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UNIT 4: Importance of safe drinking water on public health
4.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to analyze water characteristics of
drinking water.
4.1. Introduction
The understanding of comprehensive water resources planning and management is
becoming increasingly important as the demand for water increases and the reliability of
existing supplies decreases, not just in the Philippines, but all over the world. In this learning
packet, we will discuss the course CES 3: Water Supply Planning and Development (3-unit
subject) with the following topics, composed of 9 Learning Packets (LP):
LP 1. Importance of safe drinking water on public health.
LP 2. Common sources of water supply: Surface water, Groundwater, Mixed water
resources, Rainwater.
LP 3. Assessment of water quantity: Surface monitoring, Groundwater.
LP 4. Water characteristics and drinking water: Parameters and standards with
regards to physical, chemical, bacteriological and organoleptical properties; Water
related diseases; Factors affecting water quality; Sources of environmental
contaminants.
LP 5. Estimation of water demand: Classification of water use, Quantifying present
and future use, domestic water demand, Industrial, commercial, agricultural and
other types of water demands, Fluctuations in water use, factor of inequality low rate
patters.
LP 6. Development of water sources: Groundwater, Construction of wells,
Environmental effects and sea water intrusion, Surface water, Watershed and
reservoir management and dam siltation.
LP 7. Introduction to conventional water purification processes: Physical treatment
process, Chemical treatment processes.
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LP 8. Water transport and distribution systems: General procedure and layout of
masterplan of a distribution system, Design criteria for normal and fire demand,
Hydraulic design of branched and grid systems, Pipes, appurtenances and pipe
laying, metering, flow and pressure control.
LP 9. Introduction to water laws, codes, finance and water rates
This learning packet (LP) is a self-directed material, wherein you are going to learn on
your own. This learning packet has series of instruction, discussion, and assessment of
learning about the course content.
At the end of the lessons in this LP you need to complete the student’s task and submit
back to me by using the packaging material in this LP.
4.2 Parameters and standards with regards to physical, chemical,
bacteriological and organoleptical properties
What are the parameters of water quality?
These properties can be physical, chemical or biological factors. Physical properties of
water quality include temperature and turbidity. Chemical characteristics involve
parameters such as pH and dissolved oxygen. Biological indicators of water quality include
algae and phytoplankton.
What is water quality?
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological
characteristics of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements
of one or more biotic species, or to any human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by
reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through
treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to assess water
quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, and drinking water.
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So, what do we test in water? What parameters do we measure?
4.2.1 Physical tests
Physical tests indicate properties detectable by the senses. Physical test for
water includes:
➢ color,
➢ turbidity,
➢ total solids,
➢ dissolved solids,
➢ suspended solids,
➢ odor and
➢ taste
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• Color in water may be caused by the presence of minerals such as iron and
manganese or by substances of vegetable origin such as algae and weeds. Color
tests indicate the efficacy of the water treatment system.
• Turbidity in water is because of suspended solids and colloidal matter. It may
be due to eroded soil caused by dredging or due to the growth of micro-
organisms. High turbidity makes filtration expensive. If sewage solids are
present, pathogens may be encased in the particles and escape the action of
chlorine during disinfection.
• Odor and taste are associated with the presence of living microscopic
organisms; or decaying organic matter including weeds, algae; or industrial
wastes containing ammonia, phenols, halogens, hydrocarbons. While
chlorination dilutes odor and taste caused by some contaminants, it generates
a foul odor itself when added to waters polluted with detergents, algae and
some other wastes.
4.2.2 Chemical tests
Chemical tests determine the amounts of mineral and organic substances that
affect water quality. Chemical tests for water include:
➢ pH,
➢ hardness,
➢ presence of a selected group of chemical parameters,
➢ biocides,
➢ highly toxic chemicals,
➢ B.O.D
• pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. It is an indicator of relative acidity
or alkalinity of water. Values of 9.5 and above indicate high alkalinity while values
of 3 and below indicates acidity. Low pH values help in effective chlorination but
cause problems with corrosion. Values below 4 generally do not support living
organisms in the marine environment. Drinking water should have a pH between
6.5 and 8.5.
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• B.O.D.: (Biological Oxygen Demand) It denotes the amount of oxygen needed by
micro-organisms for stabilization of decomposable organic matter under aerobic
conditions. High B.O.D. means that there is less of oxygen to support life and
indicates organic pollution.
• The simple definition of water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and
magnesium in the water. Hard water is high in dissolved minerals, largely calcium
and magnesium. ... When hard water is heated, such as in a home water heater,
solid deposits of calcium carbonate can form.
4.2.3 Bacteriological tests
The typical bacteriological tests for water include:
➢ Total Bacteria
➢ Coliform
➢ E. Coli
➢ Salmonella sp.
