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Sedimentation in the Submarine Outfall and in the Mixing Zones (Avoiding,

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Journal of Shipping and
Ocean Engineering
Volume 1, Number 2, July 2011 (Serial Number 2)

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 Journal of Shipping and
Ocean Engineering
Volume 1, Number 2, July 2011 (Serial Number 2)

Contents
Port Plan and Management

77 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port Plan 2010 in Advanced
Stage of Elaboration

P. De Girolamo, A. Noli, C. Vanni, A. Del Corona and M. Tartaglini

101 An Expert System Based on Multi-reasoning Mechanism for Port Machine Diagnosis

Y. Ding and G.L. Lin

Physical and Environmental Oceanography

109 Dynamics of the Currents in the Strait of Khuran in the Persian Gulf

N.H. Zaker, P. Ghaffari, S. Jamshidi and M. Nourian

116 New Geophysical Evidences of Fluid Related Features in the Western Ionian Sea–Part II: Data
Interpretation

V. Volpi, D. Accettella, M. Giustiniani and U. Tinivella

124 Sedimentation in the Submarine Outfall and in the Mixing Zones (Avoiding, Diagnosis and
Remediation)

S. Chiban, A. Terfous, A. Ghenaim, H. Salman, A. Awad, J.B. Poulet and M. Sabat

Maritime Trade and Logistics

133 Barter Trade Exchange to the Rescue of the Tourism and Travel Industry

E. Eckhaus
Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering 1 (2011) 77-100

The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy)

and Its New Port Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of
Elaboration

P. De Girolamo1, A. Noli2, C. Vanni3, A. Del Corona3 and M. Tartaglini2

1. Faculty of Engineering DISAT-LIAM, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila 67100, Italy
2. Modimar S.r.l., Roma 00195, Italy
3. Livorno Port Authority, Livorno 57123, Italy

Received: March 24, 2011 / Accepted: May 21, 2011 / Published: July 31, 2011.

Abstract: The geographical location makes the port of Livorno one of the most important in Italy. The port, in fact, benefits of an
extended network of roads and rails connecting it with the rest of Italy, and central and southern Europe as well. The history of Livorno
and its port is inextricably linked to that of Pisa and Florence, and to the complexity of events that determined the political set-up of the
region along several centuries. Looking at the new port plan of Livorno has made it necessary an extensive overview of the history of
both the port, and of its planning. This analysis has allowed: to understand the reason for the different choices made in the past for the
development of the port, highlighting, when necessary, the errors made; to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the existing port
infrastructure; to identify the works needed to boost the port in the European context. The purpose of this paper is to provide a summary
of the analysis performed for the implementation of the new Livorno port plan 2010 and show how the port planning in Italy is often
conditioned by hundreds of centuries of history.

Key words: History, port of Livorno, new port plan.

1. Introduction which deeply modify territory and life habits.

The work described below is part of the issue of port
The paper deals with the new configuration of the
planning and is related to the theme of the rehabilitation
port of Livorno, one of the most important Italian ports,
of the waterfront of the ancient port towns.
whose plan is at a standstill since 1956, i.e. since the
container-ship traffic had not begun yet. 2. Geographical Context
As a result, the port has been marginalized respect to
The port of Livorno is the most important port in
the maritime-traffic flow developed in the
Tuscany and one of the most important in Italy, as it
Mediterranean Sea in order to respond to the growth of
has a strategic geographical location and a good inland
the BRIC nations and the consequent increase of trade
transportation infrastructure (see Fig. 1).
with the Far East.
In 2008 the port of Livorno has passed the milestone
The paper highlights the difficulties of intervening on
of 34 million tons handled in total. In 2009, in
the Italian reality, where, even small towns, jealously
connection with the serious global recession, the port
guard the vestiges of the past and are reluctant to accept
recorded a decline of 21.3% of traffic. Nevertheless
interventions for the infrastructure modernization,
with respect to the other Italian ports in 2009 Livorno
Corresponding author: P. De Girolamo, professor, research has maintained a balanced distribution of traffic: 35.9%
fields: port planning, wave hydrodynamics, tsunamis. E-mail:
[email protected]. of ro-ro and ro pax, 27.9% of liquid bulk, 27.9% of
78 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 1 Geographical context.

containers, 7.9% of packaged goods and 2.5% of dry a long and complex history [1-4]. The origins of the port
bulk. The traffic of cruise ships, favoured by the are inextricably linked to the history of Pisa and its port
proximity of many cities of art, is steadily increasing in and to the complexity of events that determined the
recent years. political set-up of the region along several centuries.
The port lies at the southern end of an arched sandy Although the original settlement of Pisa was likely to
beach about 60 km long (see Fig. 2). This arched beach be Etruscan, the information on its ancient port is
constitutes a physiographic unit bordered to the north uncertain and fragmentary. At the beginning of
by the mouth of the river Magra, and to the south by a commercial navigation, a large lagoon named “Sinus
rocky headland of moderate height. This slightly Pisanus” was known to be located south of the mouth
protruding headland represents the extreme offshoot of of the river Arno (see Fig. 3). The lagoon was protected
the Monti Livornesi (Livorno Mountains). The most by a barrier-beach, and was characterized by a complex
important rivers flowing within this physiographic unit hydrography. In particular, the lagoon was dotted with
are Magra, Serchio and Arno. Their annual average small islands, channels and low marshes. A secondary
flow is about 40, 46 and 110 m3/s respectively. It is to branch of the Arno river–the so-called
be noticed that the mouth of the river Arno is located Arnaccio–flowed into the lagoon.
just 10 km away from Pisa, and approximately 13 km The safest access to the lagoon was located at the
to the north of the port of Livorno (see Fig. 2). southern end of the “Sinus Pisanus”, in coincidence
with the southern boundary of the physiographic unit.
3. History of Livorno Port from Its Origins to
The entrance was located at a place called “Turrita” or
the Unity of Italy
“Triturrita” (sometimes the names Liburnus, Labrone,
Like most of the Italian ports, the port of Livorno has Herculem Labronem are used) and was controlled by a
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 79
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 2 Physiographic unit delimitation.

system of fortifications, probably comprising three flow of maximum flooding of the Arno. The new
towers. Ships (often including military vessels) could course of the Serchio (called “Auserculus”, from which
sail along the lagoon in order to reach Pisa, and other the name “Serchio” comes) surrounded to the north the
locations. It was also possible to reach the city by city of Lucca and ended its run to the sea with a mouth
sailing the Arno river. The mouth of the river was separated from that of the Arno. The diversion of the
characterized by low flows which were much higher final stretch of the Serchio river, which persists until
than current ones. Indeed–at that time–the river Auser today, has reduced the navigability of the final stretch
(now called Serchio) flowed into the Arno near the of the Arno (Fig. 2).
modern town named Bientina, increasing the flow of The most ancient port of Pisa, named “Portus
the Arno (Fig. 3). Pisarum”, was located close to the town in a sheltered
At present, the mouths of Arno and Serchio are bend of the Arno river (Figs. 2 and 3). It was a river
separated (Fig. 2). The maximum flow of the two rivers port, as it was at that time the port of Ostia, the ancient
is almost equal (in the order of 3,000 m3/s), while the port of Rome. This has been shown by both the ship
low flow of the two rivers is about 3 m3/s and 11 m3/s wrecks and the maritime-facility remains recently
respectively. The mouth of Serchio was diverted by discovered (1998) in the pine forest of San Rossore,
Bishop S. Frediano in 600 A.D., probably to reduce the close to Piazza dei Miracoli in Pisa. The wreak
80 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 3 Coastline planimetrical shape in the north of Livorno in different historical periods.

conditions suggest that a calamitous event (probably a Latin “gradus”, which means “call”) (Figs. 3 and 4).
joint flood of the Arno and Serchio rivers) suddenly At present, the city of Grado is famous for the
occurred destroying the port and sinking the ships. It is presence of the Basilica of St. Peter, remarkable
to be noticed that due to the flooding of the river, the monument built between the X and the XII century.
wandering of the mouth, and the siltation of the coastal The Basilica stands over the ruins of a previous early
lagoon, the citizens of Pisa considered “Portus Christian building, erected in honor of St. Peter who
Pisarum” unsafe even before this calamitous event. landed in Grado in 42 A.D., coming from Antiochia.
Infact, a second port–located 7 km from Pisa, closer to The port of Grado was probably the main dock until the
the mouth of the river Arno–was already used at that I century and maintained a certain importance until to
time. This second port was located at Grado (from the III-IV century, when it was in turn abandoned in
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 81
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 4 The port of Magnale at the time of splendour of Maritime Republic of Pisa.

favor of the port of Triturrita, later called “Portus sandy coastline.

Pisanus” which means port of the inhabitants of Pisa. “Portus Pisanus” was modified over the centuries in
The name “Portus Pisanus” was used to distinguish it order to solve the problem of the lagoon siltation. In the
from the previous “Portus Pisarum”. “Portus Pisanus” age of greatest splendor of Pisa–between 1100 and
was located in the southern edge of the Sinus Pisanus at 1300–the port was located at the western and outer part
a creek sheltered from offshore-coming waves by the of the creek (see Fig. 4), and was called “Porto del
Secche di Meloria (Meloria banks, see Fig. 2). The Magnale” (port of Magnale). Several channels
banks helped to make the entrance of the creek more (Arnaccio, Fosso Reale, Fosso Torretta, Fosso Tora)
safe and less prone to silting respect to the rest of the flowed in the creek, draining water from the Arno and
82 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Ugione floodplains. It is to be noticed that the river whose power had in reality vanished, tried to reactivate
Ugione came from the nearby hills of Livorno. The the efficiency of the port, but the Genoese and the
“Porto del Magnale” was built in some decades on the Florentines destroyed permanently the port together with
basis of an actual plan developed. Although unknown, its towers in 1290. Obstinately, the citizens of Pisa
the plan designer is likely to be one of the brilliant proceeded to reconstruct and repair at least some of the
architects who worked in Pisa at the time (e.g. port’s towers and building, and to dredge the harbor.
Diotisalvi, Bonanno, Gherardo di Gherardo, Rainaldo). Finally, the port was moved for sake of safety close to the
The port was characterized by major defenses and small village of Livorno.
equipment. A tower called “Meloria” was built The town of Livorno stood immediately south of the
offshore the port in order to indicate the homonymous “Porto del Magnale”. The toponym Livorno appears
banks. Further five towers were built close to the for the first time in a document dated 1017. Livorno is
entrance to the port. These towers were called derived from the Latin “Liburnus” which some author
Fraschetta, Rubra or Rossa, Magnan or Magnana, del bring back up to a name of Etruscan origin, others to
Fornice or dell’Ingresso and Palazzo. It seems that the the fast warship named “Liburna”, others to the name
towers’ location was chosen in order to answer to both of the Illyrian population “Liburni”. In ancient sources,
functional (or logistics), and symbolic requirements. in addition to “Liburnus”, the name “Labrone” appears.
This symbolic requirements are assumed to be linked to This last name is for sure of Latin origin, as it comes
navigation, to time and to the celestial sphere. By way from “labrum maris” indicating “the position that
of example, some author claims that the chosen touches the sea”. It is to be noticed that in modern
location of the towers was intended to draw the Italian both adjectives “livornese” and “labronico” are
constellation of Cassiopeia. used to indicate somebody or something “belonging to
The goods were transported from the port of the town of Livorno”. The English translation of
Magnale to Pisa mainly by sailing along the coast and “Livorno” is “Leghorn”. Note that Livorno is one of the
the Arno river. Although possible, such a method of few Italian towns which has a direct translation in
transport was rather difficult. A navigable canal was English of its name.
designed and excavated (1160) in order to by-pass Pisans encircled the small town with a square plant
these difficulties. The canal went from the Arno’s fortification (named “Quadratura dei Pisani” or “Rocca
lagoon (between Vettola and St. Pietro a Grado) to the Nuova”) that was the oldest part of the future “Fortezza
“Laguna di Stagno” (Pond’s lagoon), located just to the Vecchia” (Old Fortress) (Fig. 5). Moreover, a majestic
north of the port of Magnale. The new waterway, lighthouse, called “Fanale dei Pisani” (Light of Pisans),
indicated in Fig. 4 with “first course of Navicelli was built in 1303 (Fig. 5). The lighthouse was very
Canal”, was characterized by a tortuous path, and did famous also at that time (it is mentioned from Dante and
not have the success expected, because of the damages Petrarca) and survived until the end of World War II.
caused by natural events and by human actions. The Genoese Pierino Grimaldi, on behalf of the
“Portus Pisanus” was repeatedly attacked by Genoa republic of Florence enemy of Pisa, devastated again
and its allied during the second half of the XIII century. In “Portus Pisanus” in 1362.
particular, it was partially destroyed in 1268 by Carlo In the turbulent period that preceded the fifteenth
D’Angiò, allied of Genoa. A great naval battle was fought century, Livorno fell in 1399 under the sovereignty of
between the fleets of Genoa and Pisa at the “Secche della Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan. The Duke of
Meloria” (“Meloria Banks”) in 1284 (Fig. 2). The battle Milan gave Livorno to Genoa in 1408.
ended with the defeat of the fleet of Pisa. Later on Pisa, In 1421 Livorno was sold to the republic of Florence,
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 83
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 5 The city of Livorno and the port in the Medicean era.

who had absolute need of an access to the sea, for came to an end in 1735 due to lack of direct heirs, the
100,000 gold florins. One of the first intervention of Lorraine succeed to the grand duchy with the first
the Florentines consisted in starting the reconstruction grand duke Francis III Stephen.
work of the tower named “Torre Rossa” on the basis of The merit of the development of the city of Livorno
the project attributed by some to Lorenzo Ghiberti. and of its port is unanimously acknowledged to the
Later the tower was called the “Torre Nuova” or “del Medici, who used Livorno as the access to the sea of
Marzocco”, but it was finished only by Grand Duke the grand duchy.
Cosimo III, in 1704 (Fig. 4). The “Fortezza Vecchia” (Old Fortress) was
In 1434, the triumphant return to Florence of Cosimo completed in 1534, respecting summarily the plan of
il Vecchio (Cosimo the Elder), exiled the year before in Antonio da Sangallo, commissioned by Cardinal
Venice, in practice marked the beginning of the Medici Giulio de' Medici (Fig. 5). The fortress served to
power in Florence and in the annexed territories (the control the town and the harbor. The waterway
so-called “criptosignoria” of the Medici). However, connecting Pisa to Livorno, long 22 km and named
after repeated attempts to restore the Republic, only in Canale dei Navicelli (Navicelli Canal), was
1531 Alessandro de' Medici, with the decisive help of successfully completed in 1573. As mentioned before,
the troops of Charles V, in agreement with Pope a first attempt, unsuccessfully, to dig this canal was
Clement VII (of the Medici family), took possession of done in 1160. The final course of the “Navicelli Canal”,
Florence and its territories with the title of Grand Duke which is still working today, has a straight path, while
of Tuscany, title that was transmitted by hereditary the previous one was tortuous (see Fig. 4).
right. Therefore Livorno became part of the Grand On 28 March 1577, the construction of the town was
Duchy of Tuscany under the Medici. After the Medici, started according to the plan commissioned by Francesco
84 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

I de 'Medici to the famous architect and urban planner B. first, named “Molo Cosimo”, oriented for south-east
Buontalenti. At that time famous Italian artists debated towards the Fanale dei Pisani (Light of Pisans); the
on the “forma urbis”, which in Latin means “shape of the second oriented towards north-north-west and named
ideal town”. In the design by Buontempi, the map of the “Molo del Forte”. The Fortress called “del Granatiere”
town was pentagonal and the “Old Fortress” was located or “del Molo” (“Forte del Molo”) was located in the
at one of the vertex (see Fig. 5). extremity of the second arm (Fig. 5). The basin was not
Ferdinand I, brother of Francis, became grand duke very deep and it was subjected to siltation. Vessels with
in 1587, and proclaimed Livorno “free port”. He also greater draught were forced to anchor in the bay, near
promulgated the Leggi Livornine (Laws of Livorno) to the tower named “della Vegliaia”.
provide privileges and concessions for those who lived During the successors of Cosimo II and later during
in Livorno. These laws became the engine of the Grand Dukes of Lorraine, the port structure
demographic and economic development of Livorno. remained essentially unchanged until the middle of the
The laws guaranteed for freedom of worship and of XIX century. Hence, in conjunction with the city’s
religious profession and politics. They also allowed urban growth, the birth of the first industrial activity
access to and presence in the town to anyone who was and the opening of the railway between Florence and
found guilty of crimes, except some, as murder and Livorno called “Leopolda”, it were begun the works to
counterfeiting. Livorno became a cosmopolitan, expand the port towards north.
multiracial and multi-religious town and in 1606, with The construction of the Diga Curvilinea (Curvilinear
a solemn ceremony, was officially elevated to the rank Breakwater), located in front of the harbor built by the
of “city”. The population was in that year of about Medici family (named “Porto Mediceo”), was started
10,000 inhabitants. The grand duke Ferdinando I in 1858 (see Fig. 6).
supported the realization of the Darsena Vecchia (Old The breakwater was designed by the French Victor
Dock) which was a small basin with the entrance facing Poirel who had previously worked at the port of Algiers.
south-west (Fig. 5). In the dock came some canals Poirel was also the author of the first port plan (meant
which penetrated inside the city and were used by in the modern sense of the word) after those developed
vessels for commercial activities. The Darsena Vecchia by A. Cialdi in the 1853 and in the same years for
was defended from the action of the sea by a “amusement”, by A. Manetti. At the same time it was
breakwater called Andana degli Anelli (Andana of the begun also the construction of the Diga Rettilinea
Rings) or “Arm of Ferdinand” (“Braccio di (straight breakwater). The breakwater (see Fig. 6) was
Ferdinando”) (see Fig. 5). In Italian the term “ormeggio not connected to the land and was built to protect the
in andana” had at that time the meaning of vessels (Medicean port) from waves coming from north.
moored in some rows, parallel to a quay. In Livorno The Diga Curvilinea represented an innovative work
there was the custom to moor the ships parallel to the and became the emblem of the port of Livorno. It is still
quays in a predetermined order, which depended on the working today and requires limited maintenance works.
type of ship. The loading of the ships was done by It is interesting to note that it is a rubble mound
means of small boats, called “i Navicelli”, which were breakwater and that it was realized with
subjected to strict controls by the Authority. parallelepipedal blocks of constant shape. These blocks
In the early seventeenth century, during the reign of were not built by using concrete, as it was done later for
Cosimo II, a large basin open toward north was built on others breakwaters (e.g. for the Casablanca
the west side of the “Andana” (see Fig. 5). The basin breakwater), but they were obtained by cutting rock
was sheltered by a breakwater made by two arms: the formations with suitable equipment.
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 85
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 6 Project of the Diga Curvilinea (curvilinear breakwater) and of the Diga Rettilinea (straight breakwater) of the Poirel
(1851).

