C

13 H A P T E R

Visual Testing Glossary

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.
 Terms

Introduction Definitions

Purpose A
Standards writing bodies take great pains acceptable quality level (AQL):
to ensure that their standards are Maximum percent defective (or the
definitive in wording and technical maximum percentage of units with
accuracy. People working to written rejectable discontinuities) that, for the
contracts or procedures should consult purposes of sampling tests, can be
definitions referenced in standards when considered satisfactory as a process
appropriate. For example, persons who average.
work in accordance with standards acceptance criterion: Benchmark against
published by ASTM International are which test results are to be compared
encouraged to refer to definitions in the for purposes of establishing the
ASTM standards.1 functional acceptability of a part or
The definitions in this Nondestructive system being examined.4
Testing Handbook volume should not be acceptance level: Measured value or
referenced for tests performed according values above or below which test
to standards or specifications or in objects are acceptable, in contrast to
fulfillment of contracts. This glossary is rejection level.4
provided for instructional purposes. No acceptance standard: (1) Specimen,
other use is intended. similar to the product to be tested,
containing natural or artificial
On References discontinuities that are well defined
Many definitions in this glossary are and similar in size or extent to the
adapted from other volumes of the maximum acceptable in the product.4
Nondestructive Testing Handbook series, (2) Document defining acceptable
especially from the second edition’s Visual discontinuity size limits. See also
and Optical Testing (1993).2 standard.
Some terms apply generally to accommodation: Of the eye, adjustment
nondestructive testing and are not specific of the lens’ focusing power by
to visual testing — terms on subjects such changing the thickness and curvature
as metallurgy, quality control and of the lens through its movement by
personnel qualification. Many of these tiny muscles.
definitions come from the second edition ACGIH: American Conference of
volume Nondestructive Testing Overview Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
(1996)3; some are rephrased in the third acuity: See neural acuity, vision acuity.
edition’s most recent volume, Magnetic adaptive thresholding: Threshold value
Testing (2008).4 varying with inconstant background
Entries from other volumes in the gray level.
Nondestructive Testing Handbook series are adhesive wear: See wear, adhesive.
reprinted but generally not referenced alpha ferrite: Form of pure iron that has
below. a body centered cubic structure stable
below 910 °C (1670 °F). Also called
alpha iron.
alpha iron: See alpha ferrite.
ambient light: Light in the environment
as opposed to illumination provided
by a visual testing system.
ampere (A): SI unit of electric current.4
angle: See field angle.
angstrom (Å): Disused unit of length. 1 Å
= 0.1 nm.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

304 Visual Testing

 anomaly: (1) In nondestructive testing, a blue light hazard: Danger posed to the
nonrelevant indication. (2) In eye by long term exposure to high
nondestructive testing, an frequency visible light at intensities
unintentional or undesired material and durations that may damage the
condition that may qualify as a defect. retina.
Compare defect; discontinuity. Some borescope: Industrial endoscope; a
anomalies, such as inadequate case periscope or telescope using mirrors,
hardening or rough surface finish, prisms, lenses, optic fibers or
may be defects but, because there is no television wiring to transmit images
interruption in the material structure, from inaccessible interiors for visual
are not discontinuities. testing. Borescopes are so called
ASNT Recommended Practice because they were originally used in
No. SNT-TC-1A: See Recommended machined apertures and holes such as
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. gun bores. There are both flexible and
ASNT: American Society for rigid borescopes.
Nondestructive Testing. borescope, angulated: Borescope bent for
automated system: Acting mechanism viewing at forward oblique, right angle
that performs required tasks at a or retrospective angles for visual
determined time and in a fixed testing of surfaces not accessible with
sequence in response to certain conventional borescopes.
conditions or commands. borescope, calibrated: Borescope with
axial: Of or pertaining to a direction gage on external tube to indicate the
along the length of an oblong object depth of insertion during a test.
and perpendicular to its radius — for Borescopes with calibrated reticles are
example, down the length of a used to determine angles or sizes of
cylinder. Compare radial. objects in the field when held at a
predetermined working distance.
borescope, cave: Multiangulated,
B periscopic borescope used for remote
observation of otherwise inaccessible
background cylinder and difference areas.
cylinder: Two devices used to borescope, fiber optic: Industrial
calculate illuminance by using the endoscope, or fiber optic borescope,
equivalent sphere illumination that uses glass or quartz fibers to
technique.2,5 transmit light and the optical path to
binary system: In metallurgy, a and from the test object.
two-element alloy system. See also borescope, indexing: Borescope that can
isomorphous binary system. be bent 90 degrees by rotation of a
birefringence: Splitting of a light beam knob after the instrument has been
into two parts through a translucent inserted through an aperture. A knob
material. at the eyepiece can rotate the objective
black body: Theoretical object that head through 360 degrees for
radiates more total power and more scanning a circumferential weld seam.
power at any wavelength than any borescope, micro-: Borescope with an
other source operating at the same outside diameter generally from 1 to
temperature.2,5 5 mm (0.04 to 0.2 in.), typically using
blackbody: See black body. quartz filaments. Compare miniature
black light: Term sometimes used for borescope.
ultraviolet radiation, particularly in borescope, miniature: Borescope with an
the near ultraviolet range of about outside diameter generally less than
320 to 400 nm. 13 mm (0.5 in.). Sometimes called
blacklight: See black light. miniborescope. See also microborescope.
blind spot: Portion of the retina where borescope, panoramic: Borescope with a
the optic nerve enters, without rods scanning mirror mounted in front of
and cones and hence insensitive to the objective lens system. Rotation of
light.2,6 the mirror is adjusted at the ocular
blister: Discontinuity in metal, on or near end of the instrument to scan in
the surface, resulting from the forward oblique, right angle and
expansion of gas in a subsurface zone. retrospective directions.
Very small blisters are called pinheads borescope, retrospective: Borescope that
or pepper blisters.4 looks backward more than 90 degrees
blotch: (1) An irregularly spaced area of from the distal line of interrogation
color change on a surface. (2) The normal to the plane of a conventional
nonuniform condition of a surface objective lens.
characterized by such blotches. borescope, rigid: Borescope that does not
blowhole: Hole in a casting or a weld bend, typically in order to keep the
caused by gas entrapped during geometrical optics in alignment
solidification.4 through a light train system.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 305

 borescope, ultraviolet: Borescope channels: In biology, mechanisms
equipped with ultraviolet lamps, filters functioning as band pass filters in the
and special transformers to transmit visual cortex of mammals, causing
radiation of ultraviolet wavelengths. sensitivity to visual stimuli in
borescope, video: Borescope transmitting particular frequencies and ranges.
image electronically. charge coupled device (CCD): Solid state
borescope, waterproof/vaporproof: image sensor. Charge coupled devices
Borescope completely sealed and are widely used in inspection systems
impervious to water or other types of because of their accuracy, high speed
fluid, used for internal tests of liquid, scanning and long service life.
gas or vapor environments. check cracking: Surface crack caused by
borescope, wide field: Borescope with overheating and having cross hatched
rotating objective prism to provide pattern. See grinding crack.
fields of view up to 120 degrees. closing: In image processing, dilation
borescopy: Viewing or inspection with a followed by erosion. A single pixel by
borescope. closing connects a broken feature
brinelling: Repeated stripe indentations separated by one pixel. See also
made by a spherical object. False opening.
brinelling refers to a type of surface closure: Process by which a person
wear. cognitively completes patterns or
burr: Raised or turned over edge occurring shapes that are incompletely
on a machined part and resulting from perceived.
cutting, punching or grinding.2,5 cocoa: Debris (usually oxides of the
burst: In metal, external or internal contacting metals) of fretting wear,
rupture caused by entrapped gas. retained at or near the site of its
butt weld: Weld that joins the edges of formation — a condition easily
two work pieces in the same plane. identified during visual tests. With
ferrous metals, the debris is brown, red
or black, depending on the type of
C iron oxide formed. For this reason,
ferrous debris is called cocoa or, when
calibration: (1) Ratio of the output from a mixed with oil or grease, red mud.
device to a reference input. Knowledge code: Standard enacted or enforced as a
of this ratio helps to infer a device’s law.
input from its output. (2) Act of coefficients of the filter: Values in a
returning an instrument to the mask that serves as a filter in image
parameters and settings of the original processing.
equipment manufacturer. cold light: Disused word for fluorescence.
(3) Statement of the scale of a device. color: Visual sensation by means of which
candela (cd): Base SI unit of luminous humans distinguish light of differing
intensity, in a given direction, of a hue (predominant wavelengths),
monochromatic radiation source that saturation (degree to which those
has a frequency of 5.4 × 1014 Hz and radiations predominate over others)
that has a radiant intensity in that and lightness.
direction of 1.464 mW·sr –1.4 color blindness: Deficiency in ability to
candle: Former name for candela. perceive or distinguish hues.
cavitation fatigue: Form of pitting, color discrimination: Perception of
caused by erosion from vibration and differences between two or more hues.
movement in liquid environments. color temperature: Rating of a light
CCD: See charge coupled device. source for color vision.
cementite: Iron carbide (Fe3C), a hard compound microscope: See microscope,
and brittle substance present in steels. compound.
certification: With respect to cone: Part of the eye; color sensitive
nondestructive test personnel, the photoreceptor at the inner region of
process of providing written testimony the retina. Cones assist with mesopic
that an individual has met the vision and are responsible for
qualification requirements of a specific photopic vision. Compare rod.
practice or standard. See also certified confidence level: Level of assurance for
and qualified. detecting a specified discontinuity size
certified: With respect to nondestructive with a specified probability. See also
test personnel, having written probability of detection.
testimony of qualification. See also constitution diagram: See phase diagram.
certification and qualification. contrast: (1) Difference in color or
CGS system: Obsolete system of brightness between a test indication
measurement units based on the and background. (2) Difference
centimeter, gram and second. between the amount of light reflected
Compare SI. or transmitted by an object and by the
chafing: See wear, fretting. background in the field of view.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

