Global Journal of HUMAN SOCIAL SCIENCE

Sociology & Culture

Volume 13 Issue 7 Version 1.0 Year 2013
Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal
Publisher: Global Journals Inc. (USA)
Online ISSN: 2249-460x & Print ISSN: 0975-587X

Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

By Anna Tarkhnishvili & Levan Tarkhnishvili
Ilia State University, United States
Abstract-

a) Research Problem
Middle Class is solely capable to bind higher and lower classes into society as the
organization of citizens. Our research, therefore, can be regarded as a sustainability study of
society.
b) Research Objectives
The first appearance of the term is typically associated with the origin of capitalist
formation. The question is: what is the correspondence between the origin of a socio-economic
phenomenon and its denomination? What is the role of Middle Class in the establishment /
development of non-capitalist societies?

GJHSS-C Classification: FOR Code : 759999

Middle Class Definition, Role and Development

Strictly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2013. Anna Tarkhnishvili & Levan Tarkhnishvili. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative
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 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development
Anna Tarkhnishvili α & Levan Tarkhnishvili σ

Abstract- entire state / society? If we are NOT, how should we

a) Research Problem identify the other being the Middle Class, and what is
Middle Class is solely capable to bind higher and the way to establish good relations with them (in the
lower classes into society as the organization of citizens. Our case, we deem it desirable or necessary)?

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research, therefore, can be regarded as a sustainability study
of society. II. Currency of the Issue
b) Research Objectives The very first step should be to show why and
The first appearance of the term is typically how has the problem of middle class gained currency in
associated with the origin of capitalist formation. The question our days (actually, over the last quarter of the 20th 20
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is: what is the correspondence between the origin of a socio- century). The second step should be to try to fully
economic phenomenon and its denomination? What is the role understand what a Social Class is in general. Then we

Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I
of Middle Class in the establishment / development of non-
shall concentrate on the history and the present status
capitalist societies?
of the middle class in the context of the society and its
c) Research Methods development.
The methods include both empirical (collection and In accordance with the results of the social
analysis of socioeconomic / historical data) and theoretical researches conducted in many different
(socio-philosophical understanding of basic trends and
regions/countries worldwide (Eastern Europe, FSU/NIS,
forecasts).
USA, Latin America, Far East), the groups of people who
d) Key Findings are the middle class, in accordance with the economic
In the post-Darwin science, any member of any criteria (i.e. the income level adequate for decent
society is neither a citizen nor a social actor but merely, a education, apartment, retirement, etc.) and the groups
primate participant of struggle for survival. Middle Class, more
of people who regard themselves as the middle class
then the other two classes, has to oppose this severe
motivation (will to power or thirst for money) set to prevail over people, differ: these are the different groups of the
the civics. population. Economists estimating income levels,
sociologists analyzing labor market and the focus-group
e) Implications of Findings to Theory and Practice survey data – all they provide quite different numbers
The dogmas of “protestant capitalist ethics” agree
and distinguished paradigms/parameters.
with those of the struggle for survival. Perhaps, some
amendments are desirable, in order to avoid “permanently For instance, a middle-class standard of living
intermittent” economic depressions? in the United States has come to mean having “a secure
job, a safe and stable home, access to health care,
I. Introduction retirement security, time off for vacation, illness and the

A
birth or adoption of a child, opportunities to save for the
lmost everybody seems to know, what is called future and the ability to provide a good education,
“the middle class”, and even to belong to it. including a college education, for one's children” (i). At
However, the most obvious things about this, one the same time, this standard of living belongs no more
of the most important concepts in social sciences, often to the middle class of the American population: such is
turn out to be not so certain, while the middle class the conclusion of National Opinion Research Center
appears to be a misleading concept. So, actually, our (NORC) at the University of Chicago, one of the largest
initial question turns to grow out into the following, more independent social research organizations in the United
accurate, question: What do we know about the Middle States (ii). More and more families of the country think
Class? they still are the middle class but in fact, they are a
Then, what should we do about this knowledge:
“paycheque-to-paycheque group of people” that has to
perhaps, it imposes certain obligations, or galvanizes us
save on almost everything, from toll calls to shopping.
into actions? (what kind of actions and/or obligations are
And that’s the economists’ conclusion. Both sociologists
these?) Roughly speaking, if we ARE the Middle Class,
and economists agree that there is no more American
what are our duties towards the other classes and the
middle class in the usual sense.
When and how do working class
Author α: Ph.D student of Ilia State University (Tbilisi, Georgia).
Author σ: Assistant Professor of Ilia State University (Tbilisi, Georgia) representatives become the middle class members?
and PhD Student of this University. How it comes that the latter transform into upper class
e-mail: [email protected] figures (if any)? Are there any criteria except for average

© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US)