The works designed by Poirel were almost entirely The Andana degli Anelli and the Diga Rettilinea, which
built before the Unit of Italy, which was proclaimed in was connected to the land, were widen (see Fig. 7). A
1861 with temporary capital Turin until 1865, Florence new quay was built close to the Fortezza Vecchia
until 1871 and then in definitive form in Rome. The obtaining the new dock named Darsena del Mandraccio
Diga Rettilinea was completed in 1866 by the new (Mandraccio Dock); the dock was directly connected
State. with the Canale dei Navicelli (Navicelli canal).
The construction of the new breakwater named
4. The Livorno Port between 1861 and the
“Vegliaia” (Diga della Vegliaia) was approved in 1881
Present Days
(see Fig. 8). The breakwater was built between 1880
Initially, the unification of Italy represented a and 1900 with the aim of sheltering from southern
negative factor for the port of Livorno [5]. In fact, the coming waves the outer port, created by the Diga
free port was abolished since 1868. Consequently, Curviliea. As the Diga Rettilinea, the Diga della
trade and industrial activities (primarily small Vegliaia was not connected to the land due to the
manufacturing activities) that derived benefit from the prevalent opinion at that time, that this would have
free port, underwent a drastic reduction. Even the new preserved unchanged the longshore sediment transport.
railway line Pisa-Rome didn’t pass through Livorno. The shipbuilding industry grew significantly since
The Italian government was asked to expand the port 1886 under the impulse of the Orlando family. The
in order to compensate for the loss of the ancient family purchased an area that until 1852 was occupied
privileges. In the period before the end of the XIX by the structures of Lazzaretto S. Rocco (Lazaretto S.
century, the works to expand the port proceeded slowly. Rocco), founded in 1590 by Ferdinand I de 'Medici.
86 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 7 The port of Livorno in 1905.

Fig. 8 1908 port plan (Eng. L. Cozza).

With the construction of the Arsenal in a part of the east connected to the Porto Mediceo (Medicean Port) in
side of Lazaretto, the Fosso Reale (Real Ditch), name order to allow the transit of ships to shipyards. A new
given to the long ditch that ran along the outside of the slipway and a new dry dock, on the north side of the
walls, was enlarged, eliminating a substantial portion Darsena Nuova, were built between 1861 and 1867.
of the rampart which had lost its original defensive role, Furthermore, a new rail link between the Diga
to build a Dock called St. Rocco and later Darsena Rettilinea and Stazione S. Marco (S. Marco Station)
Nuova (New Dock). The Darsena Nuova was was built (Fig. 7).
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 87
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Only in the first decade of 1900 the initiative of some years later it was proposed the realization of an
expanding the port of Livorno took place. Indeed, in inland port in Venice-Marghera, where extensive flat
1908 the Livorno port plan, developed by Eng. L. areas near the sea was available, in the likeness of the
Cozza belonging to the Civil Engineers Office of the hinterland of Pisa and Livorno.
State, was approved. The Livorno Port Plan was part of The Coen Cagli plan didn’t jeopardize the
a renovation plan of all the Italian ports assigned to a development of the port in the sea (outside of the
Parliamentary Committee established in 1906. coastline) to be achieved through the extension of the
The Cozza Plan (see Fig. 8) proposed the Meloria breakwater and the realization on the back of
construction of two new breakwaters. The first, named this of a series of protruding wharfs slightly oblique (as
Diga della Meloria (Meloria breakwater), was the in Genoa) and rooted to a large embankment (Fig. 9).
straight continuation towards north of the Diga The plan was clearly projected into the future, even
Curvilinea (curvilinear breakwater). The second, if proposed only the immediate implementation of a
named Diga del Marzocco (Marzocco breakwater), long stretch of the Canale Industriale (industrial canal)
was connected with the Marzocco Tower and run, and of Darsena n. 1 (Dock No. 1) named Darsena
parallel to the Poirel Straight Breakwater, towards Inghirami (Inghirami dock).
south-ovest. In this way a second harbor entrance, wide The plan was approved in 1923 and its realization
300 m, and a wide basin, named Bacino S. Stefano started in the following years. It was favorite also by
(Santo Stefano Basin), were created. Also, the some laws which provided incentives to Industrial
construction of a large embankment, made with plant built close to wharfs. The works which were
dredged material and to be used for industrial activities, completed before the Second World War were the
was included in the plan. canal for the access to the industrial area and the
The works for the construction of the new harbor Darsena Inghirami.
started in 1910, concomitantly with the inauguration of During the second world war the harbor was
the new railway station of the line Pisa-Livorno-Roma subjected to very large damages [6]. Besides
which followed a course along the coast instead of the equipments, ships and quays destroyed by air raids and
previous inland course. by the German sappers, during the retreat of the
After a period of inactivity due to the first World German troops many historical buildings, as the
War, in 1922 the Italian Manufactures and Maritime “Health Palace” (Palazzo della Sanità) located close to
Contracts Union, named SICAM, proposed a variant of the old fortress, the “Magnale Tower” and the
the port plan. The variant was developed by Prof. Eng. monumental “Light of Pisans”, were destroyed.
Coen Cagli, famous expert of maritime constructions Immediately after the war the harbor reconstruction
who was involved in the Genova port plan and in the began. It was particularly complex. A review of the
constructions of many works of the same port. The port plan was necessary. It was carried out in 1949 by
Coen Cagli plan (see Fig. 9) included the enlargement the Civil Engineers Office for maritime works of the
of the port to the north of the town inside the coastline, state managed by Eng. A. Migliardi and was approved
through a series of canals and docks where industrial by the Ministry of Public Works in 1953 (Fig. 10).
plants were to be made close to the quays. Coen Cagli The plan included different phases of
was inspired by the greats ports of the north Europe implementation. First it was necessary to reconstruct
falling into the category of inland ports, whose the quays and their equipments, to deepen some basins
construction costs were much lower than those of the and to carry out a rational distinction of the quay
ports entirely conquered the sea. Following this idea functions. Then the works aimed at improving the
88 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 9 1923 port plan (Eng. L. Coen Cagli).

Fig. 10 1953 port plan.

harbor functionality had to be performed. Wharf), the extension and enlargement of the Molo
The works for the harbor improving concerned the Elba, the enlargement of the entrance); the construction
railway and road connections to the harbor which had of a new dock for tankers (Darsena Petroli); the
to divert commercial traffic from downtown. construction of a new quay, enlarging the Diga
Furthermore, they concerned: the maintenance and Rettiliena in the nort side, long 750 m and deep 12.0 m,
completion works of the Diga della Meloria (Meloria lean against to the straight breakwater; the construction
breakwater); some works to rationalize the Medicean of a new jetty named “S. Stefano” and later Molo Italia
port (some quays between the Molo Elba and the (Italy Warf) long 800 m and wide 150 m; the
Darsena Nuova, the Molo Capitaneria (Capitaneria construction of a new dry dock (Bacino di Carenaggio)
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 89
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

close to the Fanale dei Pisani. 100.000 DWT (deadweight tonnage) to be placed close
Some of these works, as best shown below, were to that included by the 1953 port plan; c) the location of
made much later, sometimes with smaller dimensions, a marina in the Darsena Morosini (Morosini ock); d) the
as for example the Molo Italia. Other works planned, as widening of the entrance to the Porto Mediceo.
for example the extension towards East of the Diga The Vian Project was sharply criticized for the
della Vegliaia and the enlargement of the entrance of orientation of the docks, almost perpendiculars to the
the Porto Mediceo, were never carried out. local prevailing winds coming from southwest. This
In the following years numerous variants to the 1953 aspect was always considered very carefully by all the
port plan was prepared and approved. With the first projects presented over the years. The committee,
variant, approved in 1955, it was decided: to insert a chaired by Vian, tried to get around this problem by
draw-bridge between the Andana degli Anelli and the changing the orientation of the docks in order to form
Molo Sgarallino (Sgarallino Wharf) close to the an angle of 56° with the direction of south-west, angle
Fortezza Vecchia; to shorten of 110 m the Molo Italia considered acceptable for navigational purposes, and
in order to improve the maneuvering of the ships; to appropriately staggering the heads of the wharfs. The
place the tanker dock (Darsena Petrolifera) 130 m far Vian project was never approved.
from the Molo Italia. Were also introduced some minor In the following years (between 1968 and 1975), the
changes. most important work that took place in the port of
The development of the port traffic between the 1960s Livorno was the construction of a large dry dock long
and 1970s was impetuous, generating an increased 350 m and wide 360 m, capable of receiving ships up to
demand for quays and large earthworks. Evidence of the 290.000 DWT. This dry dock was included in the 1953
needs that arose is the 1960 variant to the port plan port plan, although of smaller dimensions.
which planned to increase both the depth of the Darsena The dry dock was realized at the initiative of a
Pisa (Pisa dock), from -4.0 m to -12.0 m, allowing the consortium formed in Livorno between the
exploitation of a wide area located behind the dock, and municipality, the province, the Chamber of Commerce
the depth of the access canal to the industrial harbor for and the banks “Cassa di Risparmio di Livorno”,
its connection to the new turning basin. “Monte dei Paschi di Siena” and “Banco di Napoli”.
In 1965 the Chamber of Commerce of Livorno The aim of the consortium was to revitalize the local
promoted the studies for a new Port Plan which were shipbuilding activity which was drastically reduced in
commissioned to a committee chaired by Eng. P. Vian, favour of other Italian and foreign shipyards. The
famous in the maritime field. The Vian proposal (Fig. 11) chosen location was undoubtedly bad, being placed
was an update of the Coen Cagli plan. Vian devised the close to the town, but reflected a tradition rooted in
construction of four large docks: three for commercial Italy to bring the job close to the workers.
ships wide 200 m and with a depth of -12.0 m, excavated In fact, today many ports in Italy where the
inshore and connected with the industrial canal which shipbuilding industry languishes, have the problem of
was to be widened; one external dock for tankers reuse of facilities that occupy areas that are particularly
(Darsena Petroli), which had to be protected to the west attractive. Just think to the incongruous present
by an extension of 800 m of the Diga della Meloria location of several dry-docks in Genoa, located
(Meloria breakwater) and to the north by an offshore between the historical port and an exhibition area of
breakwater. Furthermore, Vian proposed: a) the great importance, or of the shipyards in Ancona placed
dredging at -16.0 m of the port entrance channel; b) the in the most emblematic area of the port, in close contact
construction of a second large dry-dock for ships up to with famous Roman monuments.
90 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 11 Final proposal of the committee chaired by Eng. P. Vian (1965).

At the same time, the ship traffics continued to urgently approved. The variant (Fig. 13) included the
increase, passing from 3,000,000 t to 10,000,000 t per realization of the Darsena Toscana strongly requested
year between 1953 and 1970, with an interesting by port operators. The dock was located along the last
presence of containers, whose traffic was developing part of the Canale dei Navicelli (Navicelli canal) in the
all over the world. In the meanwhile, the institutions stretch between “Marzocco Tower” and the confluence
were dedicated only to the mere maintenance of the in the Canale Scolmatore d’Arno (spillway canal of the
status quo. Such an immobility and lack of initiative Arno) which was built between 1953 and 1971 in order
caused the protest of the port operators. Therefore, in to defense Pisa from river flooding (Fig. 2). The
1971 a new port plan was again prepared by the Civil spillway canal followed the path of the ancient branch
Engineers Office for maritime works of the state, of the Arno, called “Arnaccio”. The dock width should
directed by Eng. G. Semiani. This plan somehow took be 200 m and the depth -13.0 m. Besides, in order to
account of the debate arouse by the presentation of the eliminate the entry of sediments from the Spillway of
Vian Plan. The new plan (see Fig. 12) proposed, as a the Arno, it was planned the construction of
novelty compared to the previous, the construction of interception works of the Canale dei Navicelli
two docks both of them located to the north of the Diga upstream of the new dock, by using the system of
del Marzocco. These docks, with a water depth of -13.0 “vincian gates”. The new embankments had a surface
m, were called Darsena Toscana (Tuscany dock) and of 5,000,000 m2 and were provided with new road and
Darsena Europa (Europe dock). Furthermore, the plan rail connections.
proposed a Porto Petroli (Petroleum port), with a water The construction of the new dock and of the quays
depth of -15.0 m, located near the Diga della Meloria on both sides began in 1976 and has not yet been fully
which had to be prolonged. completed, reflecting the slowness with which many
In 1973, while the new port plan was still in a phase important works are realized in Italy. A partial
of laborious approval, a variant of the in force plan was justification in this case is provided by the difficulties
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 91
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 12 Port plan proposed in 1971.