306 Visual Testing

 control: See in control, process control and deformation: Change of shape under
quality control. load. See also creep and elastic
corrosion: Loss or degradation of metal deformation.
because of chemical reaction. delta ferrite: Solid solution with body
corrosion, crevice: Corrosion found in centered cubic structure and iron as
tight crevices or pores (pits) and solvent. Also called delta iron.
accelerated by galvanic activity from delta iron: See delta ferrite.
high ion concentrations. depth of field: In photography, the range
corrosion-erosion: Simultaneous of distance over which an imaging
occurrence of erosion and corrosion. system gives satisfactory definition
corrosion, fretting: Corrosion facilitated when its lens is in the best focus for a
by fretting, particularly where a specific distance.
protective surface has been chafed in a dewetting: In soldering, the flow and
corrosive environment. retraction of solder, caused by
corrosion, poultice: Corrosion occurring contaminated surfaces, dissolved
under a layer of foreign material (for surface coatings or overheating before
example, under mud in automobile soldering.
rocker panels). difference cylinder: See background
cosine law: Physical law stating that the cylinder.
illumination of a surface varies as the dilation: In image processing, the
cosine of the incidence angle. condition of a binary image where the
Maximum illumination is obtained pixel in the output image is a 1 if any
where the cosine equals one and when of its eight closest neighbors is a 1 in
the source is perpendicular to the the input image. See also closing,
surface. erosion and opening.
crack: (1) Stress induced break, fissure or diopter: Unit used to express the
rupture, sometimes V shaped in cross resolving power of lenses, equal to the
section and relatively narrow. By inverse of the length (in meters) of the
convention, a crack is called linear if it optical axis.
is at least three times longer than it is directional lighting: Lighting provided
wide. (2) Propagating discontinuity on the work plane or object
caused by fatigue, corrosion or stresses predominantly from a preferred
such as heat treating or grinding. May direction.2,6
be difficult to detect unaided because direct photometry: Simultaneous
of fineness of line and pattern (may comparison of a standard lamp and an
have a radial or latticed appearance). unknown light source.2,6
creep: Gradual and permanent change of direct substitution alloy: Alloy in which
shape in a metal under constant load, the atoms of the alloying element can
usually at elevated temperature. occupy the crystal lattice spaces
Occurs in three stages: primary creep, normally occupied by the atoms of the
secondary creep and tertiary creep. See parent metal.
also deformation. direct viewing: (1) Viewing of a test
crevice corrosion: See corrosion, crevice. object in the viewer’s immediate
presence. The term direct viewing is
used in the fields of robotics and
D surveillance to distinguish
conventional from remote viewing.
dark adaptation: Process by which the (2) Viewing of a test object during
retina becomes adapted to a which the light image is not mediated
luminance less than about through a system of two or more
0.034 cd·m–2.2,6 In dark adaptation, lenses (as in a borescope) or
the pupils dilate and the two types of transduced through an electronic
photoreceptors in the retina change signal (as with a charge coupled
chemical balance. After a finite camera). The term direct viewing is used
amount of time, possibly 10 min, in some specifications to mean
vision will change from photopic viewing possibly with a mirror or
vision to mesopic or scotopic low magnifier but not with a borescope.
illumination vision.4 Compare indirect viewing; remote
dark adapted vision: See accommodation, viewing.
visual; scotopic vision. direct vision instrument: Device offering
defect: Discontinuity whose size, shape, a view directly forward. A typical
orientation or location (1) makes it scene is about 20 mm (0.75 in.) wide
detrimental to the useful service of its at 25 mm (1 in.) from the objective
host object or (2) exceeds an lens.
accept/reject criterion of an applicable
specification. Some discontinuities do
not exceed an accept/reject criterion
and are therefore not defects.
Compare crack; discontinuity; indication.
From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 307

 discontinuity: Interruption in the equivalent 20/20 near vision acuity:
physical structure or configuration of a Vision acuity with remote viewing or
test object. After nondestructive other indirect viewing that
testing, a discontinuity indication can approximates 20/20 direct viewing
be interpreted to be a defect.4,7 closely enough to be considered the
Compare defect; indication. same for visual testing purposes.
discontinuity, artificial: Reference equivalent sphere illumination: Level of
discontinuity such as hole, perfectly diffuse (spherical)
indentation, crack, groove or notch illuminance that makes the visual task
introduced into a reference standard as photometrically visible within a
to provide accurately reproducible comparison test sphere as it is in the
indications for determining test real lighting environment.
sensitivity levels.4 erosion: (1) Loss of material or
discontinuity, inherent: Material degradation of surface quality through
anomaly originating from friction or abrasion from moving
solidification of cast metal. Pipe and fluids, made worse by solid particles in
nonmetallic inclusions are the most those fluids or by cavitation in the
common inherent discontinuity and moving fluid. See wear. (2) In image
can lead to other types of processing, condition of a binary
discontinuities in fabrication.2,5 image where the pixel in the output
discontinuity, primary processing: image becomes a 1 if each of its eight
Discontinuity produced from the hot neighbors is a 1 in the input image.
or cold working of an ingot into See also closing, dilation and opening.
forgings, rods, bars and other erosion-corrosion: Simultaneous
shapes.2,5 occurrence of erosion and corrosion.
discontinuity, secondary processing: etch crack: Shallow crack in hardened
Discontinuity produced during steel containing high residual surface
machining, grinding, heat treating, stresses, produced in an embrittling
plating or other finishing acid environment.2,5
operations.2,5 eutectic liquid: Liquid metal having a
discontinuity, service induced: proportion of metals such that two or
Discontinuity caused by the intended more solid phases form at the same
use of the part. temperature during cooling.
distal: In a manipulative or interrogating eutectic point: Temperature and
system, of or pertaining to the end proportion of metals at which two or
opposite from the eyepiece and more phases of a eutectic liquid form.
farthest from the person using the Compare eutectoid.
system. Objective; tip. eutectoid: Similar to eutectic but in a
solid system during cooling.
evaluation: Process of deciding the
E severity of a condition after an
indication has been interpreted, to
elastic deformation: Temporary change determine whether it meets
in shape under a load. The material acceptance criteria.
returns to its original size and shape eye sensitivity curve: Graphic expression
after the load is removed. Elastic of vision sensitivity characteristics of
deformation is the state in which most the human eye. In the case of a
metal components are used in service. physical photometer, the curve should
elasticity: Ability of a material to resume be equivalent to the standard observer.
its former shape after deformation. The required match is typically
electric arc welding: Joining of metals by achieved by adding filters between the
heating with electric arc. Also called sensitive elements of the meter and
arc welding. the light source. See photopic vision.
endoscope: Device for viewing the
interior of objects. From the Greek
words for inside view, the term F
endoscope is used mainly for medical
instruments. Nearly every medical false brinelling: Fretting wear
endoscope has an integral light source; indentations. Compare brinelling.
many incorporate surgical tweezers or false indication: Test indication that
other devices. See borescope. could be interpreted as originating
equilibrium diagram: Phase diagram from a discontinuity but that actually
showing the phases present at originates where no discontinuity
equilibrium in a material system. exists in the test object. Compare
indication, nonrelevant; defect.4