 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

annual income? Do the national/racial, cultural, religious First Comment. The middle class is the
and other differences play any role? Are there any aggregate of social groups holding an intermediate
borders and margins (maybe, some “marginal groups”) position between the ruled and the rulers, as they used
between the classes? – all these questions require to say in the past (reference is to the Definition (2). Now,
responses. there seem to be neither the ruled nor the rulers,
Additionally, the common measures of what because the market economy and democracy obviously
constitutes the middle class vary significantly from “equalized” the society in both developed and
country to country. For instance, the American middle developing countries.
class criteria were inapplicable to citizens of the Soviet Second Comment. The above definitions both
Union, and are inapplicable to the societies of most sound (and really are) too broad, almost indefinite. It is
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Eastern European and FSU countries, even to those of well shown in an ironic, and yet, quite legitimate
Western Europe. However, the vast majority of the comment made by Dante Chinni: “Everyone wants to
Soviet Union households did have certain grounds to believe they are middle class… But this eagerness…has
identify themselves as middle class: they did have led the definition to be stretched like a bungee cord —
stable job, decent vehicle and recreation, not much used to defend/attack/describe everything… The Drum
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affected housing and property, (plus, last but not least, Major Institute … places the range for middle class at
free medicine and education in the Soviet Union)… individuals making between $25,000 and $100,000 a
Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I

When poor countries start to get the maximum year” (vi).

benefit from cheap labor through international trade and, The plain and common definition in general use
but before they price themselves out of world markets is, as follows: “the middle class is a class of people in
for cheap goods, then “the poor start entering the the middle of a societal hierarchy” (vii). Actually
middle class by the millions. speaking, this definition only shows the range of
In February 2009, The Economist announced application, that is, the societal hierarchy (hierarchy
that over half the world's population now belongs to the being “the establishment of a dominance-subordination
middle class, as a result of rapid growth in emerging relationship among” individuals (viii)). However, the
countries. It characterized the middle class as “having a above definition says nothing about the class itself,
reasonable amount of discretionary income, so that they giving no reference to its essence, its descriptor/s and
[…] have roughly a third of their income left for patameters.
discretionary spending after paying for basic food and Weberian socio-economic theory gives the
shelter” (iii). This allows people to buy consumer goods, answer to the question “in the middle (and in terms) of
improve their health care, and provide for their children's what the middle class is?”: “the middle class is the
education. By this parameter, the number of middle- broad group of people in contemporary society who fall
class people in Asia exceeded that in the West socio-economically between the working class and
sometime around 2007 or 2008. upper class” (ix). Again, as a matter of fact, this
The Economist's article pointed out that in many definition helps to obtain more accurate information
emerging countries “when the peak of the population about the range of application (the aforementioned
curve crosses the threshold into the middle class, the “middle of a societal hierarchy”). However, several
number of people in the middle class grows questions still remain. The major question is: Why do the
enormously” (ibid.) economic calculations and estimations clash with the
Three years ago, a working paper by the OECD sociological/anthropological descriptions and
(Organization for Economic Co-operation and evaluations, as regards for borders between the working
Development) estimated that “1.8 billion people were class, the middle class and the upper class?
now members of the global middle class” (iv). While, in The classical definition of the middle class can
accordance with The Economist’s prediction, “the surge also be found in the Weberian socio-economic terms
across the poverty line should continue for a couple of (obtained with the use of functional – or stratification –
decades and the global middle class will grow approach). Here, the middle class is defined as that
enormously between now and 2030” (iii). consisting of professionals or business owners who
share a culture of domesticity, sub-urbanity and a level
III. Preliminary Definitions
of relative security (in the form of socially desired skill or
These are the normative socio-economic and wealth) against social crisis (cf. with The Ultimate Middle
“historical” definitions of Middle Class: (1) “A class of class – American History Information). Mostly, other
people intermediate between the classes of higher and sociological definitions of middle class follow Max
lower social rank or standing; the social, economic, Weber. Some modern theories of political economy
cultural class, having approximately average status, consider a large middle class to have a beneficial,
income, education, tastes, etc.” and (2) “A class stabilizing influence on society: it bears neither possibly
traditionally intermediate between the aristocratic class explosive (revolutionary) tendencies of the lower class,
and the laboring class”. nor absolutist (or oligarchic) tendencies of the upper
© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US)
 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

class. Thus, the middle class is considered as the renaissance, in the age of great geographical
composed of (quasi-)elite of professionals and discoveries (and conquests). The class was getting
managers who are largely immune to economic firmly established during – and due to – the industrial
downturns and trends such as out-sourcing which affect revolution, and it had become strong enough after the
the statistical middle class (x). bourgeois revolutions of the 17th century. In terms of the
A contrary approach/opinion is taken from Western political economy, the term “middle class” is
FactCheck.org: it sounds negative, even discouraging: first attested in James Bradshaw's 1745 pamphlet
“Q: Is there a standard, accepted definition of what Scheme to prevent running Irish Wools to France (xvi).
constitutes the “middle class”? - - A: No, there isn’t. In this treatise, the middle class was defined as
“middle class” means different things to different people the class sufficiently rich to purchase more expensive
– and politicians”. (xi) stuff only to encourage the com-patriot manufacturers or