Fig. 13 Variant of the 1953 port plan proposed in 1973.

encountered to solve the problems of letting in the there is what they wanted to avoid using the gates: the
Navicelli canal. These problems involving several filing of Tuscany dock with all the sediment
administrations and without their resolution, the road transported by the Calabrone, with maintenance costs
and rail links could not be assured. Note that the not negligible.
“Vincian gates” have never worked, also because the The 1971 plan was never approved in its entirety,
Calabrone mouth, which is the mouth of the Arno thus losing another opportunity to modernize the port
spillway canal, was perpetually obstructed by a sand and enable it to meet the challenges posed constantly
bar and with the gates closed, there would has been an by competing ports.
unacceptable rise in water levels in the canal. Finally, The works realized in the following years, apart
92 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

from the Darsena Toscana, therefore fell between those the ports of Gioia Tauro and Cagliari, which, once
provided by the old 1953 port plan, partially modified implemented, were successful in the containers
through the use of simplified procedures described transhipment. During those years, following the
below. success of Gioia Tauro, it was built the port of Genoa
Before the bloodless political and judicial revolution Voltri with the contribution of private capital. The port
occurred in Italy around the 1990s which is generally was planned and realized by the “Consorzio Autonomo
called as the passage from the “first” to the “second” del Porto di Genova” (“Autonomous Consortium for
republic, a last attempt was made to change the situation. the port of Genoa”), ably supported by Dutch experts.
In 1980, a “District Committee” (composed by the The time therefore seemed ready for the solution of
municipalities of Livorno, Pisa and Collesalvetti, and the problems of Livorno.
the Provinces and Chambers of Commerce of Livorno Following an extensive study on freight traffic and on
and Pisa), preferred to disengage from Ufficio del deficiencies of the existing port, the Bonifica Company
Genio Civile per le Opere Marittime (Civil Engineers said first that any expansion of the port within the
Office for maritime works of the state) and entrusted to shoreline had to be excluded, due to numerous
the Bonifica Company, of the Group Iri-Italstat (with constraints that had arisen since the Coen Cagli Project.
semi-public features), the drafting of the new port plan. Therefore Bonifica proposed to extend the port towards
The situation seemed favorable also because Bonifica the sea in the west side of the Tuscany dock.
had an unquestionable expertise and good political The final solution (Fig. 14) presented to the “District
supports. Committee”, after a long series of meetings and
It should be noted here that traditionally port plans discussions, included:
were carried out by the Civil Engineers Office for x The protection of the new works by an offshore
maritime works responsible for area and belonging to breakwater rooted immediately in the north of the
the state. Before World War II these offices enjoyed a Calabrone mouth, with a first stretch parallel to the
large and well-deserved prestige. After the war these Marzocco breakwater and gradually connected with a
offices for a number of reasons, such as lack of second stretch almost parallel to the coast-line;
personnel with specific training, the disaffection of the x The creation of a large dock with the axis
most talented graduates for a work paid little and no oriented along the northeast-southwest direction; the
more prestigious, reduced stay in the seat of the holders creation of a series of quays with an overall length of
thereof, had no culture and ability to manage a complex 5,000 m and with the same orientation of the dock; the
and multidisciplinary design as port planning. creation of large embankments behind the quays, with
Attempts to replace the Civil Engineers Office with a total area of 1,200,000 m2;
structured design teams didn’t start with the port of x The creation of a canal 400 m wide, located
Livorno but always met resistance and difficulties. between the new offshore breakwater and the new
Only the “Cassa per il Mezzogiorno” (Found for South) embankments, to eliminate the entrance of the Canale
began to erode the absolute power of the local Civil dei Navicelli in the Darsena Toscana, ensuring a
Engineers Offices. The “Found for South” was a public protected mouth to the Calabrone.
authority with financial and decision-making The port plan developed by Bonifica Company, that if
autonomy, which was created in the mid-1950s in order implemented would certainly have contributed to rapid
to solve in a unified approach the problems of southern growth of the port, was blocked due to opposition
Italy. Not by chance were devised by the “Fund” expressed by two public authorities: the Civil Engineers
interesting works with features of modernity such as Office and the Capitaneria di Porto (harbour office).
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 93
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 14 Port plan proposed by Bonifica (1980).

The justifications exposed, although stated as political foresight (no shortage of opportunities for
techniques, probably arose from the fear of losing those who manage the public affairs to avoid or modify
power and competencies. the judgments themselves) and more or less obvious
Suffice it to say that the harbour office, whose contrasts between the port operators.
specific expertise in the field of transport was at least However, it was paradoxical that after about one
questionable, raised the objection that it was necessary hundred years the discussion was always on the same
to follow the general transport plan, drawn up in those topics: that is the realization of the internal or the
years by the Italian government, which advocated a external port and the orientation of the docks respect to
fairly general integrated development of transport the dominant wind directions. The Administrations
modes by land, sea, air and waterway. This was were not aware that any decision, in compliance with
possible, according to the harbour office, only by modern standards for the size of channels and docks,
developing the port fully inside the coastline, in the have anyway contributed to a strong revival of the port.
nearby territory of Pisa. The two options on the type of port were both valid.
In itself the idea of such a development was Furthermore any loss of operational time due to a
acceptable, but at that time many environmental groups suboptimal orientation of the docks, would not have
were opposed to it. There was also the lack of the accord affected appreciably on the functioning of the structure
with the Pisa municipality. Both factors were kept well as a whole, as demonstrated by the acceptable
in mind by engineers of the Bonifica Company. operational time of the Tuscany dock.
In retrospect one can say that the opinions expressed In 1994, shortly after the rejection of the “Bonifica
by the civil engineering and the harbour office helped port plan”, it was enacted in Italy a new law on ports.
to give the “coupe de grace” to the initiative. You can This law was sought by some politicians who were
also say that the “sinking” of the port plan proposed by finally convinced of the damage caused by many aspects
the Bonifica Company was also the result of lack of of port legislation then in force, dating back to 1885. The
94 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

new law also set up the port authority in the most ensure the crowding of this material by suitable devices,
important Italian ports. The port authority is a body such as drains, mixing with cement or similar.
composed of various public and private stakeholders, In 2006 the port authority, died out the possibility of
which, among other things, is responsible for preparing circumventing the regulations in force, issued a call for
the new port plan in agreement with the municipality, or the award of the project for the new port plan. The call
municipalities, where the port is located. was awarded to a consortium of engineering companies,
The Livorno port authority were still struggling with coordinated by Prof. Eng. Alberto Noli and formed by
the outdated port plan and urgent problems to solve. Modimar (group leader), Technital, Acquatecno and
Even after the enactment of new law on ports, the port Sciro.
authority made use for several years of the Italian Despite the efforts to complete the work, it has often
technical-administrative tool named “adeguamento been interrupted in order to seek a prior agreement
tecnico-funzionale” (“technical and functional between the various institutions concerned, primarily
adjustment”) in order to carry out some works. This tool the region, the province and the municipality [7].
was conceived by the Consiglio Superiore dei Lavori Even today, the new port plan in its final version has
Pubblici (Italian Superior Council of Public Works) in not been examined by the Ministries of Infrastructure
order to simplify the implementation of works that and Environment, although all suggest that the “worst”
show slight differences with the in force port plan. In is over as there is at least an agreement with the
this way some works were realized in the port of institutions above mentioned. The following chapter
Livorno, including: the Molo Italia; the Molo discusses the results of the obtained compromise.
Capitaneria; the extension of the Molo Elba. This works
5. The 2010 Port Plan
were included in the 1953 port plan (see Fig. 15).
Furthermore presented an important project, not Prior to the drafting of the new port plan, the design
included in the in force port plan, for the realization of team performed a series of preparatory studies, aimed
a “fill storage” (vasca di colmata), in the west side of at identifying: the updated oceanographic parameters;
the Darsena Toscana. It was devoted to contain the the main defects of the existing port; forecasts of future
dredging material coming from some excavations to be traffic and possible fields to expand the port.
carry out in the port. The intention of the port authority The studies has clearly shown that the most
was to use in the future the “fill storage”, once filled, as interesting applications of port operators, both those
embankment to enlarge the port in the sea and towards already in port and those who have expressed their
north. The port authority in fact had not given up to intention to use it in future, concerns the container
realize the so-called Darsena Europa envisaged by the traffic which is currently blocked at the levels of 1980
plan developed by the Bonifica Company and which in for insuperable physics limits of the Tuscany dock, and
the following the Authority proposed to call the traffic with ferries, ro-ro and ro-pax, in strong
Piattaforma Europa (Europe Platform, it was also growth but hampered by lack of parking places on the
proposed the name Sun Dock). ground, by distance from the port entrance to the berths
Unfortunately, due to numerous and increasingly and by the planimetric dispersion of berths themselves.
stringent restrictions imposed in Italy to re-use of For container traffic it is obviously desired the
dredged material coming from port excavations, the possibility to receive ships of last generation
“reclamation tank” had to be completely waterproofed. (Post-Panamax up to 10.000 ÷ 12.000 TEU capacity)
This has prevented the natural consolidation of the while for ferries, whose maximum sizes in
dredged material. In the future it will be necessary to Mediterranean Sea have stabilized in the length of 220 m,
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 95
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 15 Present state of the port of Livorno (2010).

in the width of 30 m and in the draught of 7.5 m, the x The need to move the tanker ships in a position
most pressing request concerns, in addition to the placed the farthest possible from the town;
availability of appropriate spaces on the ground, the x The need to prevent the direct entry of the
minimization of the transit time in the port, given the “Navicelli Canal” in the “Tuscany dock”;
importance for these types of ships of savings the time x Rationalization of functions and port activities;
elapsing between the departure from a port to the x The concentration of cruise ship traffic in the
berthing in another. vicinity of the town and its most important historic
Other needs that have been identified during the monuments.
analysis are: Agreeing with the Bonifica Company on the
96 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

impossibility of extending the port in the mainland with the berths oriented parallel to the Darsena Toscana
territory of the municipality of Livorno due to the and with the berths oriented along the direction of the
existing numerous constraints, it was considered dominant winds (northeast-southwest) has been
necessary to plan the extension of the port in the sea, studied, as it was always done in the past.
through the implementation of the just mentioned The chosen configuration, represented in Fig. 16, has
“Europe Platform” and to devote the platform entirely only one large canal, wide 350 m, on whose sides face
to the three traffic types mentioned above (containers, two large terminals, respectively 650 m and 450 m
ferries and tankers). Moreover, it was decided to wide.
rationalize the use of existing quays and The terminal located in the south of the canal is
embankments. bordered by two opposing quays each long 1100 m. At
With reference to the Europe Platform, it have been the terminal head there is a quay which is not used for
examined many alternatives that have involved the commercial activities (vessels waiting, vessels out of
configuration of the same platform, the configuration commission, etc.). This terminal is devoted to the
of the breakwaters and of the access and navigation containers traffic, reserving the north side to the larger
channels. In particular it was analyzed in depth the vessels (Post-Panamax) and the south side to the
issue of the harbor entrance, by performing a technical smaller (Panamax, generally feeder ships). It is served
and economic comparison between the solution with by a railway branch line for both the quays. On the
single entrance with the solution with double entrance. terminal, which has a surface of 715.000 m2, it is
Regarding the solution with single entrance, it was possible to handle about 2,000,000 of TEU (Twenty
taken into consideration the current entrance which Equivalent Unit)/year, thus meeting the target proposed
needs to be extended and deepened. Concerning the by the potential users of the terminal for 2015.
double entrance solution, the new entrance has been The terminal located in the north of the canal is
located close to the Europe Platform and for it two devoted to the ro-ro and ro-pax ships. It will be
alternatives has been studied. They concern the new possible to moor the ships both along the quay located
entrance orientation: the first solution has the entrance in the southeast of the terminal and to the three jetties
oriented along the axis north-east south-west while the located on the southwest side of the terminal. The
second along the axis north-south. moorings, which totally are ten, besides being located
The solution with the double entrance and access very close to the harbor entrance, have very large
channel oriented along the northeast-southwest squares, as Port Authority has been requested by all the
direction has been selected. The chosen solution is ship owners concerned to develop the so-called
characterized by a remarkable length of offshore “Motorways of the Sea” (“Autostrade del Mare”). The
breakwaters, which in the case of Livorno, unlike the terminal is connected, by means of a road 650 m long
majority of Italian ports, are located at depths relatively and parallel to the new north breakwater which has a
low, with a favorable impact from an economic quay along the side facing the port, to an orthogonal
standpoint. Furthermore, most of the breakwaters are pier not very wide, where three jetties for the moorings
invested tangentially from extreme wave conditions. of tankers and gas tankers are located. Thus the oil
The volume of material to dig a whole is significant, traffic is located in an independent dock (“Darsena
amounting to approximately 10,000,000 m3. This Prodotti Pericolosi”) and far (more than 2 km) from
material is largely devoted to the realization of the downtown, with obvious advantages for safety and
embankments. with the possibility to limit any accidental spillage,
For the configuration of the docks, solutions both without affecting the remaining parts of the port.
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 97
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Fig. 16 2010 port plan being evaluated for its final approval.

One of the most important aspect of the new port reaches a depth sufficient to avoid, or at least to retard,
plan is to have convinced the authorities about the need the formation of the sand bar which gave in the past a
to freely release in the sea the water coming from of the lot of problems. The Plan includes a navigable canal
Arno spillway canal (Canale Scolmatore d’Arno). The which connects the Canale dei Navicelli with the Port
canal mouth, named foce del Calambrone, has been of Livorno. This canal, which runs parallel to the north
armed in the south side with the new north breakwater breakwater, has always been requested by the users of
of the port and in the north side with a groin about the canal, including the NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
parallel to the same breakwater. The north groin Organization) base of Camp Darby located in the
98 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

Tombolo pine forest on the edge of the Canale dei only once that the expansion planned in the sea by the
Navicelli. The new navigable canal starts close to the port plan 2010 will become insufficient. This possible
spillway canal mouth and has a path between the new internal expansion of the port conflicts with the fact
north breakwater and the north side of the ferries that the involved areas fall near an area subject to
terminal. special attention by several environmental
The adopted solution solves at the same time the organizations.
hydraulic problems of the Arno spillway, the You can also say, as was done by earlier drafters of
sedimentation problems of the Darsena Toscana and the Livorno port plan, that the implementation of the
the access problems to the Piattaforma Europa. It also “outer port” doesn’t prejudice to the possibility of
allows the passage of pipes for transporting petroleum developing in the future an “internal port”. In this
products in a location well separated from other parts perspective, although distant in time, it is important to
of the port. Please note that today the links with the deepen considerably the road underpass of the canal in
Tuscany dock, for vehicles, rail and pipes are made by order to reach with the top of the cover slab a height of
using four bridges passing over the Navicelli canal! -18.0 ÷ (-20.0) m under the mean sea level.
During the study of the new mouth of the river Turning to consider the proposed organization for
Calambrone, it has examined the problem of the fixed the present port, in the port plan 2010 it was done a
bridge linking the town of Tirrenia and the south side reorganization of the various functions, by using the
of the spillway canal. It is desirable that this connection quays and embankments that become available and
will be through an underpass of the canal, the depth of eliminating or changing properly some of the existing
the underpass must be determined but it is subject to structures.
the future use of the same canal. In this regard it should In particular it was considered necessary:
be stressed that, in order to facilitate the distribution of x To expand the turning basin near the entrance to
traffics in different modes of transport, the Tuscany the Tuscany dock by retreating the corner between
Region wants to restore the waterway, already existing “Calata Tripoli” and “Calata Assab”;
in the past, between Livorno and Pontedera, town x To eliminate the extreme stretch of the Darsena
located along the left bank of the Arno and situated Toscana on the Calabrone side, which has a width
about 20 km as the crow flies from Pisa. The port smaller respect to the current one;
authority also supports this waterway that runs through x To widen the Canale Industriale bringing the
an area with many industries, making possible their total width at 150 m;
waterway connection with the port. Specifically, it is x To remove the oil terminal (Darsena Petroli)
desirable to realize the connection with the existing from the Diga del Marzocco, providing it with a
interport, managed by the port authority and located straight quay that delimit the new terminal container
about 8 km away, in the area named Gabicce, just along of the Piattaforma Europa, already described in the
the spillway canal. Probably the use of the spillway ambit of the same Platform;
canal only as waterway is restrictive. Indeed, the mere x To remove the Darsena Calafati;
examination of the geographical configuration of the x To shorten the “Calata Pisa” and the “Calata
canal and of the surrounding area clearly shows that it Orlando” and to fill the extreme side of the Bacino
is possible to develop an inland port with the access Firenze in order to obtain: a larger entrance to the
from the mouth of the Calambrone, provided that a Bacino Mediceo (this work was proposed in vain in all
sufficient depth of the canal is guarantee. Obviously, previous port plans); a quay with a length sufficient to
such an expansion of the port should be implemented be used by big ships and located facing to the most
 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port 99
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

ancient and monumental area of the harbor; port” will be all made by using the existing access
x To widen up to 30.0 m the Molo Capitaneria; branches, which have a path peripheral respect to the
x To move the shipyards, in particular the fixed town. It is planned to significantly reduce the areas
and floating dry-docs, in a new dock obtained by devoted to fan of sidings that currently occupy vast
modification of the Darsena Inghirami. areas within the port, practically not used and that
In the matter of the areas utilization, the following could be used for other purposes. For the transfer of
general guidelines have been provided. goods on trains, it will be used modern methods which
The industrial canal, suitably widened and deepened, avoid the tracks on the quays and favor the use of fan of
will be able to play better the current functions. sidings with a number of tracks not bigger than
The Darsena Toscana will be devoted to the general three-five, served by special bridge cranes.
cargo traffic, to the traffic of specialized goods (e.g. The access to the “tourist area” and to the “Medicean
cellulose and timber), to the traffic of cars which has Port” (Porto Mediceo) will continue to evolve in the
assumed great importance for the Livorno port. Part of city, although mostly along the roads bordering with
the quays may be dedicated to bulk traffic. the outer edge of the ancient city walls. For the rail
An area of sufficient surface close to new dry-docks access it will be sufficient to keep two tracks and a
has been devoted to shipyards. small station.
All the southern part of the harbor, located near the
6. Conclusions
historic urban core, has been devoted to yachting. For
the existing dry dock, no longer used and which is now The criteria used for the preparation of the new
located in a position incompatible with the intended use Livorno port plan have been exposed. The port of
of the surrounding area, it is necessary to study in the Livorno has the characteristics to be one of the most
future a new destination compatible with yachting. important in Italy, being favored by its geographical
The Porto Mediceo is partly devoted to yachting, position and by good existing road and rail links. It may
partly to the small ferries used for connection to the be noted that the port is, respect to Genoa, closer to
islands of the Tuscan archipelago, partly to the last Brenner and thus to much of the central and southern
generation ferries and partly to cruise ships. The cruise Europe. Furthermore, the development of the port
ships will be able to moor also to the “Calata Alti involves areas far from the town and close to a wide
Fondali”, in the stretch not connected with the Molo plain.
Italia. The description is very dwells on the historical
In the area located in the south of the Darsena aspects of the birth and development of the port, because
Morosini dock, which falls out of the ambit of the port it seemed interesting, for those not versed in Italian
authority, the municipality has planned a new marina affairs, to illustrate the contrast, sometimes inextricable,
able to accommodate about 1,000 yachts in order to which exists in our nation between desire for renewal
satisfy the demand coming from the same town, from and modernization and to jealous maintenance of
the surrounding areas and also from very far places. heritage of the past, often bordering with the
The new marina will not interfere with the navigational preconceived ostracism towards any innovation.
requirements of the large vessels. The municipality is Only in this way you can justify the improper delay
actively searching for a further area where to place (in the case of Livorno, the new port plan is expected
another port facility outside the commercial port in from over 40 years!) with which certain facilities,
order to satisfy fans of yachting. necessary for a harmonious development of the nation,
The road and rail links with the proper “commercial are realized.
100 The Historical Development of the Port of Livorno (Italy) and Its New Port
Plan 2010 in Advanced Stage of Elaboration