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

308 Visual Testing

 farsightedness: Vision acuity functionally flakes: Short discontinuous internal
adequate for viewing objects at a fissures in ferrous metals attributed to
distance, generally farther than arm’s stresses produced by localized
length. Also called hyperopia. Compare transformation and/or decreased
nearsightedness. solubility of hydrogen during cooling
far vision: Vision of objects at a distance, usually after hot working. On a
generally beyond arm’s length. fractured surface, flakes appear as
Compare near vision. bright silvery areas; on an etched
feature extraction: From an enhanced surface, flakes appear as short,
image, derivation of some feature discontinuous cracks.2,5
values, usually parameters for flaw: Rejectable anomaly.4 See also defect.
distinguishing objects in the image. fluorescence: Phenomenon of absorption
ferrite: Solid solution of one or more of electromagnetic radiation and its
other elements in alpha iron. reemission at a lower energy (longer
fiber optic borescope: See borescope, fiber wavelength). In visual testing,
optic. fluorescence is typically a response to
fiber optics: Technology of efficient ultraviolet radiation.
transmission of light through focus: Position of a viewed object and a
transparent fibers such as glass, quartz lens system relative to one another to
and plastic by means of total internal offer a distinct image of the object as
reflection. seen through the lens system. See
fiberscope: Jargon for fiber optic accommodation and depth of field.
borescope. focus, principal plane of: Single plane in
field: In video technology, one of two focus in a photographic scene.
video picture components that focusing, automatic: (1) Feature of a
together make a frame. Each picture is camera whereby the lens system
divided into two parts called fields adjusts to focus on an object in the
because a frame at the rate of thirty field of view. (2) Metaphorical
frames per second in a standard video attribute of a borescopic instrument’s
output would otherwise produce a depth of field (the range of distance in
flicker discernible to the eye. Each focus). The depth of field is so great in
field contains one half of the total the case of video borescopes that
picture elements. Two fields, then, are focusing is unnecessary for most
required to produce one complete applications. Despite the name, no
picture or frame so the field frequency mechanism is actively adjusted. The
is sixty fields per second and the frame large depth of field is due both to the
frequency is thirty frames per second. small diameter of the lens aperture
field angle: Included angle between those and to the proximity of the lens to the
points on opposite sides of a beam charge coupled device.
axis at which the luminous intensity is focusing, primary: Focusing by the lens
10 percent of the maximum value. of the image onto a fiber optic bundle
This angle may be determined from an at the tip of a probe.
illuminance curve or may be focusing, secondary: Focusing at the
approximated by use of an incident eyepiece of a borescope or other
light meter.2,6 optical instrument, specifically the
field of view: Range or area where things manual refocusing needed when the
can be seen through an imaging viewing distance changes.
system, lens or aperture. Compare footcandle (ftc): Disfavored unit of
depth of field. illuminance, where
field of vision: Range or area where 1 ftc = 1 lm·ft–2 = 10.76 lx.
things can be perceived by eyesight at footlambert (ftl): Disfavored unit of
a point in time, assuming the eye to luminance, where 1 ftl = 3.426 cd·m–2.
be immobile. forging crack: Stress induced
fillet weld: Weld of approximately discontinuity formed during
triangular cross section joining two mechanical shaping of metal; see
surfaces approximately at a right angle crack.
to each other. fovea centralis: Region of sharpest vision
filter: Processing component or function in the retina, where the layer of blood
that excludes a selected kind of signal vessels, nerve fibers and cells above
or part of a signal. the rods and cones is far thinner than
filtering: See low pass filtering. in peripheral regions.
fit up: To secure one or more joint foveal vision: See photopic vision.
members with special external fracture mechanics: Field of solid
fixturing in order to prevent mechanics that deals with behavior of
movement during welding.2,5 cracked bodies subjected to stress and
strain.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 309

 frame: Complete raster scan projected on general examination: In personnel
a video screen. There are thirty frames qualification, a test or examination of
per second in a standard video output. a person’s knowledge, typically (in the
A frame may be comprised of two case of nondestructive testing
fields, each displaying part of the total personnel qualification) a written test
frame. See also field. on the basic principles of a
frequency: Number of times per second nondestructive test method and
that a cyclical waveform repeats. The general knowledge of basic equipment
unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). used in the method. (According to
fretting corrosion: See corrosion, fretting. ASNT’s guidelines, the general
fretting wear: See wear, fretting. examination should not address
friction oxidation: See wear, fretting. knowledge of specific equipment,
codes, standards and procedures
pertaining to a particular application.)
G Compare practical examination and
specific examination.
galling: Type of surface damage caused by geometrical optics: Mathematical study
friction. of how light rays are reflected and
galvanic series: List of metals, alloys and refracted and practical techniques
graphite (a nonmetal) in sequence based on such understanding,
with the most anodic (easily corroded) including the transmission of images
in liquids at one end of the list and by lenses and mirrors. Also called lens
the most cathodic (least easily optics.
corroded) at the other end. For glare: Excessive brightness (or brightness
practical reasons, this sequence is varying by more than 10:1 within the
compiled using seawater as the field of view) that interferes with
electrolyte — 3 to 5 percent sodium observation or interpretation of a test
chloride and other salts dissolved in response. Glare may be caused by
water. reflection, whether specular (smooth
gamma iron: Iron with face centered surface) or diffuse (rough surface), of
cubic structure formed by slow cooling light or radiation sources.
of delta ferrite. This characteristic glare, blinding: Glare so intense that for
lattice structure is stable between an appreciable length of time after it
906 °C (1663 °F) and 1391 °C has been removed, no object can be
(2535 °F). Also called austenite. seen.2,6
gas metal arc welding (GMAW): Inert glare, direct: Glare resulting from high
gas shielded metal joining process that luminances or insufficiently shielded
uses a continuous and consumable light sources in the field of view.
wire electrode. Also called MIG (metal Direct glare is usually associated with
inert gas) welding. Compare gas bright areas, such as luminaires,
tungsten arc welding and shielded metal ceilings and windows which are
arc welding. outside the visual task or region being
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW): Inert viewed.2,6
gas shielded metal joining process that glare, reflected: Glare resulting from
uses a nonconsumable tungsten specular reflections of high
electrode. Filler material, when luminances in polished or glossy
needed, is manually fed into the surfaces in the field of view. It usually
molten weld puddle. Also called is associated with reflections from
tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. within a visual task or nearby areas.2,6
Compare gas metal arc welding; shielded gloss meter: Reflectometer used to
metal arc welding. measure specular reflectance.2,6
gasket seal: Resilient ring, usually virgin gnomon: Artifact intended to cast a
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), in a shadow. The shadow may be used to
piping or tubing connection. Compare measure time or distance.
interference sealing thread. gouge: Surface indentation caused by
forceful abrasion or impact or flame
cutting. Also called nick. Compare tool
mark.
grain: Solid particle or crystal of metal. As
molten metal solidifies grains grow
and lattices intersect, forming irregular
grain boundaries.
grain boundary: Interface that forms
between grains of solidifying metal as
the random oriented crystal lattices
meet. See grain.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