• Total bacterial count (TBC) is the count of the number of bacterial colony-forming
units present in the milk sample, giving a quantitative evaluation of the total
number of bacterial colony-forming units per milk milliliter.
• Coliform bacteria are organisms that are present in the environment and in the
feces of all warm-blooded animals and humans. Coliform bacteria will not likely
cause illness. However, their presence in drinking water indicates that disease-
causing organisms (pathogens) could be in the water system.
• (Escherichia coli), is a type of bacteria that normally lives in your intestines. It's
also found in the gut of some animals. Most types of E. coli are harmless and even
help keep your digestive tract healthy. But some strains can cause diarrhea if you
eat contaminated food or drink fouled water.
• Salmonella spp. are a group of bacteria which reside in the intestinal tract of
human beings and warm-blooded animals and are capable of causing disease.
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They are the second most common cause of bacterial foodborne illness
(Campylobacter spp. is the most frequent cause).
Download:
WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality
[Link]
PHILIPPINE STANDARDS FOR DRINKING WATER
[Link]
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4.2.4 Drinking water quality standards
Drinking water quality standards describes the quality parameters set for
drinking water. Despite the truth that every human on this planet needs drinking
water to survive and that water may contain many harmful constituents, there are no
universally recognized and accepted international standards for drinking water. Even
where standards do exist, and are applied, the permitted concentration of individual
constituents may vary by as much as ten times from one set of standards to another.
Many developed countries specify standards to be applied in their own
country. In Europe, this includes the European Drinking Water Directive and in the
United States the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes
standards as required by the Safe Drinking Water Act. For countries without a
legislative or administrative framework for such standards, the World Health
Organization publishes guidelines on the standards that should be achieved. China
adopted its own drinking water standard GB3838-2002 (Type II) enacted by Ministry
of Environmental Protection in 2002.
4.2.5 Components of Water Quality
In accordance with the Philippines National Standards for Drinking Water,
three aspects of water quality need to be considered. These are the Chemical,
Physical and Microbiological aspects.
A. Chemical Aspects
Chemical contamination of water sources may be due to natural sources or to
certain industries and agricultural practices. When toxic chemicals are present in
drinking water, there is the risk that they may cause either acute or chronic health
effects. Chronic health effects are more common than acute effects because the levels
of chemicals in drinking water are seldom high enough to cause acute health effects.
1. Hardness – hardness is due primarily to calcium and magnesium carbonates and
bicarbonates (which can be removed by boiling) and calcium and magnesium sulfate
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and chloride (which can be removed by chemical precipitation using lime and
sodium carbonate). Hardness in water is objectionable for the following reasons:
➢ Calcium and magnesium sulfate have a laxative effect.
➢ Hard water makes lathering more difficult, and so it increases soap
consumption.
➢ In boilers, pots and kettles, hardness causes scaling, resulting in the
reduction of the thermal efficiency and restriction of flow.
2. Alkalinity and Acidity – the presence of acid substances is indicated by pH below
7.0 and alkaline substances by pH greater than 7.0. Acidic water is corrosive to
metallic pipes.
3. Carbon Dioxide – the presence of appreciable quantities of carbon dioxide makes
water corrosive due to carbonic acid formation and the presence of free CO2.
4. Dissolved Oxygen – aside from a flat taste, water devoid of oxygen may indicate
an appreciable level of oxygen-consuming organic substances.
5. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) – COD is a measure of the amount of organic
content of water. As bacteria utilize oxygen in the oxidation of organic matter, the
COD increases and the dissolved oxygen in the water decreases.
6. Organic Nitrogen – organic nitrogen is a constituent of all waste protein products
from sewage, kitchen wastes and all dead organic matter. Freshly produced waste
normally contains pathogenic bacteria. All water high in organic nitrogen should
therefore be suspected for possible contaminants.
7. Iron and Manganese – groundwater usually contains more of these two minerals
than surface water. Iron and manganese are nuisances that must be removed if in
excess of 0.3 mg/l and 0.1 mg/l respectively. They stain clothing and plumbing
fixtures, and the growth of iron bacteria causes strainers and screens to clog and
metallic conduits to rust. The appearance of a reddish brown or black precipitate in a
water sample after shaking indicates, respectively, the presence of iron or
manganese.
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8. Toxic Substances – a number of chemical substances, if present in appreciable
concentration in drinking water, may constitute a danger to health. These toxic
substances include arsenic, barium, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, cyanide, lead,
selenium and silver.
9. Phenolic Compounds – these cause undesirable taste in water whenever present.
B. Physical Aspects
The turbidity, color, taste, and odor of water should be monitored. Turbidity
should always be low, especially where disinfection is practiced. High turbidity can
inhibit the effects of disinfection against microorganisms and enable bacterial growth.