References [5] M. Lepri, Port of Livorno: Planning Post-War Years,

Published by Livorno Port Authority, Livorno, Italy, 2003.
[1] A. Betti Carboncini, Ports of Tuscany, Calosci, Cortona, (in Italian)
Italy, 2001. (in Italian) [6] Servizio Centrale del Consiglio Superiore dei Lavori
[2] M. Massa, Port Cities and Territories in Tuscany, ETS, Pubblici, The reconstruction of the Italian ports, in: XVIII
Livorno, Italy, 2004. (in Italian) PIANC Congress, Roma, Italy, 1953. (in Italian)
[3] G. Trotta, The Ancient Port of Pisa and the Marzocco [7] Municipality of Livorno, Document to start the procedure
Tower in Livorno, Published by Livorno Port Authority, for the variation of the structural plan of the municipality
Debatte Otello, Livorno, Italy, 2005. (in Italian) of Livorno, Internal Report of the Comune di Livorno,
[4] D. Mattoni, Cities in the History of Italy, Livorno, Laterza, Livorno, Italy, 2008. (in Italian)
Bari, Italy, 1985.
Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering 1 (2011) 101-108

An Expert System Based on Multi-reasoning Mechanism

for Port Machine Diagnosis

Y. Ding and G.L. Lin

Logistics Research Center, Shanghai Maritime University, Shanghai 200135, China

Received: June 23, 2011 / Accepted: July 18, 2011 / Published: July 31, 2011.

Abstract: Expert system plays an important role in port machine diagnosis, which aims at automatic equipment test for higher
availability and efficiency of port operations. In this study, a port machine diagnosis expert system is proposed based on
multi-reasoning mechanism. Relying on the knowledge acquired from the experienced experts in the port machine engineering, the
system builds a library of relative experience and a set of rules of reasoning and estimating. Multi-reasoning mechanism that
simulates the decision-making process of domain experts is employed to achieve reliable diagnosis results. The reasoning machine
integrates artificial neural network, uncertain decision making and decision tree, which complements each other by sustainable
growing voting mechanism. The effect of this multi-reasoning mechanism is evaluated and validated by means of Matthew’s
Correlation Coefficient (MCC). The system incorporating the mechanism is successfully designed, implemented and applied in
Shanghai Port.

Key words: Port machine diagnosis, multi-reasoning mechanism, ANN, uncertain decision making, decision tree.

1. Introduction abnormal ones) and other diagnostic information, the

diagnosis expert system indentifies sub-system or
The modern port operation is becoming more and
relation of some specific level which causes faults and
more complicated and the collaboration of different
finds out initial reasons for these faults.
type of port machine is required to be more reliable and
By researching and applying multi-reasoning
secure. The interruption of operation caused by the
mechanism, this paper mainly works out the basic
unpredictable errors of the system will have huge
theory and design of port machine diagnosis expert
economic loss and even heavy casualty as a
system. After studying the characteristics, advantages
consequence. On both the practice and theory level, it
and disadvantages of several traditional reasoning
is of great importance to develop the practical research
mechanisms thoroughly, the artificial neural network
on port machine diagnosis in order to improve the
reasoning, decision tree reasoning and uncertain
accuracy and the sensitivity of diagnosis, to lower the
decision reasoning are combined to do research on the
rate of false alarm and to increase diagnosis efficiency.
multi-reasoning mechanism and based on which the
The diagnosis expert system is the application of
diagnosis expert system reasoning mechanism is
expert system to the diagnosis domain. It makes full
developed and the knowledge base is designed
use of such strong ability to process the knowledge of
according to the requirement of expert system and port
the experts as acquiring the knowledge, memorizing
diagnosis domain, as in Refs. [1, 2].
the knowledge and reasoning. Based on the
characteristic signals (including the normal and 2. Expert Knowledge Acquisition and
Representation
Corresponding author: Y. Ding, doctoral student, research
fields: logistics management and engineering. E-mail:
The port machine diagnosis expert knowledge in this
[email protected].
102 An Expert System Based on Multi-reasoning Mechanism for Port Machine Diagnosis

system includes the expert personal knowledge and the also increase the accuracy of reasoning by such
domain knowledge [3]. The personal knowledge refers learning mechanism as artificial neural nets, uncertain
to the personal experience and theories summarized deduction and decision tree and therefore better the
from the long-time practice by the domain expert. It is knowledge base which also saves the data structure and
reserved to the expert and differentiates the domain weight values of these mechanisms.
expert from other domain staff. The domain knowledge
3. Research and Application of
refers to the one known by the common domain staff.
Multi-reasoning Mechanism
In the process of system developing, the system
research staff should read the technical materials on 3.1 Artificial Neural Network
the port diagnosis and know the basic domain Back-Propagation (BP) neural net is a Simplex
concepts, the difficulties and the way of thinking so Communication and multilayer forward artificial
that they can be understood when communicating neural network [4]. Besides the input and output layers,
with the domain staff. For these domain staff, it is not BP net has one or several hidden layers. There is no
proper to have them know the implementation details connection between the nodes on the same layer. Every
of the system. Because they do not have the node is a single nerve cell, of which transfer function is
professional computer knowledge (such as computer commonly sigmoid type function.
language and program design), the domain staff uses In the diagnosis expert system, the right result is
natural language when building knowledge. For the reasoned by the well-trained neural networking, which
convenience of knowledge entering by the experts, is set for each diagnosis clauses in the knowledge base.
this system applies graphic way of entering The six signals of diagnosis clause 10 can be expressed
knowledge based on the fault tree. According to the as an input vector of six dimensions, each of which
requirement of the system, a set of expert knowledge represent one signal, so the input layer is set to have 6
entering form is provided for the domain experts to fill input neural nodes. The output layer is set to have 6
in. Take Table 1 as an example. output neural nodes due to the number of diagnosis
In the part of the expert knowledge described by the consequence. The next step is to determine the number
rules, there are only two relationships in the diagnosis of layers and nodes within of the hidden layer. In this
knowledge base from the view of logical knowledge system, according to the changes of node number of
representation: rule and fact. The facts included input and output layers in different diagnosis clauses,
machine type, diagnosis clauses and signal codes, as the node number of the hidden layer is decided as
shown in Fig. 1, which describes the specific (int)Sqrt(number of input nodes × number of output
requirements of port machine diagnosis. The rules nodes). Meanwhile, the rules in the clause 10 are
which is the central part of diagnosis expert knowledge transferred to the training samples in order to train the
base, is exclusively appointed through port machine BP artificial neural networking.
type, diagnosis clauses and signal codes. The diagnosis A reasoning training module and a reasoning
consequence is made by the signal codes and prediction module constitute the Artificial Neural
corresponding status. Network module and are built on knowledge base
Besides gaining the knowledge from the original system and port machine diagnosis platform separately
information provided by the experts, the system can as shown in Fig. 2.

Table 1 Signal parameters of diagnosis process.

Machine type Diagnosis clause name Signal name Signal number Signal amplitude Signal cycle
RTG QY8 CP3 16H Modulated signal 1 015 2.5 -8-2
 An Expert System Based on Multi-reasoning Mechanism for Port Machine Diagnosis 103

Machine Type

Diagnosis Clauses of Diagnosis Clauses of Diagnosis Clauses of

Machine Type 1 Machine Type 2 Machine Type N

Signals Rules Signals Rules Signals Rules Signals Rules

of of of of of of of of
Clause 1 Clause1 Clause N Clause N Clause 1 Clause1 Clause N Clause N

Fig. 1 Knowledge base hierarchical structure.

Fig. 2 Artificial neural network reasoning flow diagram.

3.2 Uncertain Decision Making method [5]. In this method, input signals and expert
knowledge rule antecedent are matched to form the
In this system, the results and application of uncertain rules. The fuzzy match uncertain reasoning is
traditional reasoning mechanism are restricted by the chosen to put high reliance on the expert knowledge,
expert knowledge, which is limited in comparison with and therefore the uncertainty of the proof could be
the real situation. The fuzzy match uncertain reasoning accurately solved. The continuous feedback reasoning
will work as the major uncertain decision reasoning trainings on initial rules could help to increase the
104 An Expert System Based on Multi-reasoning Mechanism for Port Machine Diagnosis

creditability of uncertain rules rapidly and accordingly size of a small tree [6]. As a tree structure similar to flow
come to a correct conclusion more easily. chart, the decision tree has the best extension property as
The loss of the rule antecedent makes it a failure to its internal node and category property value as its leaf
determine the rule consequent. The aim of fuzzy match node. The edge of internal node is the value of best
uncertain reasoning is to solve the signal loss, which extension property. The data sets of the internal nodes
will be caused by the delay or blockage in the are impure and classified to different categories. Each
processing of the signal transfer; and the internal node means the diagnosis of one property. The
incompleteness of the rule base makes it difficult to data set of the root node is training set. The data sets of
reason correctly. The diagnosis task can be completed other internal nodes are the training subsets. The data set
by uncertainly reasoning the all previous real of the leaf node is pure training subset, which represents
diagnostic data. What’s more, the system, by analyzing one diagnosis output. When decision tree is being
all previous diagnostic data, can come to an answer to constructed, many branches, which indicate the noise or
adjust the credit of uncertain rules and the flow outlier in the training data, will be tested and cancelled
diagram is shown in Fig. 3. by tree pruning method to better the accuracy of the
unknown data classification [7].
3.3 Decision Tree
In this system, the decision tree reasoning module
The decision tree is a data mining method to find out has the capability to construct reasoning functional tree
classification of data set by constructing decision tree. structure through massive training samples. Every
The key part of it is how to construct highly-accurate internal node represents the diagnosis on one property

Fig. 3 Uncertain decision making reasoning flow diagram.

 An Expert System Based on Multi-reasoning Mechanism for Port Machine Diagnosis 105

and the branch of such a node means each result of the correctly classify a new sample and the measure of
diagnosis, as a result, every leaf node means one mechanism quality is common reasoning accuracy. All
diagnosis consequence. In order to classify and available samples are divided into two types: training
indentify the unknown signal data, the property value samples and test samples. First, the training samples
in the data sets of the decision tree is to be diagnosed are used to construct reasoning model, and then the test
from the root node to the leaf node, which forms a route samples are used to evaluate the model on the basis of
the accuracy. Training samples and test samples should
of the category reasoning on the relative object. If the
be not only large enough but also independent. With
conclusion cannot be reached one at a time according
the training samples and test samples, it is necessary to
to the expert rules, the already-constructed decision can
decide which statistical method to measure the
be used to do reasoning to bring out a somewhat
accuracy of the forecasts. In this paper, we use
reliable conclusion. In addition, the decision reasoning
Matthew’s Correlation Coefficient (MCC) [8], as
module can give feedback to the deduced rules, save shown in Eq. (1): TPi denotes the number of correct
the feedback and perform retraining to continuously classification, FPi denotes classification errors, FNi
improve the accuracy of the reasoning mechanism. The denotes negative errors, TNi denotes the number of
flow diagram is shown in Fig. 4. correct negative.
TP u TN  FP u FN
3.4 Research and Evaluation of Multi-reasoning Ci
(TP  FN )(TP  FP )(TN  FP )(TN  FN ) (1)
Mechanism
MCC is between number 1 and -1. If the value is 1,
Reasoning mechanism needs to be evaluated by a then the model is completely positive correlation, -1
specific method. Reasoning mechanism model aims to indicates perfect negative correlation predicted, 0 means

Fig. 4 Decision tree reasoning flow diagram.

106 An Expert System Based on Multi-reasoning Mechanism for Port Machine Diagnosis

no correlation. If the reasoning mechanism of MCC is Table 2 Matthew’s Correlation Coefficient of clause 10
“change accelerometer”.
as close to 1 as possible, the accuracy of this reasoning
ANN Uncertain decision Decision tree
will be better. For instance, as a reasoning consequence
TP 30 28 29
“replacement accelerometer” of clause 10, the FP 1 2 2
historical data is collected from 100 diagnostic records FN 0 2 1
to calculate the MCC, the results shown in Table 2. TN 68 68 68
C1 0.954 0.936 0.941
Similarly, with the remaining reasoning
consequence of clause 10, we calculated the MCC, as Table 3 Matthew’s Correlation Coefficient of diagnosis
shown in Table 3. clause 10.
(Clause 10) diagnosis Uncertain Decision
From the analysis of data showed 10 diagnosis clause, ANN
consequence decision tree
three reasoning mechanisms are different in accuracy, Change accelerometer 0.954 0.936 0.941
and artificial neural network is better. Diagnosis clause Return to factory 0.956 0.932 0.938
11 and 14 are introduced to do comparison study Replace 1A4A1 board 0.967 0.927 0.944
together with diagnosis clause 10, as shown in Table 4, Replace R34 1.000 0.942 0.945
Replace 1A4A10 0.974 0.933 0.947
to build mechanism compatible with this system.
Reset 1A4A8 0.966 0.926 0.951
The average MCC of diagnosis clause 11 and 14 are
C 0.970 0.933 0.944
respectively calculated in accordance with the method
of diagnosis clause 10, as shown in Table 5. Table 4 Description of diagnosis clause 10, 11 and 14.

We can see from Table 5, none of three reasoning Signal Rule Consequence
Diagnosis clauses
number number number
mechanisms has the highest reasoning accuracy on all Clause 10 6 6 6
diagnosis clauses, which means that concerning the Clause 11 11 14 13
issues studied in this system, no single mechanism is Clause 14 18 33 28
superior to other two mechanisms. In this system we Table 5 Comparison of average Matthew’s Correlation
uses a common technology to combine the artificial Coefficient.
neural network, uncertain reasoning and decision tree, Diagnosis clauses ANN Uncertain decision Decision tree
so as to create an improved mechanism to increase the Clause 10 0.97 0.933 0.944
Clause 11 0.97 0.952 0.986
reasoning accuracy.
Clause 14 0.975 0.992 0.947
In this system the growing voting Mechanism is used
to set the credit weight value of three reasoning network is “replace 4A4B board”, the result of the
mechanisms for each clause and constantly adjust the decision tree is “reset 1A4A8”. In this case, the voting
weight values to make the most successful reasoning weights will be calculated:
mechanism in history get higher priority. The value of “replace 4A1A board”
152
Take clause 14 for example, first set the reasoning (152  115  138) 37.53 ;
mechanism for each initial value of 1, and then adjust The value of “replace 4A1B board”
138
the weight values according to results of each (152  115  138) 34.07 ;
reasoning process through feedback and validation. The value of “reset 1A4A8”
115
The current value of uncertainty decision is 152, the (152  115  138)
28.39 .
current value of ANN is 138, the current value of When user gives feedback on this diagnosis
decision tree is 115, when a new group of signals is reasoning, if the actual failure is “replace 4A1A”, the
being reasoned, the result of the uncertainty rule is value of uncertainty decision will be added by 2; if the
“replace 4A1A board”, the result of artificial neural actual failure is “replace 4A1B”, the value of artificial
 An Expert System Based on Multi-reasoning Mechanism for Port Machine Diagnosis 107

neural network will be added by 2; if the actual failure which combines with different mechanisms, improves
is “reset 1A4A8”, the value of decision tree will be the accuracy of reasoning in port machine diagnosis by
added by 2; if the actual failure turns out to be “replace data analysis.
3A1A”, not among the above three consequences, the
4. Conclusions
value of three reasoning mechanisms will be reduced
by 1. The current credit weight values of the diagnosis Based on the theories above, the port machine
clause 10, 11 and 14 are shown in Table 6. diagnosis expert system has been developed. The
After a period of training, the reasoning mechanism system consists of four parts, as shown in Fig. 6, signal
with the higher weight value (that is, the higher success acquisition server, knowledge base management server,
rate) will become more important and reliable, and port machine diagnosis platform and knowledge
taking the contribution to the reasoning process of database. System process flow is as follows: diagnosis
other mechanisms into full consideration, platform receives the signals from signal acquisition
multi-reasoning mechanism can come to a more server, with connecting to knowledge base of specific
accurate final reasoning result. The flow diagram is type of port machine, multi-reasoning mechanism
shown in Fig. 5. starts work to achieve reliable diagnosis results. The
The average MCC, calculated through the same knowledge base management server is used to maintain
historical data in Table 5, are shown in Table 7. As a knowledge and train reasoning mechanism to improve
result, we can see the growing voting mechanism, the accuracy of this system.
Table 6 Credit weight values of different reasoning mechanism.
Mach. type Diagnosis Reasoning mechanism Credit weight value Last update
1 10 Uncertain decision 198 2005/8/6
1 10 ANN 212 2005/8/7
1 10 Decision tree 186 2005/8/8
1 11 Uncertain decision 124 2005/9/2
1 11 ANN 152 2005/9/2
1 11 Decision tree 174 2005/9/2
1 14 Uncertain decision 152 2005/9/2
1 14 ANN 138 2005/9/2
1 14 Decision tree 115 2005/9/2

Complete Matched

Uncertain
Decision

Input Match
Signal Expert ANN Growing Reasoning
Data Rules Voting Result

Decision
Tree

Fig. 5 Multi-reasoning mechanism flow diagram.