310 Visual Testing

 gray body: Radiator whose spectral I
emissivity is uniform for all
wavelengths. illuminance: Intensity of radiant energy
gray level: Integer number representing (density of luminous flux) on a
the brightness or darkness of a pixel surface, in the visible light spectrum.
or, as a composite value, of an image Illuminance is measured in lux.
comprised of pixels. illuminate: Cast light on (something).
green rot: Form of attack due to illumination: Act of illuminating or state
simultaneous carburization and of being illuminated. See also
oxidation of stainless heating elements illuminate. Compare illuminance.2,6
common to nickel chromium and image: Visual representation of an object
nickel chromium iron alloys, or scene.
especially in furnace environments. image enhancement: Any of a variety of
grinding crack: Shallow crack formed in image processing steps, used singly or
the surface of relatively hard materials in combination to improve the
because of excessive grinding heat or detectability of objects in an image.
the brittleness of the material. image guide: Fiber bundle that carries the
Grinding cracks typically are oriented picture formed by the objective lens at
90 degrees to the direction of the distal end of a fiber optic
grinding.4 borescope back to the eyepiece.
image orthicon: Television tube that uses
the photoemission method. Compare
H vidicon tube.
image processing: Actions applied singly
Hadfield’s steel: Austenitic manganese or in combination to an image, in
specialty steel, easily work hardened. particular the measurement and
halitation: Rings of light visible around a alteration of image features by
spot on a video screen where an computer. Also called picture processing.
electron scanning beam is held. image segmentation: Process in which
heading: Upsetting wire, rod or bar stock the image is partitioned into regions,
in dies to form parts having some of each homogeneous.
the cross sectional area larger than the in control: Within prescribed limits of
original. Examples are bolts, rivets and process control.
screws.1 incandescence: Emission of visible
heat affected zone: Portion of base metal radiation as a result of heating.
not melted during brazing, cutting or indication: Nondestructive test response
welding but with mechanical that requires interpretation to
properties altered by the heat.4 determine its relevance.4 See also
heat checking: Surface cracking caused defect; discontinuity; false indication;
when metal rapidly heated (or cooled nonrelevant indication.
and heated repeatedly) is prevented indication, nonrelevant: Indication that
from expanding freely by colder metal has no relation to a discontinuity that
below the surface. Friction may might constitute a defect.1 Test
produce the heat. Heat checking is response caused by geometry or by a
sometimes called thermal fatigue. physical condition that is not a
heat wave: Thermally produced variation discontinuity.
in flue gas density that distorts images indication, relevant: Indication from a
of objects in a firebox. discontinuity (as opposed to a false
hot tear: Fracture formed in a cast metal indication) requiring evaluation by a
during solidification and due to qualified inspector, typically with
extensive tensile stress associated with reference to an acceptance standard,
volumetric shrinkage. Hot tears often by virtue of the discontinuity’s size or
occur where areas of different location.1
thicknesses adjoin. indirect viewing: Viewing of a test object
hue: Characteristic of light at a particular during which the light image is
bandwidth; commonly associated with mediated through a system of two or
the color’s name. more lenses (as in a borescope) or
human factors: Factors in the overall test transduced through an electronic
sensitivity based upon mental and signal (as with a charge coupled
physical condition of the inspector, camera). Compare direct viewing; remote
training, experience level and the viewing.
physical conditions under which the infrared radiation: Electromagnetic
inspector must work. radiant energy of wavelengths longer
hyperopia: See farsightedness. than 770 nm.2,6
hyperthermia: Heating so excessive that interference fitted thread: See interference
it can damage or kill plant or animal sealing thread.
cells.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 311

 interference objective: In a microscope, a K
small, metallized glass mounted in
contact with the test object and kinetic vision acuity: Vision acuity with
adjustable for tilt to control fringe a moving target. Studies indicate that
spacing. 10 to 20 percent of visual efficiency
interference sealing thread: Piping seal can be lost by target movement.
using a tapered connection made up
under great pressure, forcing the
mating surfaces together more tightly L
than is possible with a spiral thread.
laboratory microscope: Conventional
Compare gasket seal.
compound microscope. See microscope.
interlaced scanning: Process whereby the
lambert cosine law: See cosine law.
picture appearing on a video screen is
lambertian: Having a surface that reflects
divided into two parts. Interlaced
light diffusely and uniformly rather
scanning reduces flicker by increasing
than specularly. See matte. Most
the electron beam’s downward rate of
objects have a lambertian surface.
travel so that every other line is sent.
Compare specular.
When the bottom is reached, the
lap: Forging discontinuity caused by a
beam is returned to the top and the
folding over of metal. Laps are found
alternate lines are sent. The odd and
in rolled bar stock and at or near
even line scans are each transmitted at
diameter changes.2,5
1/60 s, totaling 1/30 s per frame and
laser: Acronym (light amplification by
retaining the standard rate of
stimulated emission of radiation). A
30 frames per second. The eye’s
device, the laser that produces a
persistence of vision allows the odd
highly monochromatic and coherent
and even lines to appear as a single
(spatial and temporal) beam of
image without flicker.
radiation.2
interpretation: Determination of the
leaked visible light: Unwanted
cause, significance and relevance of
electromagnetic radiation that has a
test indications.
wavelength between 400 and 800 nm
interstitial alloy: Alloy in which the
that is generated by a UV-A source but
atoms of the alloying element fit into
not filtered out of the emission
the spaces between the atoms of the
spectrum. Leaked visible light is
parent metal.
generally perceived as purple or dark
inverse square law: Physical law for a
blue light and not accurately measured
point source of energy. The quantity
using a photometric sensor.4
or strength is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the lens: Transparent object that refracts light
origin. passing through it in order to focus
iris: Ring of variable area around the the light.
pupil and in front of the lens of the lens optics: See geometrical optics.
eye. The surface area of the iris adjusts light adapted vision: See photopic vision.
spontaneously to change the amount light guide bundle: Bundle of filaments,
of light entering the eye. usually glass, that carries noncoherent
irradiance: Radiant power falling upon a light from a high intensity source
known surface area at a given angle. through a fiber optic borescope to
Compare radiance. See also radiometer. illuminate an object.
IshiharaTM plates: Trade name for a kind light: Radiant energy that can excite the
retina and produce a visual sensation.
of pseudoisochromatic plates, used for
The visible portion of the
color differentiation vision testing.
electromagnetic spectrum extends
isomorphous binary system: Two
from about 400 to 800 nm.2,6
element alloy system in which both
lighting, back: Placement of light source
elements are completely soluble in
and image sensor on opposite sides of
each other in the liquid and the solid
the test object, used when the
states, in all proportions at all
silhouette of a feature is important.
temperatures.
lighting, flash: See lighting, strobe.
lighting, front: Placement of light source
J and image sensor on the same side of
the test object.
jaeger eye chart: Eye chart used for near lighting, strobe: Lighting that flashes
vision acuity examination. intermittently at a rate that may be
adjusted and is often perceived as a
flicker, used to image moving objects
or still objects with potential
movement.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