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In short, we have faced here an enigma or to invest in the interests of the state of which the middle
paradox. The counter-argument to this ironic (and class people feels patriot. It is a really precious point:
apparently logical) statement could be that the middle the middle class can defend the economic development
class is a promiscuous mass. Anthony Giddens, a and political interests of its country.
To this effect, the definition provided by T.H.C. 20
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British sociologist, describes the Middle Society as a
heterogeneous environment, the mixture of highly Stevenson is particularly interesting; this definition

Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I
unstable (fluent) “old middle class” and somewhat more contains a different meaning: “The chief defining
stable but less numerous, called “modern middle class” characteristic of membership in the middle class is
(xii). possession of significant human capital” (xv). Members
Taking into account the previous views, we of the middle class do possess a significant capital
come to the more detailed and in-depth definition of means. Although, it is uncertain whether they spend
middle class. The middle class is a social group of the these capital means for the sake of local manufacturers
people with the income more or less stable and and the state, or for some other purposes, locally or
sufficient for the satisfaction of a wide range of material globally.
and social requirements. The hallmark of this class is its Researchers usually cite the following
high educational attainment. “The functions of middle components of middle class: a steady job and the ability
class include the introduction of new products and to save for retirement, afford a home, and educate
innovations, reproduction of expert labor, and perhaps, children. This is far from mere numbers, even high ones.
support to long-term peace and stability in society” (xiii). Concept of middle class became widely disseminated
What is more, the middle class is assured with certain (almost predominant) in the 1920-ies. It was also a hike
economic independence and the liberty in the selection in middle class identity.
of the field of economic and market activity. These Actually, all the definitions given to middle class
independence and liberty are said to be impossible by various scientists, institutions and even fields of
without either sufficient income or social “intermediacy”. knowledge (political economy, economics,
So, the characteristic feature of the middle class anthropology, etc.) are quite different, sometimes almost
seems to “hold the keys of the social progress” (xiv), contradictory, and even now, there is a persistent
actually, holding together the most qualified and source of confusion around this term. This confusion
motivated experts with the highest potential of civil “derives predominantly from there being no set criteria
activity and the deepest civil/social cognizance. This for such a definition” (xix). Just the opposite, there are
class is endowed with the excellent social prestige while too much criteria, in terms of different perspectives and
it is performing the functions of technological and disciplines.
economic progress in a society. Another option could be to give the definition of
middle class “not in words but in numbers”: for
IV. History of the Concept instance, “the statistical middle class includes all those
households with income ranging from $25,000 to
The first text where the term of “middle class” $100,000” (xx). There is just one shag to it: on the one
appears is “The Suppliants” by Euripides. His hand, “some of the households, while actually being in
compatriot and “father of European philosophy”, the middle and thus sometimes referred to as being
Aristotle read his own thoughts into the words of the middle class, cannot, however, afford the middle class
ancient Greek playwright: “The most perfect political lifestyle” (xxi), and, on the other hand, a number of
community is one in which the middle class is in control, households with much lower average incomes believe
and outnumbers both of the other classes” (xv). they are a middle class people, according with focus-
In the Middle Ages, the (concept of) middle group surveys”. The best answer/remark to such a
class was consigned to oblivion. The revival of the term “numeric definition” is given by Dante Chinni, (see
– and, in all likelihood, of the class itself – began after above).

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 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

V. Why a Class? relations between and within units, instead of the

First of all, what does a social class mean? properties of these units themselves – this is the Axiom
Sociologists identify it as “any group of citizens who of the Social Network Approach to understanding social
share the equitable socioeconomic conditions”. interaction. Thus, one common criticism of social
However, the only thing that we certainly know so far is network theory is that individual agency is often ignored.
that there, evidently, should be more than one individual Social Class. In common parlance, the term
who sort him/herself as middle class. So, we definitely “social class” or, more strictly, “socio-economic class”
talk about of a group. But there might be social groups is usually defined as “people having the same social,
of several different types: social aggregates, social unit, economic, or educational status”, e.g., “the working
social network. After, we endeavor to show what is class”; “an emerging professional class”, etc. But
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specific about Social Class and why the middle class is etymologically, the term “class” is derived from the Latin
a social class. classis, which was used by census takers to categorize
Social Aggregate is a concept that has two citizens in terms of their wealth, in order to determine
meanings. First, it means the totality of social units military service obligations. Such meaning had remained
20
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24 (individuals, households, clans, etc.) that is the result of for the entire epoch of feudalism. Roughly speaking,
their spatial approaching. During this approaching, during incessant medieval wars it was important to
demarcate the extent to which is a peasant armored,
Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I