108 An Expert System Based on Multi-reasoning Mechanism for Port Machine Diagnosis

Table 7 Comparison of average Matthew’s Correlation and performance of the system to achieve better
Coefficient including multi-reasoning mechanism.
diagnosis results.
Diagnosis Uncertain Decision Growing
ANN
clauses decision tree voting
Clause 10 0.970 0.933 0.944 0.982
References
Clause 11 0.974 0.952 0.986 0.986 [1] T. Sorsa, H. Koivo, Application of artificial neural
Clause 14 0.975 0.992 0.947 0.994 networks in process fault diagnosis, Automatica 29 (4)
(1993) 843-849.
Signal Knowledge Base
Acquisition Management [2] J.D. Wu, C.H. Liua, An expert system for fault diagnosis
Server Server in internal combustion engines using wavelet packet
transform and neural network, Expert Systems with
Applications 36 (3) (2009) 4278-4286.
[3] S. Ebersbach, Expert system development for vibration
analysis in machine condition monitoring, Expert Systems
with Applications 34 (1) (2008) 291-299.
[4] S. Horikawa, On fuzzy modelling using fuzzy neural
networks with back-propagation algorithm, IEEE
Transactions on Neural Networks 3 (5) (1992) 801-806.
Port Machine Knowledge
Database
[5] J.R. Quinlan, C4.5: Programs for Machine Learning,
Diagnosis
Platform Management Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc., 1993.
[6] M. Brodie, I. Rish, Intelligent probing: A cost-effective
Fig. 6 System structure.
approach to fault diagnosis in computer networks, IBM
This paper is just one feasible proposal for the Systems Journal 41 (3) (2002) 372-385.
[7] D.J. Smith, Artificial intelligence-today’s new design and
complexity port machine diagnosis. It needs to track
diagnostic tool, Power Engineering 93 (1) (1998) 26-30.
the development of cutting edge to further optimize the [8] E. Barnard, Optimization for training neural nets, IEEE
reasoning mechanism, so as to improve the accuracy Transactions on Neural Networks 3 (2) (1992) 232-240.
Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering 1 (2011) 109-115

Dynamics of the Currents in the Strait of Khuran in the

Persian Gulf

N.H. Zaker1, 2, P. Ghaffari2, S. Jamshidi2 and M. Nourian2

1. Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran 14178, Iran
2. Iranian National Center for Oceanography, Tehran 14178, Iran

Received: March 31, 2011 / Accepted: May 21, 2011 / Published: July 31, 2011.

Abstract: The Strait of Khuran is among the most important marine habitats in the Persian Gulf. It is the location of the largest
Avicennia Marina mangroves along the Persian Gulf shoreline and is a major nursery region for the fish and to breeding, wintering and
migrant water birds. This paper presents dynamics of the currents in the Strait of Khuran using the current data collected by fixed
current meters. The analysis of the data showed that the currents in the Strait of Khuran were highly dominated by tidal forcing with
mixed semi diurnal behavior. The tidal currents were strong and reached to a maximum velocity of 123 cm/s in the spring tide. Tidal
analysis showed that the tidal current constituents (M2, S2, N2, K1, O1) are dominant with M2 component as the major one. The tidal
currents occurred basically along the strait. The results show a westward residual flow along the strait with an average of 5.6 cm/s
during the study. The direction of the flow indicates that any pollution discharged into the industrial developing eastern part of the strait
has the potential to affect the sensitive ecosystem in the western part.

Key words: Strait of Khuran, marine habitat, tidal currents, harmonic analysis.

1. Introduction jackals and hyenas. There is one species of rodent

which has adapted itself to Hara forests. Invertebrates
The Strait of Khuran lies between Qeshm Island and
include mollusks (16 species from 13 families of
the southern Iranian coast in Hormozgan Province at
gastropods and 15 species from 9 families of bivalves);
26º45'N and 55º40'E (Fig. 1). The climate is
crustaceans (10 species from 3 families of lobsters). It
subtropical and summers are very hot with
is suspected that the finless porpoise, which is
temperatures reaching 45 . Rainfall is low with an
extremely rare in the region (only 30-40 individuals)
annual total of 100-300 mm, mainly falling from
still occurs at this location [4, 5].
November to April [1].
The main area of mangroves and mudflats (an area
The reserve contains the largest stand of Avicenna
of 82,360 ha) was designated as protected area in 1972.
marina mangroves along the Persian Gulf shoreline
This reserve was later increased in size to 85,686 ha in
[2-4]. This area is of major importance to breeding,
1975 and upgraded to national park status. However,
wintering and migrant water birds. More than 93
the park was downgraded to Protected Area in the
species of birds have been recorded in the reserve.
1980’s. The entire area of mangroves, mudflats and
Other vertebrates of the area include fish (32 species
creeks in the Strait of Khuran (100,000 ha) was
from 17 families); reptiles: marine turtles and five
designated as a Ramsar site on 23 June 1975. The entire
species of marine snakes; mammals include foxes,
reserve (85,686 ha) was designated as a biosphere
reserve in 1976 [6].
Corresponding author: N.H. Zaker, associate professer,
research fields: physical and dynamical oceanography, coastal Located adjacent to the city of Bandar Abbas and the
engineering, marine pollution, environmental engineering.
Qeshm Island, the study area is subjected to the pollution
E-mail: [email protected].
110 Dynamics of the Currents in the Strait of Khuran in the Persian Gulf

Fig. 1 Bathymetry map of the study area showing the positions of the current meters (C1, C2 and C3) and the positions of
conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) transects (A, B, C and D).

caused by the urban, industrial and aquaculture and conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) profiles.
development in the region. Currently the majority of The CTD probes used in the field experiment were also
the municipal swage of Bandar Abbas is discharging equipped with the sensors of dissolved oxygen, pH,
into the adjacent coastal waters without any treatment. chlorophyll a, and turbidity.
This practice will significantly reduce soon with the This paper presents and discusses dynamics of the
operation of the under-construction wastewater currents and the variations in temperature and salinity
treatment plant of the city. The Bandar Abbas power in the Strait of Khuran using the data collected.
plant, food processing and shipbuilding are among the
2. Field Measurements
industries operating along the coastline adjacent to the
Strait of Khuran and discharge their wastewater into Current velocity and direction were collected at 3
the coastal waters. Shahid Rajaee, one of the most stations (Fig. 1). Station C1, located in front of the
important trading ports in Iran, is also located in the Iranian port of Shahid Rajaee, collected data at the
study area. The area is considered appropriate for eastern border of the Strait of Khuran. Station C2 was
aquaculture activities and preliminary site selections located near the middle of the strait in a location that
for shrimp aquaculture in the Qeshm Island has been the strait has its minimum width, named Pohl. This
carried out. station provided information about the exchange of
Considering the need for understanding the physical water between eastern part of the strait, where the main
oceanographic characteristics of the Strait of Khuran, sources of pollution are located, and the western part of
an extensive 33 days field measurement was conducted the strait where the most important natural
in the strait in the summer of 2005. The collected data environment and mangrove habitats exist. Station C3
include time series of currents and sea surface elevation collected current data at the western boundary of the
 Dynamics of the Currents in the Strait of Khuran in the Persian Gulf 111

Strait of Khuran and provided information regarding days and are not presented here. A comparison between
the water exchange with the adjacent open sea. At along-strait and cross-strait components of the currents
stations C1 and C2, current data were collected by clearly shows that the currents are highly concentrated
RCM9 instrument manufactured by AANDERAA. At at the along-strait direction and the study area has
each of the stations, a mooring with one current meter channel like characteristics. This is also clear in the
was deployed. The current meter was positioned 5 scatter plots of the currents presented in Fig. 4.
meter below the surface water. The RCM9s also Therefore, the rest of the discussion on currents will
collected time series of temperature, conductivity, mainly be focused on the along-strait components of
pressure and turbidity. At station C3, to avoid the the currents.
possible dangers from fishing activities to the current The results indicate that the currents in the strait are
meter, an Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) dominated by tidal forcing and the tidal currents are a
manufactured by RD Instruments was mounted on the mixed semi diurnal type with different consequent high
sea bed. or low velocities (Figs. 2 and 3). In the spring tide, the
along-strait velocity had a maximum of 116, 123 and
3. Results and Discussion
118 cm/s at C1, C2 and C3 stations, respectively. In the
Figs. 2 and 3 show the time series of along-strait and neap tide the along-strait velocities reduced to less than
cross-strait currents at C1 and C2 stations, respectively. 50 cm/s.
The collected data at station C3, due to the malfunction Harmonic analyses of the current data were
of the current meter battery system, was limited to 7 performed using the MATLAB T_Tide program [7-10].

Fig. 2 (a) Time series of the along-strait currents at station C1, the thick line shows the daily averaged current; (b) Time series
of daily along-strait currents at station C1; (c) Time series of cross-strait currents at station C1, the thick line shows the daily
averaged current.
112 Dynamics of the Currents in the Strait of Khuran in the Persian Gulf

Fig. 3 (a) Time series of the along-strait currents at station C2, the thick line shows the daily averaged current; (b) Time series
of daily along-strait currents at station C2; (c) Time series of cross-strait currents at station C2, the thick line shows the daily
averaged current.

Fig. 4 Scatter plots of hourly current data at stations C1 and C2.

 Dynamics of the Currents in the Strait of Khuran in the Persian Gulf 113

The ellipse parameters including the size of the major The daily averaged currents at the current meter
axis, the ratio of minor axes to major axes, the ellipse’s stations showed a westward along-strait flow in the
inclination or geographic orientation, and the phase, strait (Figs. 2 and 3). This flow had maximums of 6.4
which specifies when the current maxima occur and 9.6 cm/s at C1 and C2 stations, respectively and the
relative to that of the tidal potential in Greenwich are averages of 3.6 and 5.6 cm/s at C1 and C2 stations,
given in Table 1. The sign of the amplitude of the respectively for the period of measurements. At station
minor axis is used to indicate if the vector velocity C3, the residual westward current had a maximum of 4
turns cyclonically (positive) or anti cyclonically cm/s during the 7 days of collected data at this station.
(negative). The results indicate (see Table 1) that the Considering the area of the boundary between eastern
M2, S2, N2, O1 and K1 are the dominant constituents, and western parts of the strait, the along-strait volume
all with large signal to noise ratios and well determined. transport between the two parts, estimated from the
The magnitudes of the M2 velocity ellipses were residual current velocity, had a maximum of 10,116
largest, and about twice as large as the S2 ellipses. m3/s and a mean value of 5,900 m3/s. Therefore, the
Current ellipses for the M2, S2, N2 and O1 water of the open sea enters the strait through the
components are shown in Fig. 5. The ratios of the eastern boundary, passes the boundary between the
minor axes to the major axes of the tidal current eastern and western parts of the strait, and discharges
ellipses were near zero (see Table 1). The ellipses were into the open sea at the western boundary. This flow has
almost like a line and were parallel to the axis of the a significant role in the water exchange between the
strait (Fig. 5). Changes in the length of the major axes strait and the open sea and also in the advection,
from C1 to C2 station were small (see Table 1). transport, mixing processes and environmental
Semidiurnal major axes slightly decreased from C1 to characteristics in the strait. The direction of the flow
C2 station. M2 decreased from 60.3 cm/s to 57.7 cm/s indicates that pollutants discharged in the eastern part of
and S2 from 33.7 cm/s to 32.7 cm/s and N2 from 15.1 the strait, adjacent to the city of Bandar Abbas (Fig. 1)
cm/s to 14.1 cm/s. Diurnal major axes increased from and its nearby industrial activities, will move westward
C1 to C2 station. O1 increased from 8.5 cm/s to 10.8 and could affect the sensitive echo system of the
cm/s and K1 from 12.2 cm/s to 17.5 cm/s. The phase western part of the strait. Typical profiles of
structure identifies a propagation direction of the tidal temperature and salinity across the strait are presented
wave from C1 to C2 station (see Table 1). in Fig. 6. The water column in the strait, due to strong
Table 1 Current harmonic analysis summary.
(a) Station C1
Tide Period (h) Major axis (cm) Minor axis/Major axis Inc. angle Greenwich phase
O1 25.82 8.49 -0.04 23.34 123.46
K1 23.93 11.22 0.08 24.77 149.63
N2 12.66 15.14 0.03 23.12 287.05
M2 12.42 60.27 0.01 24.47 309.31
S2 11.97 33.71 0.02 24.22 345.75
(b) Station C2
O1 25.82 10.85 0.02 7.62 140.34
K1 23.93 17.49 0.02 7.40 167.65
N2 12.66 14.14 0.01 6.42 318.07
M2 12.42 57.66 -0.01 8.18 344.69
S2 12.00 32.74 -0.002 7.30 19.29
114 Dynamics of the Currents in the Strait of Khuran in the Persian Gulf

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 5 Current tidal ellipses at stations C1 and C2.

Fig. 6 Typical vertical temperature and salinity structure in the study area. The data were collected along Transect B (Fig. 1)
in the middle of the eastern half of the strait.
 Dynamics of the Currents in the Strait of Khuran in the Persian Gulf 115

tidal mixing, is vertically mixed and also the References

cross-shore variability of temperature and salinity in
[1] R.M. Reynolds, Physical oceanography of the Persian
the Strait of Khuran are slight. Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman, results from
the Mt. Mitchell expedition, Marine Pollution Bulletin 27
4. Conclusions (1993) 35-59.
[2] A. Danehkar, Mangroves forests zonation in Gaz and
Current data collected for the first time during a Harra international wetlands, Environ. Sci. Q. J. 34 (2001)
33-day field measurement in the summer of 2005 in the 43-49.
[3] M. Mohammadizadeh, P. Farshchi, A. Danehkar, M.
Strait of Khuran were presented and discussed. The Mahmoodi-Madjdabadi, M. Hassani, F.
results indicated that currents in the study area are Mohammadizadeh, Interactive effect of planting distance,
dominated by tidal forcing. The strait has channel like irrigation type and intertidal zone on the growth of grey
mangrove seedlings in Qeshm Island, Iran. J Trop. For. Sci.
characteristics with strong tidal currents. Harmonic
21 (2) (2009) 147-155.
analysis of the current data showed that the tidal [4] M.A. Zahed, F. Ruhani, S. Mohajeri, An overview of
currents in the study area have mixed semi-diurnal Iranian mangrove ecosystem, northern part of the Persian
Gulf and Oman Sea, Elect. J. Env. Agri. Food Chem. 9 (2)
characteristics with M2 as the largest constituent. The
(2010) 411-417.
results showed that there is a westward residual current [5] Directory of Wetlands of International Importance,
in the strait and indicated that any pollutant in the Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland, 1990.
industrial eastern part of the strait would move [6] UNEP, Action plan for the protection of the marine
environment and the coastal areas of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq,
westward and could affect the sensitive habitat of the Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab
western part of the strait. CTD studies indicated a Emirate, UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No.
vertically mixed water column with little across-strait 365, 1983.
[7] R. Pawlowicz, B. Beardsley, S. Lentz, Classical tidal
variations in salinity and temperature.
harmonic analysis including error estimates in MATLAB
using T_TIDE, Comput. Geosci. 28 (2002) 929-937.
Acknowledgements [8] G. Godin, The Analysis of Tides, University of Toronto
Press, Toronto, Ont., Canada, 1972, p. 264.
The data used in this paper were the results of a [9] M.G.G. Foreman, Manual for tidal heights analysis and
project conducted at the Iranian National Center for prediction, Pacific Marine Science Report 77-10, Sidney,
Oceanography (INCO) by the first author of this paper. Institute of Ocean Sciences, Patricia Bay, 1977, p. 97.
[10] M.G.G. Foreman, Manual for tidal currents analysis and
Here the author would like to thank INCO and all the prediction, Pacific Marine Science Report 78-6, Sidney,
colleagues who contributed in or assisted the project. Institute of Ocean Sciences, Patricia Bay, 1978, p. 70.
Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering 1 (2011) 116-123

New Geophysical Evidences of Fluid Related Features in

the Western Ionian Sea–Part II: Data Interpretation

V. Volpi, D. Accettella, M. Giustiniani and U. Tinivella

National Institute of Oceanography and Experimental Geophysics–OGS, Sgonico 34010, Italy

Received: May 03, 2011 / Accepted: May 26, 2011 / Published: July 31, 2011.