312 Visual Testing

 lighting, structured: Combining a light lux (lx): SI unit of illuminance, equal to
source with optical elements to form a one lumen per square meter
line or sheet of light. (1 lx = 1 lm·m–2).
light meter: See photometer. Compare
radiometer.
limited certification: Of a person, M
certified only for specific operations;
usually called limited Level (I or II) or machine vision: Automated system
designated as having limited function of acquiring, processing and
certification because they are not analyzing images to evaluate a test
qualified to perform the full range of object or to provide information or
activities expected of personnel at that interpretation for human
level of qualification, for a given interpretation. A typical machine
method. vision system consists of a light
line pair: Pair of adjacent, parallel lines source, a video camera, a video
used to evaluate the resolution of a digitizer, a computer and an image
specific imaging system. See also display.
minimum line pair. macula lutea: Irregular, diffuse ring of
lot tolerance percent defective: In yellow pigment which partly overlaps
quality control, the percent defective the fovea and surrounds it out to
at which there is a 10 percent around 10 degrees and which absorbs
probability of acceptance in a blue light, thus changing the color of
production run. the light reaching receptors beneath.
low pass filtering: In image processing, martensite: (1) Acicular (needlelike)
linear combination of pixel values to microstructure produced by fast
smoothen abrupt transitions in a cooling or quenching of metals and
digital image. Also called smoothing. alloys such as steel. (2) The hard steel
lumen (lm): SI photometric unit of with such microstructure produced by
luminous flux, weighted according to fast cooling of austenite. Martensite is
the photopic vision response. One a constituent commonly found in
lumen equals the light emitted by one quenched steel.
candela (cd) point source into one martensite finish temperature:
steradian (sr) solid angle (1 lm = Temperature at which martensite
1 cd·sr–1). formation is completed as steel cools.
lumen method: Lighting design martensite start temperature:
procedure used for predetermining the Temperature at which martensite starts
relation between the number and to form as steel cools.
types of lamps or luminaires, the room mask: (1) A spatial filter in the sensing
characteristics and the average unit of a surface inspection system.
illuminance on the work plane. It (2) An n × n square matrix with
takes into account both direct and different values that serves as a filter
reflected flux. Also called flux in image processing.
method.2,6 match bend effect: Optical illusion
luminance: Photometric brightness of a whereby an area of uniform brightness
light source defined by the density of appears to be nonuniform because of
its luminous intensity, measured as contrast with the brightness of an
luminous flux per unit solid angle per adjacent area.
unit area in a given direction. mathematical morphology: Image
Reported in candela per square meter processing technique of expanding
(cd·m–2). and shrinking. The basic operators in
luminosity: Luminous efficiency of mathematical morphology are dilation
radiant energy. (expanding), erosion (shrinking),
luminous efficacy: Ratio of the total opening and closing.
luminous flux of a light source to the matte: Having a surface that reflects light
total radiant flux or to the power diffusely rather than at an angle equal
input. Sometimes called luminous to the angle of incidence; not shiny.
efficiency. Also called lambertian. The term matte
luminous efficiency: See luminous is generally applied to smooth surfaces
efficacy. or coatings. Compare specular.
luminous flux: Radiant energy’s time rate mesopic vision: Vision adapted to a level
of flow. Measured in lumens. of light between photopic at
luminous intensity: Measure of a light 3.4 × 10–2 cd·m–2 (3.2 × 10–3 cd·ft–2)
source’s power output per unit solid and scotopic at 3 × 10–5 cd·m–2
angle emitted or reflected from a (2.7 × 10–6 cd·ft–2).
point, when weighted by the photopic metallograph: Short term for
spectral luminous efficiency response metallographic microscope.
curve. Luminous intensity is measured metallographic microscope: See
in candela. Compare luminance.4 microscope, metallographic.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 313

 metallography: Science and practice of monochromatic: Light from a very small
microscopic testing, inspection and portion of the spectrum.
analysis of a metal’s structure, monochromator: Device that uses prisms
typically at magnifications from 50 × or gratings to separate or disperse the
to 2500 ×. wavelengths of the spectrum into one
metallurgical microscope: See microscope, band.
metallurgical. morphology: See mathematical
microborescope: See borescope, micro-. morphology.
microscope: Instrument that provides mottle: Apparently random positioning of
enlarged images of small objects. metallic flakes that creates an
microscope, compound: Conventional accidental pattern.
microscope, using geometrical optics multipass weld: Weld made by many
for magnification. Also called passes, one pass at a time.
laboratory microscope. multiphase alloy: Alloy in which several
microscope, interference: Magnifier phases are present.
using the wavelength of light as a unit
of measure for surface contour and
other characteristics. N
microscope, metallographic:
Metallurgical microscope NDE: (1) Nondestructive evaluation.
incorporating a camera. Also called a (2) Nondestructive examination. See
metallograph. Most metallographic nondestructive testing.
microscopes share these features: NDI: Nondestructive inspection. See
(a) stand with concealed shock nondestructive testing.
absorbers, (b) intense light source, NDT: See nondestructive testing.
(c) inverted stand so that the test near ultraviolet radiation: Ultraviolet
object is face down, (d) viewing radiation with wavelengths ranging
screens for prolonged tasks such as dirt from about 320 to about 400 nm.
count or grain size measurements, Formerly called black light.
(e) bright, dark and polarized near vision: Vision of objects nearby,
illumination options. generally within arm’s length.
microscope, metallurgical: Microscope Compare far vision.
designed with features suited for nearsightedness: Vision acuity
metallography. functionally adequate for viewing
microscope, phase contrast: Laboratory objects nearby, generally within arm’s
microscope with two additional length. Also called myopia. Compare
optical elements to transmit both farsightedness.
diffracted and undiffracted light, necking down: Localized reduction in
revealing refractive index area of a specimen or structural
discontinuities in a completely member during welding under
transparent test object. overload.2,5
microscope, polarizing: Microscope with negative sliding: Rolling and sliding of
polarizing elements to restrict light meshing gears or rollers when the
vibration to a single plane for studying rolling and sliding are in opposite
material with directional optical directions.
properties. As fibers, crystals, sheet neural acuity: Ability of the eye and
plastic and materials under strain are brain together to discriminate patterns
rotated between crossed polarizers on from background. Discrimination is
the microscope stage, they change influenced by knowledge of the target
color and intensity in a way that is pattern, by the scanning technique
related to their directional properties. and by the figure-to-ground
MIG welding: See gas metal arc welding. relationship of a discontinuity. The
miniature borescope: See borescope, figure/ground relationship can be
miniature. referred to as having a level of visual
miniborescope: Jargon for miniature background noise.
borescope. nick: Surface indentation caused by
minimum line pair: Closest distance that forceful abrasion or impact. Also called
a specific imaging system can resolve gouge. Compare tool mark.
between a pair of adjacent, parallel nit: Obsolete unit for measuring
lines (line pair) used to evaluate luminance, equivalent to one candela
system resolution. per square meter. Abbreviated nt.
modulus of elasticity: Ratio between noble metals: Cathodic metals (such as
stress and strain in a material gold, platinum and silver), which
deformed within its linear elastic strongly resist corrosion.
range.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

314 Visual Testing

 nondestructive evaluation (NDE): optic disk: Area in the retina through
Another term for nondestructive which the fibers from the various
testing. In research and academic receptors cross the inner (vitreous
communities, the word evaluation is humor) side of the retina and pass
often preferred because it emphasizes through it together in the optic nerve
interpretation by knowledgeable bundle. This transitional area is
personnel. completely blind.
nondestructive examination (NDE): optics: Physical science of the
Another term for nondestructive transmission of radiation, especially of
testing. In the utilities and nuclear light. See geometrical optics.
industry, examination is sometimes organoleptic: Relying on or using sense
preferred because testing can imply organs, such as the human eye.
performance trials of pressure orthicon: See image orthicon.
containment or power generation
systems.
nondestructive inspection (NDI): P
Another term for nondestructive
testing. In some industries (utilities, parafoveal vision: See scotopic vision.
aviation), the word inspection often parallax: Apparent difference in position
implies maintenance for a component of an imaged point according to two
that has been in service. differently positioned sensors.
nondestructive testing (NDT): pass: In welding, a single bead of weld
Determination of the physical metal along the entire joint or the
condition of an object without process of laying down that bead.
affecting that object’s ability to fulfill pearlite: Platelet mixture of cementite
its intended function. Nondestructive and ferrite in steels or in alpha and
test methods typically use an beta phases in nonferrous alloys.
appropriate form of energy to peripheral vision: Seeing of objects
determine material properties or to displaced from the primary line of
indicate the presence of material sight and outside the central visual
discontinuities (surface, internal or field.2,6
concealed). Sometimes called phase: In metallurgy, a physically
nondestructive evaluation, nondestructive homogeneous portion of a material
examination or nondestructive inspection. system, specifically the portion of an
nonferromagnetic material: Material not alloy characterized by its
magnetizable and essentially not microstructure at a particular
affected by magnetic fields.4 temperature during melting or
nonrelevant indication: See indication, solidification.
nonrelevant. phase contrast microscope: See
numerical analysis: Technique to microscope, phase contrast.
generate numbers as the solution to a phase diagram: Graph showing the
mathematical model of a physical temperature, pressure and composition
system; used in place of a closed form limits of phase fields in a material
analytic expression; usually requires system. Also called a constitution
digital computation.4 diagram. Compare equilibrium diagram.
photochromic lens: Eyeglass material
that automatically darkens to reduce
O light transmission when exposed to
ultraviolet radiation.
objective: In discussion of a lens system photoconduction: Method by which a
(camera, borescope, microscope, vidicon television camera tube
telescope), of or pertaining to the end produces an electrical image, in which
or lens closest to the object of the conductivity of the photosensitive
examination — at the end opposite surface changes in relation to the
from the eyepiece. Distal; tip. intensity of the light reflected from
OCTG: Oil country tubular goods. the scene focused onto the surface.
oil country tubular goods: Hollow Compare photoemission.
cylindrical components, such as pipes, photoelasticity: Effect of a material’s
used in petroleum wells to case the elastic properties on the way that it
hole and to convey petroleum and refracts or reflects light.
related products.4 photoelectric effect: Emission of
opening: Image processing operation of electrons from a surface bombarded by
erosion followed by dilation. A single sufficiently energetic photons. Such
opening eliminates isolated single emissions may be used in an
pixels. See also closing. illuminance meter and can be
opsin: See visual purple. calibrated in lux.2,6