these social units do not alter due to the establishment

of an aggregate, unlike certain convergence (community and to know, whether is he in position to hold a brigade,
of ideas, interests or opinions) that emerges in other does he avail a horse or is he merely an unmounted
social groups where the above social units are warrior. Neither level of comfort nor annual income was
interconnected. Apparently, this is not the case of the much important at that time.
middle class, the members of which are closely bound. Science rivals such as Weber and Marx both
Second, Social Aggregate is the aggregation of the defined social classes as the groups with same or
individuals who share certain behavior or characteristics similar economic basis. The difference was however that
(for instance, demographics) but are not socially Karl Marx positioned social classes in the realm of
organized, i.e. social category or nominal group are not industrial relations: Bourgeoisie or the owners of the
common for them). So, basically, the Social Aggregate means of production exploit Proletariat i.e. those who
is the result of the random scatter of various individuals, produce goods and services, while Max Weber
households, etc., and is only based on accidental positioned social classes in terms of labor market, and,
indicators. We have found that middle class, based on on the basis of type of property and services used for
scientifically valid psychological and anthropological income, he acknowledged two different socio-economic
phenomena, is the result of the tendencies far from classes: owners (Besitzklassen or réntier) and acquirers
being accidental. (Erwerbsklassen). The first was defined as “a class of
Social Unit is an organization regarded as a part persons living on income from property / investments
of a larger social group. In different contexts, Social Unit and/or having a fixed income, as from lands or bonds”.
may include administrative body, military force, political That was the Pluralist Concept of Classes: there are so
entry, working party, etc. As we see, different members many classes as many there are forms of property.
(or member groups) of the middle class may and do In short, as regards for the middle class, Karl
participate in various social units but definitely, there Marx was an acknowledger of two antagonist classes:
should be no “overlap” between “social class” and Proletariat and Bourgeoisie. Max Weber believed that
“social unit”. the development of administrative personnel in a jural
Social Network is a social structure made up of state would make the middle class more and more
a set of actors (individuals or organizations) and the vital/essential (as an educated class).
dyadic ties between them. The social network However, Marxian bipolar paradigm as well as
perspective provides a clear way of analyzing the Weberian multi-polar model both could hardly find a
structure of whole social entities. The study of these place for the middle class.
structures uses social network analysis to identify local It is comparatively easy to demarcate a group of
and global patterns, locate influential entities, network income: it is just a segment of percents. It is, however,
dynamics. Thus, the middle class is a very open and much more difficult to define a social class. We found
mobile structure with dominant communication, also the useful approach and paradigm in magnificent
considered as a Social Network describing a social “Human Action” by Ludwig von Mises. German
structure determined by the ties through which any sociologist uses the concept of “Ideal Type” that has
given social unit connections represent the convergence nothing in common with either statistical average or
of the various social contacts of that unit. What is midrange value. Many of the Ideal Type’s “aspects may
essential is that social phenomena should be primarily neither be reduced nor subject to any numerical
conceived and investigated through the properties of determination […] The main reason is that a statistical

© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US)

 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

average define the behavior of a class or type, which Lower middle class consists of semi-
has been already determined by the description professionals. These are people in technical and lower-
referring to some other features the reference to which is level management positions who work for those in the
not given therein. The class or type belonging should be upper middle class. They have lower educational
known by the moment when the statistics can start its attainment, considerably less workplace autonomy and
research of some individual features and/or …or the lower incomes. A group of authors are fair using the
midrange value” (xxiv). Ludwig von Mises comes up with following description for the lower middle class: “They
the following conclusion: “It is logically impossible to enjoy a reasonably comfortable standard of living,
belong to a social class / group on the basis of although it is constantly threatened by taxes and
statistical average or midrange value”. inflation.” (xxvii).
So, we can research certain features of certain

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groups, classes and categories (“How many doctors are VII. Middle Class: Search Criteria
there in Senate”; “How many staff members aged from
Economic Level. The First Method. Traditionally,
30 to 45 y.o. are there in the head office of Norfolk
those households who spend no more then 30% of their
Schools Credit Union”, etc.). However, no statistical
monthly income on house rent/purchase may be 20
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calculations can let us define the group belonging any
categorized as middle class. So, many authors propose
single group member. There should be some criteria
operational definitions of this Level: “75% and 125% of

Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I
and characteristics to let us know “who is whose”.
the national median should be used as the extremes.
As we shall see, this is particularly right as far as
<…> 75/125 Method means almost 25% of the U.S.
the middle class belonging is concerned. It is not
population is the middle class people” (xxviii).
difficult to tell so called lower class from upper class:
The Second Method is based on the “indices
just engagement and income level will be enough. But it
rating households on an income-to-needs basis (xxix)”.
can be difficult enough in the particular instance of the
A score of one signifies household income that borders
middle class! Apparently, there can or should be some
on the poverty level. Using this ratio, approximately 50 %
psychological, social, even national grounds for this
of American households “appeared” the American
“middle class Weltanschauung”.
middle class in 1989 (which is, obviously, not the same
VI. Sub-Divisions of Middle Class thing as “Asian middle class” or “European middle
class”).
The middle class is the most mobile, so to say, So, from the economic standpoint, middle class
“vertically mobile” class. is the main tax-payer, the key interior investor. The
Upper middle class, made up of professionals economic behavior of the middle class people is aimed
distinguished by exceptionally high educational at the evaluation of the professional
attainment as well as high economic security. It consists expertise/competence of market players.
mostly of “white collar” professionals whose work is Journalist Chris Baker examined the ambiguous
largely self-directed. Most of them are highly educated. meaning of the term “middle class”. He interviewed a
These professionals typically conceptualize, create, man who earned about $100,000 a year and a woman
consult, and supervise. Upper middle class employees who made $35,000, both of whom said they were
enjoy greater autonomy and are more satisfied with their middle class. Jared Bernstein, an economist at the
careers than non-professional middle class individuals. liberal Economic Policy Institute, came up with no
A household incomes commonly exceed $100,000. generally accepted, but a broad definition: “There are
Says Dennis Gilbert: “The upper middle class working families who can <…> have some
has grown... and its composition has changed. investments, but they depend on each paycheck for
Increasingly salaried managers and professionals have their well-being” (xxxi).
replaced individual business owners and independent Professional criterion. Notably, in most modern
professionals” (xxvi). The lifestyles and opinions of the Western societies up to 60% of the economically active
upper-middle-class become increasingly normative for population are engaged in the sphere of services
the entire society. According to sociologists such as (mostly, medical and educative services; “economically-
Dennis Gilbert, James Henslin, Joseph Hickey, and active population” is the term applied to the population
William Thompson, the upper middle class constitutes aged between 16 and 60 and engaged in economic
15% of the population (xxv). activities). The professional profile of the upper middle
Middle-middle class. This term is applied to class includes professors, lawyers, doctors and top
those at the actual center of the income strata, while this managers, while the representatives of lower and
class may be composed of the households whose middle-middle class work in retail sales, inn-keeping,
annual incomes is from 80% to 120% of the national public service establishment, chain of restaurants / fast-
median household income. food, repair shops, ateliers, etc.

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 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

Certain middle class sectors (varying from of kingdom or empire – was obliged to get engaged in
country to country) are engaged in the sphere of the agricultural activities. So, familial and citizenship
industry (as additional to that of services). Typical job social network prevailed over clan relations, and this
openings for the middle class members are small- and NEW social unit fundamentally differed the ancient
middle-scale enterprises display several key branches Greek civilization from all its historical predecessors. It
of the up-to-date industry, including partner enterprises became the bud of the middle class. This class was
that produce separate parts and assemblies for various called “demos” – the social layer between propertyless
tools, machines, lathes, etc. class of slaves and the “lamina” of oligarchs; those
Educational Level. Middle class representatives citizens of demos were hated by both yet trying to “knit
are remarkable for permanent emphasis on education: together” the society of a city-state. The power and
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they always have advanced post-secondary education. authority of the demos was always against tyranny – the
In American Demographics, Elia Kacapyr argues that power of oligarchs, - and its name was “democracy”:
education continues to be the most important weapon the power and authority of the free and educated class.
for providing upward mobility (xxxii). Generally speaking, That class had “schole” (σχολή) – a pause, the free time
high educative level is considered as an upper middle to teach and to rule, to explore the laws and mysteries of
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class criterion, despite the fact that many entrepreneurs the nature, to be creative. They became the class of
and business owners lack higher education. poets and scientists, patriot rulers and philosophers.
Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I

Social Level (“Class Consciousness” Level).

Most polls suggest that 90 % or more of Americans b) Middle Class in Roman Republic
consider themselves to be “working class”, “middle Ancient Greek colonists brought their civil
class” or even “upper-middle class”. The results of tradition to the Italic peninsula. The success of Ancient
these polls can be found at Survey by USA Today and Rome in the conquest of the kingdoms established by
Gallup Organization (May 2006). (xxxiii). its neighboring tribes, and the origin of the Roman
Political Level. What do politicians mean when Republic were the result of the legacy of the democratic
they mention “middle class”? Each politician may be polis tradition – in short, the middle class. However, the
talking about a different group of people (depending on founder of the Roman Empire, Gaius Julius Caesar was
his/her target audience which varies from country to a middle class by origin.
country). For example, Democratic presidential In fact, it can be said that to be a Roman citizen
candidate John Edwards calls for “tax breaks to honor meant being right between the layer of slaves and the
and strengthen three pillars of America’s middle class: emperor. The middle class people could be poorer or
savings, work, and families”. (xxx). Republican richer but the most important thing was: they were free,
candidate Mitt Romney, meanwhile, has proposed they could vote to choose leaders, that is, they could
eliminating “taxes on dividends, capital gains, and take part in Roman politics. After all inhabitants of the
interest on middle class families.” Empire (“barbarians”) were granted Roman citizenship
As regards for the political point of view, it is up by the constitutio Antoniniana the middle class, the
to the middle class to determine the priorities and value class of rulers, - and later the Western Roman Empire –
orientations for the electorate. The political orientations collapsed.
are based on the following: law-abiding citizens should c) Middle Class after the Dark Ages: Origin or Revival
protect human rights and principles of democracy. Middle Ages were not the right time for Middle
Spreading its own social, cultural and political views and Class. The establishment (“re-naissance”) of the middle
values “upwards and downwards”, the middle class class commenced after what we know as Renaissance
becomes a society integrator. (so called Quattrocento). The following factors caused
Last but not least: in domestic relations, middle class is or lead to the factual triumph of the middle class in the
referenced to be on guard of family values. 16-19th centuries:
VIII. History of Middle Class (1) First, the colonial exploitation of the 16th century
drastically raised the standard of living (and the level
a) Origin of Middle Class of wealth) among the bourgeois. While the nobility
Ancient Greek city-state – “polis” (π όλις) – owned, and the peasantry worked the countryside –
became the motherland of middle class. Communities that is, both nobility and peasantry were attached to
of subsistent farmers in Ancient Greece were not as rich the countryside and the agrarian production – a new
as those in the empires of Egypt and Mesopotamia, so bourgeoisie arose around mercantile functions in
they were not only challenged but also encouraged to the city. Ironically speaking, these “town-dwellers”
replace (and improve) the tribal and communal relations (literal translation of “bourgeoisie“ or “burger”) were
and land ownership. As the matter of fact, their land not noble but they had noble metals in abundance:
plots on the Peloponnesus were much smaller and less they had so much capital that they could rival the
fertile. Therefore, mostly one single household – instead original nobles.