Drinking water coloration may be due to the presence of colored organic matter.
Taste problems relating to water could be indicators of changes in the water
source or in the treatment process. Inorganic compounds such as magnesium,
calcium, sodium, copper, iron, and zinc are generally detected by the taste of water.
1. Turbidity – is a measure of the degree of cloudiness or muddiness of water. It is
caused by suspended matter in water like silt, clay, organic matter or microorganisms.
Even when caused by factors that do not pose a health risk, turbidity is objectionable
because of its adverse aesthetic and psychological effects on the consumers.
2. Color – is due to the presence of colored substances in solution, such as vegetable
matter and iron salt. It does not necessarily have detrimental effects on health. Color
intensity could be measured through visual comparison of the sample to distilled
water.
3. Odor – odor should be absent or very faint for water to be acceptable for drinking.
Pure water is odorless; hence, the presence of undesirable odor in water is indicative
of the existence of contaminants.
4. Taste – pure water is tasteless, hence, the presence of undesirable taste in water
indicates the presence of contaminants. Algae, decomposing organic matter, dissolved
gases, and phenolic substance may cause tastes.
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C. Microbiological Aspects
Drinking water should be free of pathogenic microorganisms. It should not
contain bacteria that indicate fecal pollution, of which coliform bacteria are the
primary indicator as it is found in the feces of warm-blooded organisms. Parasitic
protozoa and helminths are also indicators of water quality. Species of protozoa can
be introduced into the water supply through human or animal fecal contamination.
Most common among the pathogenic protozoans are Entamoeba and Giardia. Where
possible, only water sources that are not likely to be contaminated by fecal matter
should be used.
Pathogens in water can be removed by filtration or disinfection. Chlorine,
which is readily available and inexpensive, is the usual disinfectant. However, it is not
fully effective against all organisms. The two basic methods used for the enumeration
of coliform organisms in water are the multiple-tube fermentation method and the
membrane filtration method. Estimates of the numbers of coliform organisms are
given in terms of Most Probable Numbers (MPN) per 100 ml, when using the multiple-
tube fermentation method, and colonies per 100 ml when determined by the
membrane filtration method. These tests must be conducted by DOH-accredited
laboratories only.
Philippine Standards for Water Quality
The Philippines National Standards for Drinking Water 2007 (PNSDW-2007)
provide the minimum standards for quality of potable water. Per PNSDW, drinking
water must be clear, colorless and free from objectionable taste and odor. Table below
presents the PNSDW standards for physical and chemical quality. All other standard
values are contained in the PNSDW Administrative Order No. 2007-0012 or any other
standards more recently issued by the Department of Health.
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4.3 Water related diseases
Water-related diseases exact a terrible toll on human health.
These illnesses are of many types, but they are all directly related to a need for clean
water. Many diseases arise simply because of the lack of clean water for drinking and
cleaning food. Others are spawned by inadequate sanitation facilities and poor personal
hygiene practices that are directly related to a lack of clean water.
Water-related diseases are one of the world’s most significant health problems—and
one that is largely preventable. Cholera and other diarrheal diseases alone are responsible
for some 1.8 million deaths each and every year. The poor of developing nations, especially
children, are hardest-hit. Water-related diseases trap millions in cycles of poverty and poor
health, often rendering them unable to work or go to school.
Image adapted from [Link]
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In the developing world, the cumulative effect of water-related disease stifles
economic growth and stresses healthcare systems that are already overloaded.
There are five main types of water-related infectious disease.
➢ Water-borne
➢ Water-washed
➢ Water-based
➢ Water-related insect vector
➢ Diseases caused by defective sanitation
Some of the water-related diseases are as follows:
• Arsenic in drinking-water
• Dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease)
• Arsenicosis
• Ascariasis
• Campylobacteriosis
• Cholera
• Cyanobacterial toxins
• Dengue and Dengue Hemorrhagic fever
• Diarrhea
• Japanese Encephalitis
• Fluorosis
• Hepatitis
• Leptospirosis
• Malaria
• Methemoglobinemia
• Onchocerciasis (River blindness)
• Ringworm (Tinea)
• Scabies
• Schistosomiasis
• Typhoid and Paratyphoid Enteric Fevers
For description of the disease, cause, distribution, scope, and interventions: visit
[Link]
4.4 Factors affecting water quality
Many factors affect water quality such as:
o Sedimentation
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o Runoff
o Erosion
o Dissolved oxygen
o pH
o Temperature
o Decayed organic materials
o Pesticides
o Toxic and hazardous substances
o Oils, grease, and other chemicals
o Detergents
o Litter and rubbish
Substances present in the air affect rainfall. Dust, volcanic gases, and natural gases in the
air, such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen, are all dissolved or entrapped in rain.