Abstract: The investigated area is located in the western Ionian Sea, which is an area widely occupied by the external front of the
Calabrian Arc. It is characterized by a very rough morphology of the seafloor mainly induced by the thrusting and back-thrusting
activity. Such a tectonic regime is extremely favourable for the presence of gas and related fluid migration. New processed line MS-24
and swath-bathymetric data highlighted the presence of positive structures at the seafloor interpreted as mud volcanoes. Along the
seismic profile we have also recognized a high amplitude reflector that, although it corresponds to a stratigraphic horizon, it shows an
anomalous high amplitude character. The seismic velocity field shows evidences of free gas occurrence and so it cannot be excluded the
hypothesis that the high amplitude reflector could be a “bottom simulating reflector–BSR”.

Key words: Mud volcano, BSR, gas, fluid migration.

1. Introduction reach the seafloor giving rise to graben-like structures,

sometimes with a noticeable throw (Fig. 2).
The investigated area is located offshore, south of
Ref. [2] identified a morphological, and possibly
Salento Peninsula (Fig. 1), in the Ionian Sea, and
tectonic, limit separating the northern from the
corresponds to an active margin where the convergence
southern part of the margin. This limit coincides with
between the accretionary wedge of the Calabrian Arc
an elongated area oriented roughly NE-SW, where the
and the Apulian foreland occurred [1]. Refs. [1, 2]
deep tectonic activity would have influenced the recent
based on swath-bathymetric and seismic data, analyzed
evolution of the area and consequently the morphology
the morphological and structural processes that
of the margin. Such a geodynamical setting provides an
involved this sector of the margin. The western part of
optimum condition for fluid migration. In fact, various
the area is occupied by the external portion of the
authors presented evidences of mud volcanoes along
Calabrian Arc, which shows a complex series of
the Calabrian accretionary wedge, along the margin of
NW-SE striking, NE verging, thrust sheets, that include
the Apulian foreland and along the Mediterranean
deformed piggy back basins. At the front of the
ridge [3-7].
Calabrian Arc, a narrow foredeep basin separates its
Their widespread distribution suggests that their
front from the Apulia Foreland and built up the Taranto
origin can be associated to deep tectonic activity of
Trench.
thrusts and faults and in the specific context of the
The Apulia carbonate platform is a huge anticline,
Ionian Sea to the presence of Messinian evaporites [7,
SW verging, characterized by a west dipping
8]. The accretionary wedge is topographically and
escarpment and by the presence of normal faults that
structurally deeper than the foreland and it is mainly
subsiding; it has been reported no compressive tectonic
Corresponding author: V. Volpi, Dr., research fields:
interpretation of seismic data and correlation with activity in the accretionary wedge front, but it has been
morpho-bathymetry. E-mail: [email protected].
 New Geophysical Evidences of Fluid Related Features in the Western 117
Ionian Sea–Part II: Data Interpretation

Fig. 1 Location map of the analyzed seismic line and the bathymetric survey. Geological sketch map from Ref. [9].

Fig. 2 Interpreted multibeam bathymetric data (see Fig. 1 for location).

118 New Geophysical Evidences of Fluid Related Features in the Western
Ionian Sea–Part II: Data Interpretation

detected presence of creep deposits and debrites [4], high amplitude reflector that could be related to the gas
thus suggesting a recent activity of this area. The hydrate/free gas transition, the well-known bottom
hydrocarbon (both oil and gas) occurrence in Italy are simulating reflector (BSR) [12], and other positive
associated with three main tectono-stratigraphic structures that are possibly related to episodes of fluid
systems: 1) biogenic gas in the terrigenous expulsion (Fig. 3). On the basis of these considerations,
Plio-Quaternary foredeep wedges; 2) thermogenic gas we applied an advanced processing, included a
in the thrusted terrigenous Tertiary foredeep wedges pre-stack depth migration, to obtain more information
and 3) oil and thermogenic gas in the carbonate about the nature of this reflector. This data was
Mesozoic substratum. Gas field located in the integrated with high-resolution bathymetric data
surrounding of the interested area is mainly of biogenic recently acquired.
origin, which is characterized by the presence of dry
and isotopically “light” methane similar to that
2. Geophysical Data
recovered from recent marine sediments. It is usually 2.1 Seismic Data
formed in situ in the Plio-Pleistocene series by bacterial
fermentation of organic material. However, such a kind The analyzed seismic data consist of the
of methane has been recovered also at greater depth multichannel seismic line MS-24. The applied
suggesting a thermogenic origin [10, 11]. These processing sequence was fully described in Ref. [13].
considerations suggested us to analyse the MS-24 In this section, we only resume the phases that have
seismic line acquired in the frame of the project been significant for the characterization of the positive
“International Oceanographic Researches in structures and the high-amplitude reflector identified
Mediterranean Sea 1969-1973” (Fig. 1). The new on the seismic profile. The advanced processing
processed seismic line has pointed out the presence of a sequence is the following:

Fig. 3 Depth migrated MS24 seismic line (top) and the interpreted version (bottom).
 New Geophysical Evidences of Fluid Related Features in the Western 119
Ionian Sea–Part II: Data Interpretation

x Prestack depth migration, obtaining a detailed (5) Creation of a raw grid (Digital Terrain
velocity field and the seismic image in depth; Model–DTM) used as reference for an overall editing
x Seismic attributes analysis, after the production of like to localize major features, source of noise and
a stacked section by using true-amplitude processing to artifacts;
preserve the relative amplitudes; (6) 2D and 3D manual editing for all lines, to remove
x BSR theoretical modeling. overlapped noise;
(7) Export all beams in a xyz file;
2.2 Seafloor Swath-Bathymetry
(8) Removal of residual spikes, following this
Bathymetric data presented in this paper were procedure: a) building of a DTM with 100 m cell size; b)
acquired offshore Apulia (Ionian Sea) during the 2003 application of a low pass filter in three steps in order to
and 2005 cruises with the R/V OGS-Explora, using a reduce high frequency noise; c) calculation of the
Reson Seabeam 8150 full ocean. Data were acquired residual errors (difference between the measured z
and processed using the PDS-2000 (Reson) software. values and the corresponding z values of the created
The geo-positioning was accomplished by using a high grid); d) elimination of the points in the original xyz
accuracy global positioning system (GPS), and a file with residuals bigger than 5%;
gyrocompass for heave-pitch-roll sensor. (9) Built the final DTM with a 50 m cell size.
Data processing consisted principally in the The final dataset depth ranges between 630 m and
following procedures: 3470 m below the sea level and extends for about 9500
(1) Calibration of the parameters km2.
time-pitch-roll-yaw: geo-positioning, heave-pitch-roll On the final dataset, it is still present some residual
sensor and time synchronization for all these noise, mainly due to a mismatch in the acquisition
components are critical to correct bathymetric data. parameters of the two datasets, collected in different
The calibration ensures that the soundings are recorded times. The final result is anyway of very good quality
from the correct position on the seafloor in the correct (Fig. 2).
time. Our datasets calibration was performed by using
3. Discussion
the PDS-2000 patch test tool on specifically lines
acquired during the surveys. Lines acquired for the The re-processed MS-24 seismic profile shows very
calibration consisted in short, parallel and cross lines clearly the complex structural assessment of this area.
with significant overlap to reveal the possible biases; Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary cover is reduced to not
(2) Application of sound velocity profile (SVP): the more than 200-300 ms and consists of transported
velocity of sound in the water column must be sediments accommodated on top the main thrust folds
accurately measured, by using a SVP probe, in order to (Fig. 3). In analogy of what has been observed to the
calculate the correct acoustic travel time measurement north in the western Gulf of Taranto from high
for the beam-forming. The acquisition was performed resolution and morpho-bathymetric studies [14], these
by using the Navitronic SVP-25 sound velocity probe; deposits should be associated to mass transported
(3) Manual editing of navigation to delete spurious deposits from onshore area (debris flows, slides,
navigation positions; creeping sediments); they, due to large submarine
(4) Automatic filtering such as beam number, depth, canyons, in some cases reach higher depth in the Ionian
quality, nadir, and statistic filters; were applied to Sea. In alternative, they could be associated to
remove noises beams. This step is fundamental to turbidites whose origin could be the steep continental
improve the signal/noise ratio; margin offshore Calabria [4]. In any case, they are
120 New Geophysical Evidences of Fluid Related Features in the Western
Ionian Sea–Part II: Data Interpretation

relatively young and their particular distribution within 88 km (Fig. 4B) and 54 km (Fig. 4C). One of them (Fig.
the investigated area suggests a close relationship 4B) has an elevation that can be distinguished on the
between sediment transport and active tectonics. swath-bathymetric map (Fig. 4D). At closer inspection
The base of the Plio-Quaternary sediments is marked (Fig. 4), all these structures present the characteristics
by a strong reflector, more continuous in the northern of the fluid expulsion features. The Figs. 4A and 4C are
part of the seismic line and characterized by high more recent features and so it is possible to see the
amplitude (Fig. 3). It is morphologically very irregular, principal conduit of the seepage and in Fig. 4B also the
being dislocated by vertical faults associated to the doubling of the seafloor reflector testifying a lateral
Calabrian Arc tectonics. The high amplitude reflector mudflow. Some lateral migration paths up to the
may have influenced the seismic signal below, seafloor are also recognizable and all of this
producing the acoustically poorly reflective sequence, information leads us to the conclusion that such
whose lower boundary is not well identified. The structure has to be active in the recent times.
intense deformation of the external sector of the Velocity field (Fig. 5) shows negative anomalies in
Calabrian Arc makes it difficult to resolve the internal the first layer, just below the seafloor, in the vicinity of
structure, however, the seismic response most likely the structures (between 110-100 km, and 90-84 km),
consists of Messinian evaporites [15, 16]. The with low values comparable to the water velocity.
advanced processing applied to the seismic line Interestingly, these negative anomalies occur where the
highlighted the presence of three positive structures high amplitude reflector is highly disrupted. The
elevated from the seafloor at about 109 km (Fig. 4A), velocity anomalies in the deeper layer (around 1500 m/s)

Fig. 4 Fluid expulsion related features.

 New Geophysical Evidences of Fluid Related Features in the Western 121
Ionian Sea–Part II: Data Interpretation

are located at 112-100 km and 60-50 km, in where the salt layer was either thinner or broken, the
correspondence of the thicker sedimentary cover. We latter being the result of extension or strike-slip [17], or
hypothesized for the presence of gas that is highly both. Ref. [18] inferred that in this situation the gas
possible in this area of the Ionian Sea, where the remained confined by the evaporites within the
presence of evaporites and transtensional features are accretionary complex (as demonstrated for the
present. In fact, Messinian evaporites are generally Mediterranean Ridge) until the evaporites are breached
considered to play a major role in controlling mud by faulting. This would be the case of the seepages
volcanism. Low permeabilities evaporites strata act as present in our data, where in some cases the fluid flows
seals leading to high pressures in the sediments below through the vertical conduits, represented by the
[17, 18]. Mud volcanism is closely related to the distensive faults (i.e. mud volcano at around 80 km) or
Messinian evaporites basins: mud escapes are fluids are prevented to migrate in particular where the
preferentially located at the edges of these basins, sedimentary cover is thick (between 60-50 km) ( Fig. 5).

Fig. 5 Velocity field obtained from the pre-stack depth migration.

Fig. 6 Estimated theoretical depth of the BSR.

122 New Geophysical Evidences of Fluid Related Features in the Western
Ionian Sea–Part II: Data Interpretation

The advanced processing of MS-24 line showed the seafloor features related with fluid expulsion. The
high–amplitude reflector at the base of the presence of gas is reported in the Ionian Sea in
Plio-Pleistocene sediments, representing the Messinian particular by well drilling and the presence of gas
reflector. Only in this sector of the margin, the reflector fields. The geological-structural assessment of the
is characterized by high amplitude even if not area is particularly favourable for the accumulation of
continuous (Fig. 2). The thrusting activity of the gas being characterized by evaporites and
accretionary wedge influenced certainly the continuity transtensional features. In fact, Messinian evaporites
of the reflector, but we investigated for the possible are generally considered to play a major role in
presence of the gas related BSR in relation with its high controlling mud volcanism. The fluid flow occurs
amplitude not everywhere present along the seismic through the vertical conduits, represented by the
line. The average depth of the theoretical BSR depth distensive faults (mud volcano at 88 km and 55 km,
has been estimated around 250 m below the sea level Fig. 4) or fluids are prevented to migrate in particular
(Fig. 6) [13]. Interestingly this depth should be in some where the sedimentary cover is thick (between 60 and
parts almost coincident with the Messinian reflector. In 80 km).
Fig. 6 we have also included the zoomed details of the Velocity field calculated from the advanced seismic
phase response of the sea-bottom and the Messinian processing (Fig. 5) shows negative anomalies just
reflector at the locations where it presents higher below the seafloor in correspondence of the mud
amplitudes. In general, the gas hydrate BSR is volcanoes (between 110-100 km and 90-84 km) where
characterised by phase reversal with respect to the also the Messinian reflector is interrupted by faults
sea-bottom reflection; in our case this characteristic is activity. In the deeper layer, the negative anomalies
not clearly recognised, but old seismic data has low are located below the thickest parts of the
resolution and probably not sufficient to resolve Plio-Pleistocene cover. We interpret these velocity
possible closely spaced interfaces. Instead, velocity anomalies with the presence of gas; the high velocity
field just above this reflector evidences a positive above the high amplitude reflection could be in
anomaly (the velocity is about 1900-2000 m/s), while principle associated to gas hydrate presence and the
in the strata below velocity shows a general increase. low velocity below it to the free gas presence.
The geological and structural setting of the area We also hypothesized the occurrence of gas hydrate
induced us to consider the hypothesis that the high BSR and calculated its theoretical depth. However, the
velocity above the high amplitude reflection could be lacking of evidence of BSR on seismic data analyzed
attributed to the presence of gas hydrate and the low could be due to the low resolution of the considered
velocity below it to the free gas presence. It is data.
important to point out that this velocity inversion can In this work we show how the application of
be due also to stratigraphic conditions, but in any case innovative techniques in the seismic data processing
we infer the presence of free gas. In that case, the high enhances the quality of old data, allowing more
reflection can be interpreted as a bright spot. Moreover, detailed re-interpretation of the data. This is of
the low resolution of the data does not allow us to particular interest in areas, and this is the case, where
discriminate between stratigraphic reflector and the the seismic data availability is very poor. In fact we
reflection produced by the top of this free gas layer. have identified the presence of fluid-related features,
some of them probably active in recent time. Because
4. Conclusions
the fluid migration paths correspond with faults, these
New processed seismic line MS-24 showed three lead us to hypothesize a recent tectonic activity in the
 New Geophysical Evidences of Fluid Related Features in the Western 123
Ionian Sea–Part II: Data Interpretation

area, an issue that is still under debate. Moreover, the wedge, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 116 (2004) 880-894.
[9] D. Scrocca, E. Carminati, C. Doglioni, D. Marcantoni,
presented seismic profile shows the presence of a high
Slab retreat and active shortening along the
amplitude reflector that was characterized to Central-Northern Apennines, in: O. Lacombe, F. Roure, J.
demonstrate the presence of the BSR in the Ionian Sea. Lavé, J. Vergés (Eds.), Thrust Belts and Foreland Basins,
Our study represents the starting point for any Part VII, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2007, pp. 471-487.
[10] F. Bertello, R. Fantoni, R. Franciosi, Overview of the
subsequent investigation; in this case new data with
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Rome, Italy, June 9-12, 2008.
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subduction complex–Ionian Sea, in: EGU General [12] U. Tinivella, F. Accaino, Compressional velocity structure
Assembly 2010, Vienna, Austria, May 2-7, 2010. and poisson’s ratio in marine sediments with gas hydrate
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(2008) 784-785. [13] M. Giustiniani, U. Tinivella, V. Volpi, D. Accettella, New
[3] A. Camerlenghi, M. Cita, W. Hieke, T. Ricchiuto, geophysical evidenced of fluid related features in the
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Mediterranean Ridge accretionary complex, Earth data, Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering 1 (2011)
Planetary Sc. Lett. 109 (1992) 493-504. 46-53
[4] N. Fusi, A. Savini, C. Corselli, Evidence of mud diapirism [14] M. Rebesco, R.C. Neagu, A. Cuppari, F. Muto, D.
and coral colonies in the Ionian Sea (Central Accettella, R. Dominaci et al., Morphobathymetric
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Annals of Geophysics 49 (2006) 751-765. the western Gulf of Taranto (Calabria margin, Ionian Sea),
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Wardell, A. Cova, et al., OGS Explora Scientific Party, [15] R.W.H. Butler, Relationship between the Apennine thrust
Imaging of a new province of seabed cold seeps in the belt, foredeep and foreland revealed by marine seismic
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Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering 1 (2011) 124-132

Sedimentation in the Submarine Outfall and in the

Mixing Zones (Avoiding, Diagnosis and Remediation)

S. Chiban1, A. Terfous1, A. Ghenaim1, H. Salman2, A. Awad2, J.B. Poulet1 and M. Sabat1

1. National Institute of Applied Science (INSA) of Strasbourg, Strasbourg 67084, France
2. Faculty of Civil Engineering, Tishreen University, Lattakia, Syria

Received: March 17, 2011 / Accepted: May 23, 2011 / Published: July 31, 2011.

