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 Membrane process
In general, membrane processes offer the possibility of separating water from various types of
solute and of separating solutes either on the basis of size or because some are ionized and others
are not.
In addition to these cases where a high degree of separation is achieved, there are many
instances where the composition of the dissolved material is altered. One example is in reverse
osmosis, where the permeate has a considerably reduced salt content.
In a membrane process, fluid is passed through a barrier. The separation occurs because of the
pressure difference between the two membrane surfaces, keeping contaminants on one side of
the membrane and fresh water on the other side.

Membrane operations
According to the driving force of the operation it is possible to distinguish:

Pressure driven operations

microfiltration
ultrafiltration
nanofiltration
reverse osmosis
Concentration driven operations
dialysis
pervaporation
forward osmosis
artificial lung
gas separation

Operations in an electric potential gradient

electrodialysis
membrane electrolysis e.g. chloralkali process
electrodeionization
electrofiltration
fuel cell

Operations in a temperature gradient

membrane distillation

• Reverse osmosis (RO)

Concentration of solution by removal of water

• Nanofiltration (NF)

Concentration of organic components by removal of part of

monovalent ions like sodium and chlorine (partial demineralisation)

• Ultrafiltration (UF)

Concentration of large and macro molecules

• Microfiltration (MF)

Removal of bacteria, separation of macromolecules

Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis (RO) separates salts and small molecules from low molecular weight solutes
(typically less than 100 daltons) at relatively high pressures using membranes with NMWLs of 1
kDa or lower. RO membranes are normally rated by their retention of sodium chloride while
ultrafiltration membranes are characterized according to the molecular weight of retained
solutes. Millipore water purification systems employ both reverse osmosis membranes as well as
ultrafiltration membranes. Reverse osmosis systems are primarily used to purify tap water to
purities that exceed distilled water quality.

Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration is also a membrane separation process driven by pressure. Its main difference
from reverse osmosis is the type of membrane used. While reverse osmosis membranes are
nonporous and therefore, permeable only to very small molecules, ultrafiltration membranes are
microporous and permeable to small solute species in addition to the solvent. Ultrafiltration is
therefore used to keep large solute species in the retentate. The effect of osmotic pressure is
therefore less important in this process so that, the transmembrane pressures required are not as
high as for reverse osmosis. As a result of solvent transfer the retentate becomes more
concentrated and a concentration gradient of solute builds up in the direction of transfer with the
higher concentration at the membrane wall.

Nanofiltration
It is a membrane filtration-based method that uses nanometer sized through-pores that pass
through the membrane. Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes from 1-10 nanometers,
smaller than that used in microfiltration and ultrafiltration, but just larger than that in reverse
osmosis. Membranes used are predominantly created from polymer thin films. Materials that are
commonly used include polyethylene terephthalate or metals such as aluminum.Pore dimensions
are controlled by pH, temperature and time during development with pore densities ranging from
1 to 106 pores per cm2. Membranes made from polyethylene terephthalate and other similar
materials, are referred to as “track-etch” membranes, named after the way the pores on the
membranes are made.

Microfiltration
The separation of particles of micron and submicron levels can effectively be performed using
membrane filters. The suspended particles for which the process is industrially used include
colloids, microorganisms and emulsion droplets. There are two different configurations for the
microfiltration operation: (1) dead-end microfiltration, and (2) crossflow microfiltration. In the
first, the membrane plane is normal to the feed flux, while in the second, it is tangential. Highly
concentrated suspensions are not suitable for dead-end treatment since the separated particles
rapidly accumulate on the membrane, increasing the resistance to filtration by forming a cake
and/or clogging the membrane. In crossflow filtration, the flow is parallel to the membrane and
the drag forces close to the membrane wall reduce the amounts of particulate material deposited
on the membrane.