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 315

 photoemission: Method by which an positive sliding: Rolling and sliding of
image orthicon television camera tube meshing gears or rollers when the
produces an electrical image, in which directions of rolling and sliding are
a photosensitive surface emits the same.
electrons when light reflected from a poultice corrosion: See corrosion, poultice.
viewed object is focused on the practical examination: In certification of
surface. Compare photoconduction. nondestructive testing personnel, a
photometer: Device used to measure hands-on examination using test
illuminance. The sensor is filtered equipment and sample test objects.
such that its response closely matches Compare general examination; specific
the spectral responsivity curve of the examination.
human eye. In nondestructive testing, primary creep: First stage of creep,
photometers measure lux. Compare marked by elastic strain plus plastic
radiometer. strain.
photometric brightness: Luminance of a principal plane of focus: See focus,
light source. principal plane of.
photometry: Study and measurement of probability of detection (PoD): Statistical
electromagnetic radiation with statement from a specific test
approximate wavelengths between 400 procedure indicating how likely a
and 800 nm, within the human eye’s given discontinuity length may be
spectral responsivity. See also reliably found.
photometer; photopic vision; radiometry; process: Repeatable sequence of actions to
relative photometry. bring about a desired result.
photon: Particle of light, hypothesized to process control: Application of quality
explain those behaviors of light in control principles to the management
which its behavior is corpuscular of a repeated process.
rather than wavelike. pseudocolor: Image enhancement
photopic vision: Average spectral technique wherein colors are assigned
responsivity curve of the human eye to an image at several gray scale
when adapted to well lit conditions intervals.
(greater than 0.034 cd·m–2). The pseudoisochromatic plate: Image used
photopic spectral luminous efficiency for color vision examinations. Each
response curve is governed by an plate bears an image which may be
averaged retinal cone response with difficult for the examinee to see if his
sensitivity peaks centered at about or her color vision is impaired. See
555 nm. Also known as foveal vision also Ishihara™ plates.
and light adapted vision. Compare psychophysics: Interaction between
mesopic vision and scotopic vision.2,6 vision performance and physical or
photoreceptor: Light sensor. psychological factors. One example is
picture element: See pixel. the so-called vigilance decrement, the
picture processing: See image processing. degradation of reliability based on
pipe: Longitudinal centerline performing visual activities over a
discontinuity inherent in ingots, period of time.
imparted to some rolled metal and pupil: Black aperture in the center of the
consisting of a concavity or voids. eye’s lens, through which light enters
pitting: Discontinuity consisting of the lens to impinge on the retina.
surface cavities. See also cavitation purple: See visual purple.
fatigue.
pixel: Addressable point on the screen of
a digital image. The image from a Q
conventional computer is an array of
pixels, each of which has a numerical qualification: Process of demonstrating
value. The higher the number for a that an individual has the required
pixel, the brighter it is. Formerly called amount and the required type of
picture element. training, experience, knowledge and
plane of focus: See focus, principal plane abilities.4-6 See also certification and
of. qualified.
platelet: Flat crystallites in certain phases qualified: Having demonstrated the
of steel. required amount and the required
polarizing microscope: See microscope, type of training, experience,
polarizing. knowledge and abilities. See also
porosity: Discontinuity in metal resulting certified and qualification.
from the creation or coalescence of quality: Ability of a process or product to
gas. Very small pores open to the meet specifications or to meet the
surface are called pinholes.2,5 expectations of its users in terms of
efficiency, appearance, reliability and
ergonomics.4-6

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

316 Visual Testing

 quality assurance: Administrative actions rat’s tooth principle: (1) The tendency
that specify, enforce and verify for hard material on a tooth’s front
quality.4-6 surface to wear more slowly than soft
quality control: Physical and material on the back surface, keeping
administrative actions required to the edge sharp. (2) Mechanism of wear
ensure compliance with a quality whereby adjacent hard and soft
assurance program. Quality control surfaces wear at different rates,
may include nondestructive testing in producing a self-sharpening edge.
the manufacturing cycle.4-6 Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A:
quality of lighting: Level of luminance in Set of guidelines published by the
a visual task or environment. American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, for employers to establish and
conduct a qualification and
R certification program for
nondestructive testing personnel.4-6
radial: Of or pertaining to direction from recommended practice: Set of guidelines
center of a circle (or a sphere or cross or recommendations.4-6
section of a cylindrical object) to its recovery: Reduced stress level and
surface, and perpendicular to its axis. increased ductility of metal after work
Compare axial. hardening. See creep.
radiance: Radiant flux per unit solid recrystallization: Changes in
angle and per unit projected area of microstructure and properties upon
the source. Measured in watts per heating of cold worked metal.
square meter steradian. Compare red mud: Debris (usually oxides of the
irradiance. contacting metals) of fretting wear,
radiant energy: Energy transmitted mixed with oil or grease and retained
through a medium by electromagnetic at or near the site of its formation. See
waves. Also known as radiation. also cocoa.
radiant flux: Radiant energy’s rate of reference standard: Object containing
flow, measured in watts. known discontinuities at known
radiant intensity: Electromagnetic energy distances and representing accept or
emitted per unit time per unit solid reject criteria.
angle. Measured in watts per steradian. reflectance: Ratio of reflected wave
radiant power: Total radiant energy energy to incident wave energy. Also
emitted per unit time. known as reflectivity.
radiometer: Device used to measure reflection: General term for the process
irradiance. In nondestructive testing, by which the incident energy leaves a
radiometers are used to measure UV-A surface or medium from the incident
output, or leaked visible light, in side, without change in frequency.
microwatt per square centimeter Reflection is usually a combination of
(µW·cm–2). See also irradiance. specular and diffuse reflection.2,6
Compare photometer. reflectometer: Photometer used to
radiometric photometer: Radiometer for measure diffuse, specular and total
measuring radiant power over a reflectance.
variety of wavelengths. reflector: Device used to redirect the
radiometry: Study and measurement of luminous flux from a source by the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by a process of reflection.2,6
source or falling upon a surface. refraction: Reorientation of radiation’s
raster: Repetitive pattern whereby a path by the medium through which it
directed element (a robotic arm or a passes.
flying dot on a video screen) follows relative photometry: (1) Evaluation of a
the path of a series of adjacent parallel desired photometric characteristic
lines, taking them successively in turn, based on an assumed lumen output of
always in the same direction (from top a test lamp. (2) Measurement of an
to bottom or from left to right), uncalibrated light source relative to
stopping at the end of one line and another uncalibrated light source.
beginning again at the start of the
next line. Following a raster pattern
makes it possible for electron beams to
form video pictures or frames and for
a sensor-bearing armature to cover a
predetermined part of the surface of a
test object.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 317