Abstract: Some practical design tips and important recommendations are given to minimize the negative effect of discharge of
wastewater laden with solid particles via submarine outfall. This study emphasizes the role of respecting the hydraulic conditions in the
outfall to prevent sedimentation in the outfall or their accumulation in adjacent areas; also it includes the ways used to improve the
outfall hydraulic capacity that decreases with time. The diagnostics and remediation procedures of mixing zones are discussed,
especially in the case of previous toxic discharge that results in toxic sediments at the bed load. A literature review of techniques used
to assess sediment quality near discharge points and locate effluent-affected sediment deposit is presented that include using acoustic
profiles and images, chemical analysis, toxicity tests and multivariate indicators.

Key words: Outfall, design, inspection, polluted sediments, mixing zones, diagnosis, remediation.

1. Introduction and the near and far fields. The sediments driven with
the wastewater or penetrated with seawater to the
The effective or standard submarine outfalls are
outfall can reduce the hydraulic capacity of the pipe or
viable options for the majority of coastal cities for the
even totally block the outfall and impair the diffuser
disposal of partly treated municipal wastewater or
especially in stormy weather [5-7].
treated industrial wastewater, storm water and
In the mixing zones, total suspended solids affect the
combined sewer overflows, cooling water and brine
water quality and eutrophication processes. Firstly, (as
effluents from the desalination plants into coastal
clean sediments) they influence on density, siltation,
waters and estuaries. The studies of submarine outfalls
turbidity, heat absorption and light penetration which
and the resulting mixing zones have created a lot of
plays a fundamental role in the strength of solar
scientific interest and are considered as typical cases of
radiation in the water column that directly affects algae
multidisciplinary study concerning mechanical,
and vegetation growth, optical properties in water
biological, engineering and hydraulic research.
column and the sun mortal effect on the
Laboratory experiments, field studies and
micro-organisms and faecal coliforms driven to sea
mathematical modeling are widely used nowadays to
with wastewater. Secondly, as (contaminated or highly
better understand, design, locate and monitor the
organic sediments), it cause another disturbance in the
outfall systems [1-4].
marine milieu; the pollutants may settle with the
This article concerns the problem of solid particles sediment or detach and become soluble in the water
and suspended load in the outfall itself, the diffusers column (adsorption-desorption).
According to many factors as sediment type, size,
Corresponding author: S. Chiban, Ph.D. student, research
density and current velocity, the sediment can either be
field: wastewater discharge modeling. E-mail:
[email protected]. suspended in the water column or settles and
 Sedimentation in the Submarine Outfall and in the Mixing Zones (Avoiding, Diagnosis and Remediation) 125

accumulates on the bottom of the waterbody. Erosion

occurs when the shear stress applied to the sediment
bed exceeds a critical value of shear stress. Deposition
takes place when the transport capacity of the flow is
exceeded. Beside the wastewater discharge, sediments
may come from the erosion of soil, from the
decomposition of plants and animals, or from other
human activities.
In mixing zones, the suspended sediments
deposition is the mechanism the most important and it
depends essentially on the settling velocity of particles
and their concentration. Measuring the settling velocity
of solid particles in wastewater is a real research topic
because of the hetero characteristics of present solids
[8-11]. Studying the movement of these particles in the Fig. 1 Replaced diffuser, which was full of sediment and
therefore not working properly (Photo of Eng. Pedro
marine milieu is a recent subject with a lot of points
Campos)–Chile [18].
that need highlighting like the behavior of cohesive
particles [12-16]. (2) Avoid seawater erosion: The sediments in the
pipe can come from the entry of sediment-laden
2. Design Tips to Avoid Sedimentation in the seawater into the pipe during partial or total flow shut
Outfall down. At low rates of effluent discharge, a pipeline
Very few marine outfalls can last a full 50 years outfall on a sloping bottom may discharge effluent
design lifetime without experiencing some disrepair. from only the more elevated diffusers while the deeper
The deposits inside the outfall pipe are one of the most seaward end of the outfall remains filled with seawater
important factors that reduce the hydraulic capacity of and fails to discharge any effluent, so to hydraulically
the pipe (Fig. 1) and are responsible for the flow avoid the seawater purging, we have to keep the port
obstruction and impairing the diffusers. Here, some discharge as a momentum jet (with a high velocity
design recommendations can be given to increase relative to the ambient) rather than a plume (with little
outfall lifetime: or no momentum) by keeping the densimetric Froude
(1) Guarantee the turbulent flow inside the pipe: The number FP much greater than one, knowing that its
turbulence reduces considerably the deposition of solid critical value is 0.75 [19]:
particles in the flow [17]. The turbulent flow is FP = QP/A(ǻgD)1/2
essentially the case for wastewater pipe systems where Where QP is the flow required to avoid purging, A is
the Reynolds number is above a critical Reynolds the cross-sectional area of the pipeline, ǻ is the density
number Recrit § 2000. Particle deposition can be excess of seawater relative to effluent density, g is the
avoided by achieving pipe velocities bigger than gravity acceleration and D is the pipeline diameter.
critical velocity (§ 0.5 m/s) [7]; it is recommended to The densimetric Froude number presents the ratio of
use a simulation tool for diffuser design in the case of the momentum of a jet to its buoyancy. Discharges with
multiports. CorHyd [17] presents an efficient Froude number much greater than one are considered
simulation tool (CorHyd) to assure diffuser hydraulics momentum jets, while those with Froude numbers only
and performance. So we can get the optimal diffuser slightly greater than one are termed buoyant jets.
design for the different scenarios. Discharges with Froude number less than unity have no
126 Sedimentation in the Submarine Outfall and in the Mixing Zones (Avoiding, Diagnosis and Remediation)

jet phase at all and result in buoyant plumes. (7) More diver-friendly parts: Like the
This condition can be achieved by designing either quick-disconnect components and non-metallic
small enough ports or by using variable area orifices fasteners such as nylon and fiberglass, in addition to
““duckbill non-return valves”” (Red Valve Company, include the possibility of a future cleaning-up for the
Inc.) (See Fig. 2). Duckbill-shaped elastomer valves whole pipe and diffusers (Fig. 3).
are often installed on wastewater effluent diffusers,
stormwater outfalls and industrial flow systems to
prevent backflow and sediment/salt water intrusion.
Unlike fixed diameter nozzles, the flow from a duckbill
valve (DBV) depends both on the driving pressure and
on the size of the valve opening [20].
(3) The ““Plug flow”” operation: Another source of
sedimentation is the wastewater itself. Some solids in
the flow can settle out in the diffuser, especially if the (a)
suspended solids removal efficiency at the treatment
plant tends to run low. Using the plug flow procedure
with stored sewage can reduce sedimentation in the
outfall pipe. This method is very convenient for the
small communities where we have big variations in the
wastewater flow during the day. Another advantage of
this periodical flow is flushing the diffuser of the
intruded seawater and sediments that accumulated in
the hours since the last flash [6].
(4) Consider the natural marine sediments: During (b)
the design of the outfall, the engineer must insure that Fig. 2 (a) 250 mm duckbill valves on Viña del Mar outfall
–Chile [23]; (b) Duckbill valve installed on pillar point
the location and orientation of the outfall do not block
outfall riser (with glass reinforced plastic top), rosette-like
the normal ambient sediment transport. arrangement–California [24].
(5) The definition of the adequate point of discharge:
This aspect is important when discharging high density
effluent. At a certain depth, the effects of dispersion are
reduced and may cause accumulation of the coarse
sediments at the diffuser. On the contrary, the
discharge in shallow waters (what may prevent
accumulation problems because of the higher
dispersion capacity of the sea) does not result in the
attenuation of the visual impact of the discharge [21].
(6) Allow manual inspection and maintenance: By
adequately sized and accessible manways for the entry
of divers and remotely operated vehicles (ROV) [22]
also by accessible inspection ports or inspection risers
which facilitate the quick assess of the outfall internal Fig. 3 Pipeline and part compensator diver-friendly
conditions. installation–Turkey (DETEK Offshore Technology Ltd).
 Sedimentation in the Submarine Outfall and in the Mixing Zones (Avoiding, Diagnosis and Remediation) 127

3. The Outfall Inspection of the pipe and diffusers is very difficult and expensive
process. However, we will mention here some methods
Experienced divers, (Fig. 4), or submersible can visit
used to clean-up the outfall pipe:
the site. The divers can penetrate the outfall pipes via
(1) Mechanical scrapers;
the man-holes designed for this purpose; also the ROV
(2) High-pressure water jets;
can inspect the interior and exterior of the outfall and
(3) Lining: It is the adding of a thin cement layer to
diffusers giving many hours of video tape footage and
create new smooth walls. The disadvantage of this
numerous still photographs (see Fig. 5). ROV can be
method is reducing the nominal diameter of the pipe.
used to provide high-quality measurements of physical
Nonuniformity in the debris accumulation would also
properties of effluent plumes in a very effective manner
lead to waviness in the liner, for an additional small
under real oceanic conditions [25]. Frequency response
flow impediment;
method can be also used for partial blockage detection;
(4) Pigging: The pig is a flexible bullet-shaped
the partial blockage increases the amplitude of the
cylinder (Fig. 6), can be inserted into the pipe and
pressure oscillations that helps in predicting the
location and size of a partial blockage [26]. hydraulically propelled, so it expands causing a
scraping or sealing action along the pipe wall. This
4. The Cleaning-up Processes (Outfall method is more suitable for the old outfalls when we
Remediation) have uncertain structural integrity of the existing
These processes are usually used to remove the pipeline. Fig. 7 shows the installation of a giant pig;
sediments that block the diffuser from the inside and (5) Manual dragging: empty the diffuser of
outside and render the pipe walls much more smooth sediments from outside, or remove the diffuser deposits
by cleaning away or cover the grease and grit that had from inside, and sometimes the both. Veteran divers
accumulated. In other words, these processes provide a can do this mission though it’’s often hard and risky,
very smooth interior flow boundary and thus augment because of possible problems related to limited
the hydraulic capacity of the pipe (Reducing the visibility, strong currents, heavy traffic and other types
Manning coefficient of roughness). The rehabilitation of danger.

Fig. 4 Divers inspect the effects of Delray Beach sewage outfall on the coral reef-Florida (Steve Spring, Palm Beach County
Reef Rescue).
128 Sedimentation in the Submarine Outfall and in the Mixing Zones (Avoiding, Diagnosis and Remediation)

especially concerning the deposition and accumulation

of organic material in surface sediments [29-31].
The scientific research is full of good diagnosis
articles based on long-periods of field monitoring
systems or simple seasonal sample acquisition with the
best available measuring techniques concerning the
sediments properties and their influence on the marine
milieu (ecological and biological systems in addition to
transport and bedload thickness) near the points of
discharge as wastewater outfalls, at beaches and
Fig. 5 A diver positions a modified ROV at the entrance to
an ocean outfall off shore from Puerto Rico. The 10-person recreational areas.
(Underwater Inspection Services ASI Group) endured Here, an interesting technique to detect
hurricanes to make three separate repairs–Puerto Rico (ASI effluent-affected sediment deposit, transport and
Group Ltd October 2005).
influence is presented [32, 33] proposed using acoustic
profiles and images to map the effluent-affected
sediment deposit. In this regard, we can deduce
regional sediment dispersal patterns and accumulation
rates from the shape and thickness of the deposits that
overlie bedrock, the pathways of sediment transport,
the location of areas of erosion and deposition and the
seafloor morphology. The mapping effort was only
partly successful because of the limit resolution of the
Fig. 6 Typical wire brush pig (Knapp Polly Pig, subbottom profiles and because the deposit is not
Inc.–Houston). everywhere acoustically distinct from the natural
Finally needless to say that the human inspection or sediment.
maintenance is indispensable for all the cleaning-up Many different approaches can be used in the
process and that holds many risks in addition to the sediment quality assessment. Among them, chemical
financial and technical high level of outfall maintenance. analysis and toxicity tests are the most used around the
world [34]. The use of two types of tests or more in an
5. The Sedimentation Problem and Diagnosis integrative way (multivariate statistical analysis) gives
in the Mixing Zones more reliable information about the environmental
Sediments may accumulate contaminants in condition comparing with result in lack of realism
concentrations higher than those observed in the water and/or great uncertainties when using univariate
column, producing negative effects to the benthic biota statistical analysis [35-37].
and to the organisms that feed on the benthos or on the As a first example, we take Ref. [38] who studied the
sediment. Due to the ecological importance and the effect of pollution sources on the soft-bottom benthic
persistence of pollutants in this environmental communities, using a marine Biotic Index (BI) that
compartment, sediments are more appropriate to be provides a simple and clearly defined way to establish
monitored in environmental evaluations [27, 28]. The the ecological quality of soft-bottom benthos,
impacts of wastewater discharges in coastal waters are complementary to the above-mentioned methods.
largely exhibited in sediment composition changes, Although BI emphasizes the influence of organic matter
 Sedimentation in the Submarine Outfall and in the Mixing Zones (Avoiding, Diagnosis and Remediation) 129

Fig. 7 Aqua Criss-Cross wire brush being lowered into Launching T-section in cleaning by pigginig operation for outfall in
Boston Harbor [5].

enrichment on benthic communities, it was shown to be 6. Mixing Zones Remediation

useful for the assessment of other anthropogenic
The good knowledge of sediment properties and the
impacts, such as physical alterations in the habitat and
contamination that it may present, helps us in making
heavy metal inputs [35]. In the same context, Refs. [37,
the right decision of the best available remediation
39, 40] studied the trace metals concentrations in
process, suitable, applicable and cost-effective in a
oysters and sediments from an area influenced by a
specific case study. Also the good diagnosis supported
sewage outfall.
by a reliable modeling tool can decrease the risk of
As a second example, Ref. [36] compared univariate
failure in a coast remediation case.
and multivariate indicators of benthic change at In water quality investigations, mathematical models
differing spatial scales. With emphasis on organic are used to summarize and efficiently describe
enrichment, the study showed the ability to combine laboratory and field data, to quantify sediment and
indices to produce a more comprehensive description contaminant transport and fate processes and also to
of the benthos and, in contrast, the potential for quantify and predict the future water quality in aquatic
redundancy in the analysis and calculation of indicators system (the effects of contaminated sediments). Ref.
of change. [41] discussed many cases of sediment remediation in
Finally, Ref. [34] used principal component analysis rivers and bays in the United States, and concluded that
(PCA) to integrate sediment toxicity (amphipods the non-unique solutions are the rule not the exception,
mortality) and chemical-physical data (Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, all depending on the period of interest.
Ni, Co, V, PCBs, PAHs concentrations, OC and fines The combination between the three following
contents) to determine the environmental degradation possible remediation acts is the practical solution in
in different coastal areas from Spain and Brazil, which many cases [41]:
are affected by different contamination sources. (1) Natural recovery: No human act; time periods of
130 Sedimentation in the Submarine Outfall and in the Mixing Zones (Avoiding, Diagnosis and Remediation)

interest from 5 to 100 years; techniques: like using acoustic profiles and images to
(2) Dredging: It means removing the contaminated map the effluent-affected sediment deposit, or taking
sediments off the seabed. The entire cleanup of the site samples for the chemical analysis and toxicity tests
may take up to 100 years; which are the most used around the world, finally the
(3) Capping: Placing clean sediments over the best choice stays to combine indices to produce a more
contaminated sites. The required skills are presented by comprehensive description of the benthos and to
the cap placement methods, construction-related determine the environmental degradation.
impacts and the stability of the cap. Time periods of Mixing zones remediation is performed essentially
interest are also from 5 to 100 years. in the case of toxic sediments. It is not easy to take the
right decision of the best available remediation process,
7. Conclusions
suitable, applicable and cost-effective in a specific case
A literature review has been accomplished study. But the good diagnosis supported by a reliable
concerning the sedimentation in the outfall and in the modeling tool can decrease the risk of failure in a coast
mixing zones. Sediments driven by the wastewater or remediation case. Natural recovery is a choice that can
coming by seawater intrusion can minimize the be combined with dredging of the most polluted sites,
hydraulic capacity of the pipe; Seven design and capping with clean sediments or both choices.
practical tips are demonstrated to avoid as possible the
Acknowledgments
sedimentation in the outfall by keeping the turbulent
flow inside the pipe and keeping port Froude number The authors wish to acknowledge Dr. Tobias
greater than one to avoid seawater intrusion; and keep Bleninger (Institute for Hydromechanics, University of
in mind in the design process the possibility of easy Karlsruhe, Germany) for the useful discussion and for
maintenance. sharing good references in the domain.
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Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering 1 (2011) 133-140

Barter Trade Exchange to the Rescue of the Tourism

and Travel Industry

E. Eckhaus
Department of management, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel

Received: May 05, 2011 / Accepted: July 04, 2011 / Published: July 31, 2011.