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 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

(2) In fact, to be a capital-owning millionaire was the The paramount leader Deng Xiaoping declared:
essential criterion of the middle class identity during “To get rich is glorious!” and “Poverty is not Socialism!”
the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution The subsequent economic reform in China impressed
was the second major factor that eventually lead to the world: the number of its people in abject poverty had
the bourgeois revolutions in several western felt from 250 million to 20 million. Over the past 30
countries. Since then, middle class is constantly years, the People's Republic of China is the world's
pro-innovative, that is, the class of strong partisans second largest economy (by nominal GDP and by
of both technical and social reforms/innovations); purchasing power parity) after the United States (xxxvi),
(3) Bourgeois revolutions shouldered aside the “out-of- and also the world's fastest-growing major economy,
date” nobility for the sake of “new lords, new laws”, with average growth rate at 10% (xxxvii). In addition,
full of energy and initiative. First, the middle classes China is the largest exporter and second largest

Year 2013
helped drive the French Revolution; later, the French importer of goods in the world.
Revolution would lend a hand to the middle class The target of “Xiaokang society” will be
people. achieved by 2020 if only the country keeps annual
The colonial expansion, the industrial progress economic growth at a minimum of 7%: the last year,
China's per capita GDP had already broken the $2,000 20
2
27
and, finally, the bourgeois revolutions equated the
middle class to the original meaning of capitalist. The mark!

Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I
bourgeoisie is defined by Friedrich Engels as “the class These are theory and practice of the China’s
of capitalists, who own the means of social production middle class. As regards for the Asia’s middle class, it is
and are the employers of wage labor” (xxxv). In this growing dramatically relative to other regions of the
sense the bourgeoisie does not include the intermediate world (with an average middle class representative
middle class whose labor is supervisory and intellectual. earning $2 to $20 per day). Back in 2008, about 56 % of
developing Asia’s population was considered middle
class (against only 21 % in 1990 (xxxviii).
IX. Middle Class as National Class: The following Pareto Table (from the same
Stories Worldwide source) is the best way to reflect the comparative middle
class statistics in China vs. other Asian countries:
a) Middle Class in China
Middle class should definitely be something
special for Zhongguo – the Middle Kingdom or Middle
Country (a Chinese name for China). As early as
Confucius (4th century BC) invented the term to
describe a society of modest means: Xiaokang. In the
ancient use, it could be loosely translated as a “basically
well-off” society in which the people are able to live
relatively comfortably, albeit ordinarily. Three thousand
years later, Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping breathed new
life into the term: Xiaokang society became the eventual
goal of Chinese modernization in 1979.
“The vision of a xiaokang society is one in which
most people are moderately well off <…>, but in which
economic advancement is not the sole focus of society.
<…> Economic growth needs to be balanced with
sometimes conflicting goals of social equality and
environmental protection”. (xviii)
The revival of the concept of Xiaokang Society
was in part a criticism of social trends in mainland China
in the 1990s under Jiang Zemin, in which many in China b) Middle Class in Latin America
felt was focusing too much on the newly rich and not Official reports say, the middle class constitutes
enough on the rural poor. Furthermore, there has been a up to 65 % of the total population of the Latin American
fear in some circles that Chinese society has become countries (while only in Chile the level of middle class is
too materialistic placing material wealth above all other attaining as much as 77 %!). Back in 1990, it was slightly
social needs”. But the fact is: regardless of very hard over a half (53%) but the entire region has survived
social and economic situation in almost devastated serious changes in the realm of social and economic
China, the social (and after, economic and political) environment, since then. So today, the region of Latin
reforms appeared not as dramatic as they could be (and America with its 286 millions of the middle class
not as destructive as in the USSR). members has ceased to be “the world of the poor”.

© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US)

 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

Now, as José Juan Ruiz indicates, “the average per Obviously, this space is too broad: it is even wider than
capita income in these countries is $10 per day” (xxxix). the quantity distance between these numbers – twenty-
One more quotation from same analyst: five thousands and one hundred thousands. That is why
“Mexico … has a middle class twice as large as that of William E. Thompson and Joseph V. Hickey (xlv) put
Spain, while the Brazilian middle class is some 1.25 forward a five-class model of the American middle class,
times larger than its Spanish equivalent” (ibid.) in which the middle class consists of the two subgroups,
Some analysts predict that “by 2030, more than as follows:
100 million Latin American will cross the threshold of the Average representatives of an upper middle
$10,000 per capita annual income, and this will greatly class (up to 15% of the population) are also called
influence the standards of request and consumption”, “professional class” or “white collars”. They are
Year 2013

says Joaquin Vial, Chief Economist, Global Trends at distinguished by high educational attainment (advanced
BBVA Location (xl). No doubt, this will happen for the post-secondary education) as well as high economic
benefit of not only South America. security. They normally earn around $100,000 a year.
All theorists of middle class as well as A lower middle class (about 33%) usually
researchers of the Latin American countries and consists of college graduates/ graduating seniors
20
2
28
societies agree that, first of all, it is education that (associates and bachelors) as well as semi-
requires a second “regional ‘push’”, because it is professionals. Compared to the former, representatives
Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I

education that stands for “the most potent weapon for of this subclass have lower educational attainment,
improving social mobility and broadening the middle considerably less workplace autonomy, and lower
classes” (xli). incomes. The professional profile of the lower middle
Among five “new middle-classers” three are class includes school teachers, sales and transport
from Brazil: according to Getulio Vargas Foundation workers, manual laborers, lower and middle managers,
(Fundação Getulio Vargas, São Paulo), by 2010, the etc., who constitute the majority of the middle class.
Brazilian middle class topped 50% of the total
d) Middle Class in Western Europe
population of the country (ca. 160 millions) (xlii). The
Vast literature about the status and the recent
second leading country in the region is Mexico, although
trends, as regards for the middle class in the countries
its middle class has not grown unlike that of Brazil,
of Western Europe, may be summarized in the Analyst
Chile, Peru or Columbia. Just the opposite: the
Insight by Media Eghbal: “the share of middle class
numerous middle class that was in existence these two
households' total disposable income has fallen in the
decades ago had strongly minimized; “what has grown
decade before 2007, as average disposable incomes
though is the number of households below the poverty
have not increased much beyond inflation”. Several
line”. According with the Enrique Dussel’s explanation
tables indicating the steep prices rise and huge fall in
(Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana, Mexico), close
most households’ incomes between 1997 and 2007 are
economic contacts with the USA allowed the Great
evidential” (xlvi).
Financial Crisis and the Great Recession to “infiltrate” in
In 2008 and later, the situation had even
this country. The same way, up to 30% of the
worsened, since the sharp increases in food and energy
Argentina’s middle class grew poor in 2001 (ibid.).
prices squeezed Western European middle class
Another country with “once-mighty middle
households. In the UK, Spain and other countries, the
class” is Uruguay. By the last decade of the last century,
purchasing power of lower middle class households is
its middle class had the larger percentage but the
undermined and confidence is low.
repeated economic crises elbowed the Uruguay’s
Soaring prices cause industrial and political
middle class aside in favor of oligarchs.
unrest: first come strikes. Unsuccessful strikes tend to
“The main problem with the middle class in repeat and know no end, while successful strikes can
Latin America is that it is very vulnerable, that is, very trigger further inflation. It should be said, however, that a
close to poverty line”, says Enrique Dussel (xliv). In wave of strikes is sweeping through Western Europe:
accordance with his calculations, there are three “France, Germany, the UK, and smaller economies have
obvious leaders or three biggest middle class segments seen industrial action in a range of sectors, from
(in percent): Chile (77%), Uruguay (72%) and Argentina teachers to railway workers, demanding wage
(71%). The countries with the smallest segments include increases” (ibid.). In some places, like Germany and
Columbia (61%) and Peru (57%). However, the car sales Greece, strikers succeeded in securing substantial pay
in Peru had grown by 54% (from January to September rises for employees.
2010), over not more than eight months. To resume the aforementioned, the today’s
c) Middle Class in the United States middle class in most Western European countries is
Almost common description constitutes that the caught in a vicious circle. So far, no decisive effort to
American middle class is an aggregate of social groups find out the solution of this problem has been made.
whose annual income ranges from $25,000 to $100,000.

© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US)

 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

e) Middle Class in USSR/FSU communist societies, of their transition to market

In this section we shall discuss several post- system. Using survey data from both Poland and
Soviet countries at the background of the middle class international studies Henryk Domanski examined both
status in the Soviet Union. the main impediments and driving forces on this route.
i. RUSSIA First, he showed that the main candidates to the post-
communist middle class were higher managers along
Both Soviet and Russian experts recognize par
excellence there was no middle class under Soviet with intellectuals and owners. As regards for the
regime. Moreover, most Soviet analysts denied the very development of cultural and economic liberalism,
possibility of the middle class existence and the validity Domanski argues this is the middle class orientations.
According to the European Social Survey
of the concept: following Karl Marx they tolerated only a
2004/2005 data, post-communist societies prove to be

Year 2013
very flexible and mobile, temporary phenomenon
between the antagonist classes of the ruler and the still less liberal than Western countries. The “mentality
ruled. lag” displays also in ratings of occupational prestige in
At the same time, if there is a sign of equality Poland where business and managerial positions are
marked with lower evaluations than expected. Henryk
between the middle class and well-to-do section of the 20
2
29
population we could call the vast majority of the Soviet Domanski’s position is that “confronted with harsh
population (between the late 1960ies to the late 1980ies) reality of the market relations, emerging middle class

Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I
“the middle class people”, because all they – from society will be more enforced than willingly accepted”
workers and teachers to engineers and scientific officers (xlv).
– could easily afford to purchase a vehicle (mostly or g) Middle Class in Georgia: A Migrant Class
definitely, a Soviet brand), to pay for lodging, to choose A number of Russian sources prove that “the
almost any corner of the Soviet Union for their holiday labor migration is one of the primary sources of the
(at least, biyearly)… Additionally, free secondary, middle class generation in a number of advanced
graduate and post-graduate education, also free health countries”. At the same time, in the majority of
protection and almost unbelievable stability... developing, poor and post-crisis countries, both
The only thing was that the Soviet people totally migration and labor migration are primarily the initiative
lacked a necessary global attribute of the middle class: of the middle class: lower layer people cannot afford to
freedom! leave the country and go abroad, while the motivation
level of upper class members is really low if any.
ii. Kazakhstan
Normally, a middle class family has ca. 50,000 Georgia is primarily a country of origin of
Tenge (~$700-800) income per family member, a three- migrants with flows directed mainly towards the Russian
room apartment and two or three vehicles. As a rule, Federation, United States, Greece, Germany, Turkey,
though, the real estate is a “Soviet heritage” (because Austria, and a number of other EU member states such
as France and Spain (International Organization of
most families got their apartments in so-called “period
of stagnation” / 1960-1970-ies), the vehicles are almost Migration, 2008). As a typical post-Soviet country
same age as the apartments (since a Western term of Georgia has been seriously affected by out-migration
“middle class” is applied to the local situation, the after its independence proclaimed in 1991. The last
“descriptors” should be compared, too), and the 2002 population census in Georgia registered a drop of
some 20% from the number of population registered in
income may widely fluctuate. So, as most Kazakhstan’s
analysts conclude, although the market-style reforms the 1989 census. “The largest part of this drop is due to
seem obvious the ostensive proof of these reforms – emigration. Georgia for the period of 1989-2005 has the
that is, clearly segmented middle class – is not given in second highest net migration proportion after
Kazakhstan in the Commonwealth of Independent
point of fact. “Middle class should be the basis of a
society, and yet, it is not a predominant factor” in the States (xlv).
Kazakh society (xlvii). The problem is, however, that “Georgian official
In short, the Kazakhstan’s middle class shares statistics on migration … is based since 2004 on the
some of the same problems currently haunting other data on passenger-flows provided to the Georgian
Statistical Office by the Georgian Border Department.
FSU countries: this class is immature, even “unformed”;
also, it is too fragile: the recent Financial Crisis This data informs only about the gross numbers of
“transformed” many of the middle class households entries and exits and for this moment no practice to
back into the lower class. The same thing happened in track individual comings and goings” (xlvi) in order to
the Ukraine, Russian Federation, most countries in the classify or range migrants is on place. Therefore, we
may only make a proposition that, in accordance with
Middle Asia and South Caucasus.
the above thesis of the Russian analysts, a huge
f) Middle Class in Eastern Europe number of the middle class people has left the country.
Development of middle class society may be
taken to measure a degree of modernization of post-
© 2013 Global Journals Inc. (US)
 Middle Class: Definition, Role and Development

The following may be considered as an indirect 10. Brian K. William, Stacy C. Sawyer and Carl M.
evidence of the leading role of the middle class in the Wahlstrom, Marriages, Families & Intimate
out-migration: the out-migration from Georgia (mostly to Relationships, 2006
USSR and CIS countries) topped out in 1989-1992. In 11. Chinese Middle Class Statistics:
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Georgia since 2004, even contrary, an opposite 14. Gilbert, Dennis (1997). American Class Structure in
tendency of in-flows to Georgia is mentioned for two last an Age of Growing Inequality. Wadsworth.
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20
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Global Journal of Human Social Science ( c ) Volume XIII Issue VII Version I

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