 remote viewing: (1) Indirect viewing of a rhodopsin: See visual purple.
test object far from the viewer’s robotic system: Automated system
immediate presence — for example, programmed to perform purposeful
viewing with telemetry or crawlers. actions in variable sequences.
The term remote viewing is used in the rod: Retinal receptor that responds at low
fields of robotics and surveillance to levels of luminance even down below
distinguish conventional from distant the threshold for cones. At these levels
viewing tasks. (2) Viewing of a test there is no basis for perceiving
object during which the light image is differences in hue and saturation. No
mediated through a system of two or rods are found in the fovea centralis.2,6
more lenses (as in a borescope) or Concentrated toward the outer region
transduced through an electronic of the retina, rods assist with mesopic
signal (as with a charge coupled vision and are responsible for scotopic
camera). This use of the term remote night vision. Compare cone.
viewing in some specifications is a root mean square (rms): Statistical
misnomer, intended merely to measure of the magnitude of a varying
distinguish borescopy from direct quantity, such as current. Square root
viewing. Compare borescope; direct of the mean square of a set of
viewing; indirect viewing. measures, usually a time series.
replica: Piece of malleable material, such
as polyvinyl or polystyrene plastic
film, molded to a test surface for the S
recording or analysis of the surface
microstructure. sampling, partial: Testing of less than
replica, metallographic: Replica suitable 100 percent of a production lot.
for microscopic examination. See sampling, random partial: Partial
metallography. sampling that is fully random.
replication: Method for copying the sampling, specified partial: Partial
topography of a surface by making its sampling in which a particular
impression in a plastic or malleable frequency or a sequence of sample
material. selection is prescribed. An example of
reserve vision acuity: Ability of an specified partial sampling is the testing
individual to maintain vision acuity of every fifth unit.
under poor viewing conditions. A saturation: Relative or comparative color
visual system with 20/20 near vision characteristic resulting from a hue’s
acuity under degraded viewing dilution with white light.
conditions has considerable reserve scalar: Quantity completely specified by a
vision acuity compared to that of an single number and unit.4
individual with 20/70 near vision scaling: (1) Forming a layer of oxidation
acuity. product on metals, usually at high
resolution: Aspect of image quality temperature. (2) Deposition of
pertaining to a system’s ability to insoluble constituents on a metal
depict objects, often measured by surface, as in cooling tubes and water
distinguishing (resolving) a pair of boilers.2,5
adjacent objects or parallel lines. scoring: (1) Marring or scratching of any
resolution test: Procedure wherein a line formed part by metal pickup on a
is detected to verify a system’s punch, die or guide. (2) Reducing
sensitivity. the thickness of a part along a line
resolution threshold: Minimum distance to weaken it purposely at a specific
between a pair of points or parallel location.2,5
lines when they can be distinguished scotopic vision: Dark adapted vision,
as two, not one, expressed in minutes using only the rods in the retina,
of arc. Vision acuity, in such a case, is where differences in brightness can be
the reciprocal of one-half of the period detected but differences in hue
expressed in minutes.2,6 cannot. Vision is wholly scotopic
resolving power: Ability of vision or when the luminance of the test
other detection system to separate two surface is below 3 × 10–5 cd·m–2
points. Resolving power depends on (2.7 × 10–6 cd·ft–2). Also known as
the angle of vision and the distance of parafoveal vision. Compare mesopic
the sensor from the test surface. vision and photopic vision.
Resolving power is often measured scuffing: Type of adhesive wear.
using parallel lines. Compare seam: Linear discontinuity formed by a
resolution. lack of metal from folds produced by
retina: In the eye, the tissue on back, an underfilled pass during metal
inside surface of the eyeball, opposite rolling. Squeezed tight on subsequent
the pupil, where light sensitive rods passes, the underfill runs parallel to
and cones sense light. the longitudinal axis of the bar.
retinene: See visual purple.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

318 Visual Testing

 second stage replica: Positive replica simple magnifier: Microscope having a
made from the first cast to produce a single converging lens.
duplicate of the original surface. smoothing: In image processing, linear
secondary creep: Second stage of creep, combination of pixel values to smooth
in which deformation proceeds at a abrupt transitions in a digital image.
constant rate and less rapidly than in Also called low pass filtering.
primary creep. Essentially an SNT-TC-1A: See Recommended Practice No.
equilibrium condition between the SNT-TC-1A.
mechanisms of work hardening and spalling fatigue: See subcase fatigue.
recovery. See also defect and specific examination: In certification of
discontinuity.4 nondestructive testing personnel, a
sensitivity: Ability of a sensor or system written examination that addresses the
to distinguish a signal or indication specifications and products pertinent
from background noise. See also to the application. Compare general
probability of detection. examination and practical examination.
sensitization: Precipitation of chromium specific gravity: Unitless ratio of the
carbides in the grain boundaries of a density of a material divided by the
corrosion resistant alloy, resulting in density of water. Water has a density
intergranular corrosion that would of about 1 g·cm–3, or 1000 kg·m–3.
otherwise be resisted. specification: Set of instructions or
sensor: Device that detects a material standards invoked to govern the
property or mechanical behavior (such properties, results or performance of a
as radiation or displacement) and specific set of tasks or products.4-6
converts it to an electrical signal. spectral irradiance: Measure of energy
shadow casting: Nondestructive emitted by a radiation source as
technique of vapor depositing a thin function of wavelength. Units of
metal film onto a replica at an oblique spectral irradiance are watts per square
angle in order to obtain a micrograph meter and are often plotted versus
of a test surface of an opaque test wavelength.
object. spectral power distribution: Radiant
shear break: Open break in metal at the power per unit wavelength as a
periphery of a bolt, nut, rod or function of wavelength. Also known
member at approximately a 45 degree as spectral energy distribution, spectral
angle to the applied stress. Shear density and spectral distribution.
breaks occur most often with flanged spectral reflectance: Radiant flux
products. Also called shear crack.2,5 reflected from a material divided by
shear crack: See shear break. the incident radiant flux.
shielded arc welding: Joining of metals spectral responsivity: Measure of a
by heating them with an electric arc photometric or radiometric sensor’s
between electrode(s) and the work sensitivity over a wavelength range of
piece, using an inert gas to shield the interest, often presented as percent
electrode(s). See also gas tungsten arc versus wavelength. Photometric
welding. sensors should exhibit a bell shaped
shoulder: Cylindrical metal component spectral responsivity curve over the
(pipe) surface, machined to receive visible light range, whereas
threading indentations but in fact not radiometric sensors may exhibit a flat
threaded, where the thread stops on or other response curve.
the outside surface of the pipe. spectral transmittance: Radiant flux
SI (International System of Units): passing through a medium divided by
Measurement system in which the the incident radiant flux.
following seven units are basic: meter, spectrophotometer: Instrument used for
mole, kilogram, second, ampere, spectrophotometry.
kelvin and candela. spectrophotometry: Measurement of
signal electrode: Transparent conducting electromagnetic radiant energy as a
film on the inner surface of a vidicon’s function of wavelength, particularly in
faceplate and a thin photoconductive the ultraviolet, visible and infrared
layer deposited on the film. wavelengths.
signal processing: Acquisition, storage, spectroradiometer: Instrument used for
analysis, alteration and output of spectroradiometry.
digital or analog data. spectroradiometry: Measurement of
signal-to-noise ratio: Ratio of signal electromagnetic radiant power and
values (responses that contain relevant spectral emittance, used particularly to
information) to baseline noise values examine colors and to measure the
(responses that contain nonrelevant spectral emittance of light sources.
information).4 spectroscope: Instrument used for
signal: Physical quantity, such as voltage, spectroscopy.
that contains relevant information.4