Abstract: South Africa’s tourism and travel industry is a key sector in its economy as well as a significant job creator. The recent global
economic turmoil is threatening the tourism industry; at the same time, global experts claim that tourism may be a key to overcoming
economic difficulties and play a vital role in the green new deal. The purpose of the study is to introduce a new strategic option that has
become increasingly attractive for troubled businesses-barter. While the study focuses on the advantages of this concept’s recent
refinements for South Africa’s tourism and travel industry, its findings are also applicable to other countries. A survey of small and
medium-sized enterprises (SME) from Europe and Turkey, as well as graduate students at an Israeli university, demonstrate the gap
between familiarity with barter processes and their advantages and the actual scale of barter transactions in the supply chain, in order to
enhance the economic performance of their tourism enterprises as well as the entire economy, providing evidence for the potential of
adapting old proven concepts to the modern digital world.

Key words: Tourism, e-tourism, barter, trade exchange, leisure time, supply chain.

1. Introduction rising and fears of the worst to come are showing up,
one of the most interesting options of international
The tourism industry is a global growth business
countertrade that is becoming more appealing in
contributing to global economy and social welfare,
recession times is barter–an exchange of goods and/or
while the high rates of tourists’ arrivals around the
services–ideally with no currency involved. One of the
world are growing increasingly with each year. many areas in which barter has proven to be successful
Tourism also plays an important role in South Africa’s is tourism–among tourist organizations, among
(SA) economy and a significant creator of jobs. The countries, and also for business owners and
country invests resources to publicize its holiday and professionals who have discovered barter as the
leisure time offerings, while improving its service ultimate discount travel.
excellence strategy for this sector of the economy. With the development of technology which supports
The recent global economic turmoil has created the growing needs of the globalization process,
major concerns about difficulties the tourism sector electronic tools have been developed, promoting barter
may be facing; however, the tourism industry may be a to a new level. Though barter has been around before
key for overcoming the economic difficulties and play e-commerce, it is a natural direction for development. A
a vital role within the green economic new deal, while new form of an e-marketplace system which is a
advancing intercultural dialogue. network of various businesses interested in barter
While concerns of the global economic downturn are transactions has emerged, enabling businesses with
many trade opportunities. Membership in this system
Corresponding author: E. Eckhaus, doctoral student, provides an option for tourism and hospitality enterprise
research fields: e-commerce, e-business, e-marketing and the
internet economy culture. E-mail: [email protected]. managers who are searching for ways to supplement
134 Barter Trade Exchange to the Rescue of the Tourism and Travel Industry

their traditional activity of market development within site’s attractiveness to arrivals as a destination with
their supply chain, thereby enabling enhancement of good logistics, security assurance, value for money,
their organization as well as the country’s in the tourism good hospitality and food can satisfy customers [15].
and hospitality realm, which, in turn, could contribute to At the same time, the attention given to the importance
economic prosperity. of tourism in economic growth has recently increased
The study was presented in the Coastal and Marine significantly [7], as it is an important income generator
Tourism (CMT) 2009 conference [1]. [8]. Tourism has also a large potential for growth in
many developing countries, distributing wealth both
2. The Tourism Industry
internationally and domestically, transferring wealth
The tourism industry is a global growth business, and investment from richer developed countries or
involving 200 million employees worldwide [2]. This regions to poorer areas [9].
industry is important to the global economy, as it As the international tourism business is one of the
accounts for 5 per cent of the world’s economy [3], most vulnerable sectors [16] because of the global
being the world’s largest generator of wealth and financial crisis, major concerns have emerged, since
employment, contributing 11 per cent of global gross after international tourism showed a growth of 2%
domestic product (GDP) [4]. from 2007 to 2008 [17], international tourist arrivals
According to the UN World Tourism Organization declined at a rate of 8% between January and February
(UNWTO), international tourist arrivals have jumped 2009 [18]. However, international tourism grew 7% in
30 per cent since 2003 to nearly 900m in 2007, and 2010 and is expected to increase worldwide in 2011
UNWTO predicts that tourist arrivals will reach 1.6b [19]. International tourism is worthy of special
by 2020 [5]. It is therefore not surprising that consideration as a tool for post-crisis recovery if a
tourism-specialized countries grow more than others national economy crisis may be in need for a rapid
[6]. The attention given to the importance of tourism in recovery, as tourism is resilient and has many links to
economic growth has recently increased significantly other sectors [20].
[7], as it is an important income generator [8]. Tourism
2.1 South Africa’s Tourism Industry
has also a large potential for growth in many
developing countries, distributing wealth both The growth of SA’s tourism over the past decade is
internationally and domestically, transferring wealth phenomenal. Africa cannot compete with a global
and investment from richer developed countries or center of the manufacturing of cell widgets to the West,
regions to poorer areas [9]. but it can sell many vacations, as African countries
A well-planned and developed tourism industry have beautiful scenery and wildlife, thus having a high
positively affects society and the economy [10], while probability to bring prosperity through tourism [2].
fostering cultural respect among people [11] and plays SA maintains a responsible tourism policy with
a vital part in the global green economy [12] by guidelines by the South African Department of
financing tourist sites that require costly conservation Environmental Affairs and Tourism [21],
and wildlife protection [13]. acknowledging the fact that SA’s tourism and travel
Tourism contributes to the host population’s industry is a key factor in its economy and a significant
standard of living [14], since successful tourism creator of jobs [22], while being an important
requires good roads, reliable supplies of electricity, component in the fight against poverty [9]. The country
efficient telecommunications, public security and invests resources to publicize its holiday offerings [23]
political stability [2]. These, in turn, contribute to the and working on developing a national service excellence
 Barter Trade Exchange to the Rescue of the Tourism and Travel Industry 135

strategy for the tourism and hospitality industry [22], 490,000 in 2006, which, in turn, exceeded the 398,000
while job demand begins to outweigh the supply of business arrivals in 2005 [41].
trained and qualified candidates [24]. It is therefore clear y Sports tourism: people travel in order to
that African economies could enhance their economic participate in or to observe sporting activities [42]. It is
growth by strengthening their tourism industry [25]. a sector which has received a growing demand
throughout the world because of the increased
2.2 Types of Tourism and SA
emphasis on health and fitness, and the increase of the
There are various types of tourism sectors, in which use of sporting events in order to attract tourists [43].
SA shows a dominant presence. They include: Hosting an international sports event provides both
y Medical tourism: people travelling to another media exposure for the host nation, and an expectation
country to obtain health care [26], a recent global for a positive return on the large investment for this
phenomenon with increasing importance for event, a huge benefit for SA which hosted football’s
developing countries [27]. This type of tourism is World Cup in 2010 [44], an event which provided
booming due to the inexpensive and high quality sports-related infrastructure development, tourism, and
medical services around the world [28], while lower positive global media exposure [45] that was
costs and shorter waiting times serve as motivating considered a business opportunity [46].
factors [26]. The medical tourism market was worth
3. Barter
$60 billion in 2006 and could rise to $100 billion by
2012 [29]. Medical tourism is expected to boost the The globalization process has emphasized the
South African economy [30]; accordingly, SA has set a advantages of international countertrade as a means of
goal of increasing medical tourism to raise income [31]. economic development. One of the major forms of
For example, SA is one of the places that specialize in countertrade is the barter process [47], which is a fair
elective and plastic surgery, leading the world in exchange of goods or services between two businesses,
cosmetic tourism [32]. often providing financial and marketing bonuses for
y Ecotourism: travel to experience natural both sides [48]. This process becomes an increasingly
environments or settings [33] is a highly visible and attractive option for businesses as an economy
rapidly growing form of tourism [34]. Here, SA is becomes worse [49].
considered to be a strong performer [35]. SA has a large Barter has many advantages, as it embodies a way
potential to attract tourists searching for new experiences for companies to save money and hold onto cash
in areas of unexploited natural beauty and rich cultural reserves [50]. Corporate barter can be a good solution
resources [36], and has national parks which are seen as a for excess inventory, vacant office space, or limited
major tourism asset since wildlife is a major attraction for distribution [51]. Every blank slot, empty table, or
international visitors to the country [37]. vacant room means lost revenue [52], while the major
y Business tourism: people that travel to attend advantage for businesses is that they pay for goods or
meetings, conferences, and exhibitions [38]. This is a services effectively at the cost of their own [53].
highly lucrative and competitive sector of the tourism Fig. 1 demonstrates an example for the barter
industry [39], which is becoming a valuable sector of exchange flow.
tourism in SA [35] with intentions for SA to develop
3.1 Barter Attitude Survey
into a premier global business tourism destination [40].
In 2007, 652,000 business travelers arrived in SA, 7.17 In order to get a general impression of the attitude
percent of total arrivals. This number exceeded the of industry professionals to the barter process, a survey
136 Barter Trade Exchange to the Rescue of the Tourism and Travel Industry

Hardto Table 1 Responses to survey questionnaire.

sell
items Responses to survey questionnaire Yes No Unsure
Dealing with obsolete or excess inventory 19 7 9
Exchanging trade credits for A/R payments 23 3 10
Media/Advertising 16 5 7
Hotel accommodations 12 5 5
Tourismitems/services,
Officesupply, Airline travel 14 5 7
Excess Limited
inventory Insurance, Courier and telephone services 11 8 6
distribution
Computers, Shipping 13 5 5
……

Printing 9 7 5
First year insurance premiums 9 8 5
Computers/Copiers 14 2 7
Office furniture & fixtures 12 4 6
Vacant Raw material 18 4 5
space Business deals, hard currency not available 23 3 9
Fig. 1 Barter exchange flow. Trading services for other services 14 4 7
Trading products for other products 22 4 7
was presented in 2004 to Small and Medium-sized Other areas 21 8 6
Enterprise (SME) professionals and managers from Know barter trade company? 7 2 23
Europe and Turkey, including government officials, Barter deal within the past 5 years? 6 0 25
ministerial departmental staff and interested local
3.3 Barter and Tourism
business persons as well as to selected MA students at
an Israeli University, who participated in a logistics One of the many areas in which barter gives
management program for people with managerial efficient results is tourism. Thousands of business
positions in industry in 2008. As a general survey of owners and professionals have discovered barter as
attitudes and feelings, the participants were asked to the ultimate discount travel [54]. Barter tourism has
comment on whether barter membership could be been proven to be successful among tourist
effective in the areas as displayed in Table 1. organizations [55], but also between countries [56].
For example, tourism is one of the commodities in
3.2 Responses and Findings of Survey
Sino-Russian trade, as Russia becomes China’s
With a total of 36 out of 71 responses (a response second largest source of visitors after Japan [57].
rate of 50%), only 6 were or had been engaged in An important tool that has emerged and supports
barter within the recent 5 year period. This volume of the expansion of barter tourism is the barter trade
responses may reflect the need to circulate/publicize exchange [58].
the advantages of barter processes and of the need for
4. The Barter Trade Exchange
greater efficiencies in the relationships between the
SMEs and barter service companies, particularly with Barter has been around long before e-commerce,
the advent of e-marketplace applications. but it is a natural direction for development [49].
From the perspective of the SME benefiting from While barter is the oldest form of reciprocal trade [59],
barter exchanges, there is evidence that they are it has become more formalized and widespread
largely interested in the scope of the barter deal thorough the development of barter exchange
package and into other applications within the organizations [53] when a new generation of barter
corporate environment. company executives began to replace their older
 Barter Trade Exchange to the Rescue of the Tourism and Travel Industry 137

predecessors, attracting businesses and thus creating a opportunities available through the internet is the trade
network [60]. of tourism services or products. Information
The barter exchange network acts as a broker for its communication technologies have revolutionized the
clients’ goods and services, having thousands of travel industry, contributing to all processes in the
clients that carry many sources of business needs [48], value chains of the tourism industry [68]. Thus, the
therefore providing their members with more bartering electronic distribution of tourism information and
opportunities than they could find themselves, while products are becoming a major consumer source for
protecting the trade by some rules and regulations [61]. selecting a destination [69].
The exchange establishes an account for the company
The tourism industry is well-suited to the online
that wishes to become a member, and the trades are
business community model, which allows businesses
scaled to monetary value–debiting spends and
to communicate with their customers and participants
crediting trade sales [50]. Therefore, a major
to exchange ideas [70]. For example, one of the
advantage of the barter exchange is that an even trade
transactional processes between service suppliers and
is not required, thus enabling accumulated credit from
travel agencies is customer-supplier participation in
trades to be used for purchasing other items [62].
online tourism communities [71].
Nevertheless, though the exchange networks can be
With the recent boost in the exposure to e-tourism
quite advantageous, one must take into consideration
technology, especially the online barter exchange
that a sign-up fee about $300 to $600 is required, a
networks, it is clear that the industry can use these
transaction fee of 12-to-15 percent trade value must be
paid, split between the buyer and seller [50], and the online opportunities not only to survive the worldwide
value of trade dollars received must be included in the downturn, but also to enjoy the electronic possibilities
gross income for tax purposes [48]. Moreover, though that support this most valuable industry.
theoretically, barter is a cashless transaction that 6. Future Research
removes the need for hard currency generation, it is
still used in some instances when difficulties arise, but Following the globalization process and the new
is the least common [59]. digitalized economy, the tourism industry has entered
the online realm with great efficiency. While the new
5. The E-Tourism Move: Tourism on the Net online barter network exchange provides many
The globalization process, followed by advanced opportunities for the tourism industry, academic
technological tools, have stressed the need for literature lacks information and especially empirical
e-commerce integration into a business’ process; the assessment of these benefits. Such research could shed
success of companies in the new economy depends on light on the best practices of barter in order to aid the
their ability to integrate their business operations tourism industry.
effectively in an internet environment [63], forcing the Furthermore, the responses of the barter survey are
emergence of a virtual economy [64]. presented in order to gain a general notion of the
The internet has made bartering easy for individuals familiarity of the available tools for business
[65] and for businesses, where participants can professionals. Deeper analysis is needed in order to
explore business opportunities and exchange goods or understand actual trends and most used opportunities.
services across borders [66]. A growing number of Successful results of such an analysis will enable the
businesses make use of the internet to save cash, build development of a practical strategic model that may aid
their customer base and buy merchandise they would business professionals and serve as a decision-making
not normally be able to afford [67]. One of the tool to support strategic business decisions.
138 Barter Trade Exchange to the Rescue of the Tourism and Travel Industry

7. Conclusions 6th International Congress on Coastal and Marine

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