Liquid Membranes
A liquid membrane is a liquid phase that separates two fluid phases of different composition. In
most applications the liquid membrane is an organic phase placed between two aqueous phases.
The principles involved in liquid membrane separations are those of solvent extraction, rather
than membrane separation. The solute is first selectively extracted by the liquid membrane, it
then transfers across the liquid film driven by its concentration gradient and when it reaches the
other side of the liquid membrane it is stripped by the third phase.

Pervaporation
Pervaporation is the combination of the selective separation and transfer of a component across
the membrane and its evaporation on the permeate side. In order to achieve evaporation the
pressure on the permeate side must be such that the partial pressure of this component is lower
than its saturation vapor pressure. Therefore although the driving force for transfer is the
difference in activity of the transferred species, this is the result of applying a vacuum on the
permeate side

Dialysis
Dialysis is a process in which the solute, usually an electrolyte, transfers across the membrane
driven by the difference in concentration between the two sides of the membrane. Two
conditions have to be fulfilled for the process to be effective: (1) the concentration on the
permeate side has to be kept low so that the driving force remains as high as possible, and (2) the
osmotic pressure must be low, and remain low during the process, so that a counterflux of
solvent does not result in feed dilution. Since the combination of these two conditions is not
likely to occur, the use of selective membranes has become general practise so that the partition
coefficient of the solute between the two phases can be substantially increased by using the
Donnen effect.
Comparision of membrane process :

Importance :
Electro dialysis works best at removing low molecular weight ionic components from a feed
stream. Non-charged, higher molecular weight and less mobile ionic species will not typically be
significantly removed.
In contrast to RO, electrodialysis becomes less economical when extremely low salt
concentrations in the product are required and with sparingly conductive feeds: current density
becomes limited and current utilization efficiency typically decreases as the feed salt
concentration becomes lower, and with fewer ions in solution to carry current, both ion transport
and energy efficiency greatly declines.
Innovative systems overcoming the inherent limitations of electrodialysis (and RO) are
available; these integrated systems work synergistically, with each sub-system operating in its
optimal range, providing the least overall operating and capital costs for a particular application.
As with RO, electrodialysis systems require feed pretreatment to remove species that coat,
precipitate onto, or otherwise "foul" the surface of the ion exchange membranes. This fouling
decreases the efficiency of the electrodialysis system. Thus, electrodialysis reversal systems seek
to minimize scaling (buildup onto membrane) by periodically reversing the flows of diluate and
concentrate and polarity of the electrodes.

Applications :
Membrane separation processes operate without heating and therefore use less energy than
conventional thermal separation processes such as distillation, sublimation or crystallization. The
separation process is purely physical and both fractions (permeate and retentate) can be used.
Cold separation using membrane technology is widely used in the food technology,
biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries. Furthermore, using membranes enables
separations to take place that would be impossible using thermal separation methods.
Important technical applications include the production of drinking water by reverse osmosis
(worldwide approximately 7 million cubic meters annually), filtrations in the food industry, the
recovery of organic vapours such as petro-chemical vapour recovery and the electrolysis for
chlorine production.
In waste water treatment, membrane technology is becoming increasingly important. With the
help of ultra/microfiltration it is possible to remove particles, colloids and macromolecules, so
that waste-water can be disinfected in this way.
About half of the market is in medical applications such as use in artificial kidneys to remove
toxic substances by hemodialysis and as artificial lung for bubble-free supply of oxygen in the
blood.
The importance of membrane technology is growing in the field of environmental protection
(NanoMemPro IPPC Database). Even in modern energy recovery techniques membranes are
increasingly used, for example in fuel cells and in osmotic power plants

References :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_technology
https://www.google.com.pk/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=14&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiYuNH5jcnYA
hWMsxQKHfBMC6sQFghoMA0&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thermopedia.com%2Fcontent
%2F948%2F&usg=AOvVaw2YpfTBF_ory3jis6ZkAfYg
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/103107088/module23/lecture1/lecture1.pdf