings may be
stored for 5 years (for example) according to a data-retention policy dictated
by regulation. Similar rules may apply for the operation-specific informa-
tion such as Device, Resource, Service Descriptions, etc. These contain the
necessary information for an IoT system to operate, but not the information
that human users are typically interested in. Nevertheless, this kind of
information is created by FCs, are typically stored for the purpose of fault
management, and are typically automatically destroyed, for example, when
a soft state handling policy is applicable. In this context soft state informa-
tion means that the subsystem that manages this kind of information
destroys old information according to time of creation and a retention policy
(e.g. Service Descriptions older than 1 day are destroyed from the IoT
Service Resolution), while the Users (FCs, management applications) that
create this kind of information are responsible for refreshing it periodically
in order to avoid automatic destruction.
212 CHAPTER 8 IoT Reference Architecture

8.3.3 Information handling

An IoT system is typically deployed to monitor and control Physical Entities.
Monitoring and controlling Physical Entities is in turn performed by mainly
the Devices, Communication, IoT Services, and Virtual Entity FGs in the
functional view. Certain FCs of these FGs, as well as the rest of the FGs
(Service Organization, IoT Process Management, Management, Security
FGs), play a supporting role for the main FGs in the Reference Architecture,
and therefore in the flow of information. Moreover, an IoT system is typically
one part of a larger system encompassing several other functions, such as
Complex Event Processing (CEP), Data Collection and Processing, and
Data Analytics and Knowledge Management, as seen earlier in the book
in Chapter 5. Therefore, information handling of an IoT system depends
largely on the specific problem at hand. From a Reference Architecture point
of view, we can only present part of the information flow space concerning
the IoT Reference Model, while the technology chapter (Chapter 5) provides
details on the individual and more complex information handling components
and interactions.
The presentation of information handling in an IoT system assumes
that FCs exchange and process information. The exchange of information
between FCs follows the interaction patterns below (Carrez et al. 2013;
Figure 8.3):

A B A B
Request
Push Response
Time
(a) (b)

SA SB C SA SC B P

Subscribe Subscribe
Subscribe
Subscribe
Publish
Notify Notify
Notify
Notify

(c) (d)
FIGURE 8.3
Information exchange patterns.
(Adapted from IoT-A; Carrez et al. 2013)
 8.3 Information view 213

• Push: An FC A pushes the information to another FC B provided that

the contact information of the component B is already configured in
component A, and component B listens for such information pushes.
• Request/Response: An FC A sends a request to another FC B and
receives a response from B after A serves the request. Typically the
interaction is synchronous in the sense that A must wait for a response
from B before proceeding to other tasks, but in practice this limitation
can be realized with parts of component A waiting, and other parts
performing other tasks. Component B may need to handle concurrent
requests and responses from multiple components, which imposes certain
requirements on the capabilities for the device or the network that hosts
the FC.
• Subscribe/Notify: Multiple subscriber components (SA, SB) can subscribe
for information to a component C, and C will notify the relevant
subscribers when the requested information is ready. This is typically
an asynchronous information request after which each subscriber can
perform other tasks. Nevertheless, a subscriber needs to have some
listening components for receiving the asynchronous response. The target
component C also needs to maintain state information about which
subscribers requested which information and their contact information.
The Subscribe/Notify pattern is applicable when typically one component
is the host of the information needed by multiple other components. Then
the subscribers need only establish a Subscribe/Notify relationship with
one component. If multiple components can be information producers
or information hosts, the Publish/Subscribe pattern is a more scalable
solution from the point of view of the subscribers.
• Publish/Subscribe: In the Publish/Subscribe (also known as a Pub/Sub
pattern), there is a third component called the broker B, which
mediates subscription and publications between subscribers (information
consumers) and publishers (or information producers). Subscribers such
as SA and SB subscribe to the broker about the information they are
interested in by describing the different properties of the information.
Publishers publish information and metadata to the broker, and the
broker pushes the published information to (notification) the subscribers
whose interests match the published information.
At this point we describe a few examples of information handling by the
FCs. Please note that these interaction descriptions are not complete in the
sense that they do not contain all the possible ways such interactions can
take place, and they are not intended to be complete since these interactions
are highly dependent on the actual IoT system requirements.
218 CHAPTER 8 IoT Reference Architecture

8.4 Deployment and operational view

The Deployment and Operational View depends on the specific actual use
case and requirements, and therefore we present here one way of realizing
the Parking Lot example seen earlier. It is by no means an exhaustive or
complete example. The use case chapters presented in Part III of this book
provide real world deployment examples.
Figure 8.8 depicts the Devices view as Physical Entities deployed in the
parking lot, as well as the occupancy sign. There are two sensor nodes
(#1 and #2), each of which are connected to eight metal/car presence sensors.
The two sensor nodes are connected to the payment station through wireless
or wired communication. The payment station acts both as a user interface
for the driver to pay and get a payment receipt as well as a communication
gateway that connects the two sensor nodes and the payment interface physi-
cal devices (displays, credit card slots, coin/note input/output, etc.) with the
Internet through Wide Area Network (WAN) technology. The occupancy
sign also acts as a communication gateway for the actuator node (display of

Mobile
Phone

Internet
Sensor
Parking
Node
Operation
#2
Center

Sensor Data Center

Node Smart sign - GW
#1 Node #2
Empty 15

Payment station
- GW Node #2

WAN link
Short range
radio/wired link

FIGURE 8.8
Parking Lot Deployment and Operational View, Devices.
 8.4 Deployment and operational view 219

free parking spots), and we assume that because of the deployment, a direct
connection to the payment station is not feasible (e.g. wired connectivity
is too prohibitive to be deployed or sensitive to vandalism). The physical
gateway devices connect through a WAN technology to the Internet and
towards a data center where the parking lot management system software is
hosted as one of the virtual machines on a Platform as a Service (PaaS;
Chapter 5) configuration. The two main applications connected to this
management system are human user mobile phone applications and parking
operation center applications. We assume that the parking operation center
manages several other parking lots using similar physical and virtual
infrastructure.
Figure 8.9 shows two views superimposed, the deployment and func-
tional views, for the parking lot example. Please note that several FGs and
FCs are omitted here for simplicity purposes, and certain non-IoT-specific

Application #1 Application #2
Phone Remote Operations & Management

Parking Lot Management Service

Payment Business Process Service

VE Service Occupancy Sign

VE Service Lot #01-16

Virtual
Communication
Machine
Virtual Machine #1 #N

Data Centre

Internet

WAN link GW Node #1

Short range GW Node #2
radio/wired link Payment station Service

Actuator Node

loT Service Occup. Sign

Sensor Node #1 Sensor Node #2 Resource Occup. Sign

loT Service #11-18 loT Service #21-28

Resource #11-18 Resource #21-28

FIGURE 8.9
Parking Lot Deployment & Operational View, Resources, Services, Virtual Entities, Users.