When other substances such as sulfur dioxide, toxic chemicals, or lead are in the air, they are
also collected in the rain as it falls to the ground. Rain reaches the earth's surface and, as
runoff, flows over and through the soil and rocks, dissolving and picking up other
substances. For instance, if the soil contains high amounts of soluble substances, such as
limestone, the runoff will have high concentrations of calcium carbonate. Where the water
flows over rocks high in metals, such as ore bodies, it will dissolve those metals.
Image adapted from Moriken, Camara & Jamil, Nor rohaizah & Abdullah, Ahmad. (2019). Impact of land uses
on water quality in Malaysia: a review. Ecological Processes. 8. 10.1186/s13717-019-0164-x.
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Industrial, farming, mining, and forestry activities also significantly affect the quality
of rivers, lakes, and groundwater. For example, farming can increase the concentration of
nutrients, pesticides, and suspended sediments. Industrial activities can increase
concentrations of metals and toxic chemicals, add suspended sediment, increase
temperature, and lower dissolved oxygen in the water. Each of these effects can have a
negative impact on the aquatic ecosystem and/or make water unsuitable for established or
potential uses.
Another factor influencing water quality is the runoff from urban areas. It will collect
debris littering the streets and take it to the receiving stream or water body. Urban runoff
worsens the water quality in rivers and lakes by increasing the concentrations of such
substances as nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen), sediments, animal wastes (fecal coliform
and pathogens), petroleum products, and road salts. Industrial, farming, mining, and
forestry activities also significantly affect the quality of rivers, lakes, and groundwater. For
example, farming can increase the concentration of nutrients, pesticides, and suspended
sediments. Industrial activities can increase concentrations of metals and toxic chemicals, add
suspended sediment, increase temperature, and lower dissolved oxygen in the water. Each
of these effects can have a negative impact on the aquatic ecosystem and/or make water
unsuitable for established or potential uses.
4.5 Sources of environmental contaminants
What are the sources of water pollution?
There are many causes for water pollution but two general categories exist: direct and
indirect contaminant sources.
Direct sources include effluent outfalls from factories, refineries, waste treatment
plants etc. that emit fluids of varying quality directly into urban water supplies. In the United
States and other countries, these practices are regulated, although this doesn't mean that
pollutants can't be found in these waters.
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Indirect sources include contaminants that enter the water supply from
soils/groundwater systems and from the atmosphere via rain water. Soils and groundwaters
contain the residue of human agricultural practices (fertilizers, pesticides, etc..) and
improperly disposed of industrial wastes. Atmospheric contaminants are also derived from
human practices (such as gaseous emissions from automobiles, factories and even bakeries).
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4.6 Video Lessons
Click and watch the following videos:
Philippines Environment Monitor: Water Quality
[Link]
Water Quality and Pollution - Am I Drinking Safe Water?
[Link]
Water Quality Indicators Notes
[Link]
Water Quality parameters
[Link]
Water Quality Testing Methods
[Link]
Should I Test My Water's TDS?
[Link]
Water Microbiology 1 | water testing and water analysis
[Link]
Drinking Water Bacteriological Sampling Procedure
[Link]
Introduction to Water - Diseases Related to Water
[Link]
Water Pollution
[Link]
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Student’s Task 04
Please answer the following:
1. What are the characteristics of a good drinking water? Explain
2. What is a physical test for water? What about chemical test? Explain
3. What is quality standard for drinking water? Explain
4. What is the difference between water borne and water washed disease ?
Write your answers in a bond paper and submit. If you have internet, submit a soft
copy online.
4.7 References
Hardness of Water - USGS. 2020/8/06. Retrieved from [Link] › special-
topic › water-science-school ›
Moriken, Camara & Jamil, Nor rohaizah & Abdullah, Ahmad. (2019). Impact of land uses
on water quality in Malaysia: a review. Ecological Processes. 8. 10.1186/s13717-019-
0164-x.
PHILIPPINE STANDARDS FOR DRINKING WATER. 2020/8/06 Retrieved from
[Link]
Updates on Water Environment Management in the Philippines by Vicente B. Tuddao, Jr.,
[Link] of Environment and Natural Resources and Erlinda Gonzales
Environmental Management Bureau 2020/8/06 Retrieved from [Link]
[Link]/
Updates on Water Environment Management in the Philippines 2020/8/06 Retrieved from
[Link]
WATER QUALITY MONITORING, STANDARDS AND TREATMENT 2020/8/06.
Retrieved from [Link]
Water sanitation hygiene. 2020/8/06 Retrieved from
[Link]
Water-Related Diseases. 2020/8/06 Retrieved from [Link]
[Link]/water/html/en/Treatment/[Link]
What are the key factors that influence water quality?2020/8/06 Retrieved from
[Link]
[Link]
4.8 Acknowledgment
The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.
C. M. D. Hamo-ay