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 319

 spectroscopy: Spectrophotometry or stringer: In wrought materials, an
spectroradiometry in which the elongated configuration of
spectrum, rather than being analyzed microconstituents or foreign material
only by a processing unit, is presented aligned in the direction of working.
in a visible form to the operator for Commonly, the term is associated
organoleptic examination. with elongated oxide or sulfide
spectrum: Representation of radiant inclusions in steel.
energy in adjacent bands of hues in subcase fatigue: Fatigue originating below
sequence according to the energy’s the case depth.
wavelengths or frequencies. A rainbow subcase origin fatigue: See subcase
is a well known example of a visible fatigue.
spectrum. subsurface fatigue: Fatigue cracking that
specular: Pertaining to a mirrorlike originates below the surface. Usually
reflective finish, as of a metal. associated with hard surfaced or shot
Compare lambertian. peened parts but may occur any time
specular reflection: When reflected subsurface stresses exceed surface
waves and incident waves form equal stresses.
angles at the reflecting surface.
speed of light: Speed of all radiant
energy, including light, is T
299 792 458 × 108 m·s–1 in vacuum. In
all materials the speed is less and tarasov etching technique: Way of
varies with the material’s index of visually inspecting for the presence of
refraction, which itself varies with deleterious effects in hardened steels
wavelength.2,6 by using specific etching solutions and
speed of vision: Reciprocal of the methods of inspection.
duration of the exposure time required temperature diagram: See time
for something to be seen.2,6 temperature transformation (TTT)
standard: Object, document or concept diagram.
established by authority, custom or tempering: Process of heating a material,
agreement to serve as a model or rule particularly hardened steel to below
in the measurement of quantity or the the austenite transformation
establishment of a practice or temperature, to improve ductility.
procedure.4,8 See also reference standard tertiary creep: Third stage of creep,
and acceptance standard. marked by steady increase in strain to
standardization, instrument: Adjustment the point of fracture under constant
of instrument readout before use to a load.
specified reference value.4 test object: Physical part or specimen
standard observer response curve: See subject to nondestructive testing.
eye sensitivity curve. threshold: (1) A value in a phenomenon
steel: Iron alloy, usually with less than where a large change of output occurs.
two percent carbon. (2) Setting of an instrument that
stereo photography: Close range causes it to register only those changes
photogrammetric technique involving in response greater or less than a
the capture and viewing of two images specified magnitude.4 See adaptive
of the same object in order to thresholding, resolution threshold.
reconstruct a three dimensional image thresholding: Digital data processing
of the object. technique that reduces a gray level
stick welding: See shielded metal arc image into a binary image.
welding. throat, actual: Shortest distance from the
strain: Deflection or alteration of the root of a fillet weld to its face, as
shape of a material by external forces. opposed to theoretical throat or weld
stress: (1) In physics, the action in a size.
material that resists external forces throat, effective: In fillet welds, the weld
such as tension and compression. throat including the amount of weld
(2) Load per unit of area. penetration but ignoring excess metal
stress concentration: Region where force between the theoretical face and the
per unit area is elevated, often because actual face.
of geometric factors or cracks. Also throat, theoretical: Distance from the
known as a stress raiser. beginning of the root of a fillet weld
stress raiser: Contour or property change perpendicular to the hypotenuse of
that locally increases stress magnitude. the largest right triangle that can be
stress riser: See stress raiser. inscribed within the cross section of
the fillet weld. Compare weld size.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

320 Visual Testing

 throat, weld: Distance from the root of a V
fillet weld to its face. Compare weld
size and throat, actual. video: Pertaining to the transmission and
TIG welding: Tungsten inert gas welding. display of images in an electronic
See gas tungsten arc welding. format that can be displayed on a
time temperature transformation (TTT) monitor or screen.
diagram: Graph showing time videoscope: Jargon for video borescope. See
required at any temperature to borescope, video.
transform austenite to pearlite, bainite vidicon tube: Analog television tube that
or martensite. uses the photoconduction method.
tip: Distal or objective end of a borescope. Compare image orthicon.
tool mark: Shallow indentation or groove vigilance decrement: Degradation of
made by the movement of reliability during performance of
manufacturing tools over a surface. visual activities over a period of time.
Compare gouge or nick. See also psychophysics.
trace: Line formed by electron beam visibility: Quality or state of being
scanning from left to right on a video perceivable by the eye. In many
screen to generate a picture. outdoor applications, visibility is
tracer: In leak testing, a gas that is sensed defined in terms of the distance at
as it escapes from confinement. which an object can be just perceived
transformation diagram: See time by the eye. In indoor applications it
temperature transformation (TTT) usually is defined in terms of the
diagram. contrast or size of a standard test
troland: Unit of retinal illuminance equal object, observed under standardized
to that produced by a surface whose view conditions, having the same
luminance is 1 cd·m–2 when the pupil threshold as the given object.2,6
measures 1 mm2. visible light: Radiant energy with a
tubing string: Pipe with which oil or gas wavelength between 400 and 800 nm
has contact as it is brought to the as measured in photometric units of
Earth’s surface.4 lux.
tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding: See gas vision: Perception by eyesight. See far
tungsten arc welding. vision, machine vision, mesopic vision,
near vision, peripheral vision, photopic
vision, scotopic vision, and speed of
U vision.
vision acuity: Ability to distinguish fine
ultraviolet borescope: See borescope, details visually at a given distance.
ultraviolet. Quantitatively, it is the reciprocal of
ultraviolet radiation: Electromagnetic the minimum angular separation in
radiation with wavelengths between minutes of two lines of width
40 and 400 nm. See also irradiance and subtending one minute of arc when
UV-A. the lines are just resolvable as
ultraviolet radiometer: Meter, usually separate.2,6
calibrated at 365 nm, used in visual acuity: See vision acuity.
fluorescent liquid penetrant and visual angle: Angle formed by lines
magnetic particle testing to measure drawn from center of eye subtended
output of ultraviolet lamp. by an object or detail at the point of
undercut: Undesirable groove left unfilled observation. It usually is measured in
by weld metal, created during welding minutes of arc.2,6
and located in base plate at the toe of visual background noise: Formations on
a weld. or signals from a test object that
Unified Numbering System: constitutes the background to a
Alphanumeric system for identifying discontinuity. The higher the level of
alloys according to a registry visual background noise, the more
maintained by ASTM International difficult it is to distinguish a
and SAE International.4 discontinuity.
UV-A: Electromagnetic radiation with visual efficiency: Reliability of a visual
wavelengths between 315 and system. The term visual efficiency uses
400 nm. Fluorescent nondestructive 20/20 near vision acuity as a baseline
testing has historically used ultraviolet in the United States for 100 percent
energy centered at 365 nm. See also visual efficiency.
irradiance and radiometer.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 321

 visual field: Locus of objects or points in W
space that can be perceived when head
and eyes are fixed. The field may be wavelength: Distance between repeating
monocular or binocular.2,6 values of a wave. For example, the
visual perception: Interpretation of distance from one peak to the next
impressions transmitted from the peak on a sine wave.
retina to the brain in terms of wear: See erosion; rat’s tooth principle; wear,
information about a physical world adhesive; and wear, fretting.
displayed before the eye. Visual wear oxidation: See wear, fretting.
perception involves any one or more wear, adhesive: Degradation of a surface
of the following: recognition of the by microwelding and consequent
presence of something (object, fracture due to the sliding of one
aperture or medium); identifying it; surface against another. Types include
locating it in space; noting its relation fretting, galling and scuffing.
to other things; identifying its wear, fretting: Surface degradation by
movement, color, brightness or microwelding and microfractures on
form.2,6 surfaces rubbing each other. Also
visual performance: Quantitative called chafing, friction oxidation and
assessment of the performance of a wear oxidation. See also cocoa and false
visual task, taking into consideration brinelling.
speed and accuracy.2,6 weld size: Thickness of weld metal — in a
visual purple: Chromoprotein called fillet weld the distance from the root
rhodopsin, the photosensitive pigment to the toe of the largest isosceles right
of rod vision. The mechanism of triangle that can be inscribed in a
converting light energy into nerve cross section of the weld.
impulses is a photochemical process in weld throat: See throat, weld.
the retina. Chromoprotein is welder’s flash: Clinical condition,
transformed by the action of radiant specifically keratoconjunctivitis,
energy into a succession of products, commonly caused by overexposure to
finally yielding the protein called opsin ultraviolet radiation of welding arc.
plus the carotenoid known as retinene. white light: Light combining all
visual task: Appearance and immediate frequencies in the visible spectrum
background of those details and (wavelengths from 380 to 780 nm)
objects that must be seen for the and in equal proportions.
performance of a given activity. The work hardening: Increase in hardness
term visual task is a misnomer because accompanying plastic deformation of
it refers to the visual display itself and a metal. Usually caused in a metal by
not the task of extracting information repeated impacting, bending or
from it. See visual field. flexing. Compare creep and recovery.
visual testing: Method of nondestructive working standard: Work piece or energy
testing using electromagnetic radiation source calibrated and used in place of
at visible frequencies. expensive reference standards. In
voids: Hollow spots, depressions or calibrating of photometers, the
cavities. See also discontinuity. standard would be a light source.
volt (V): Measurement unit of electric
potential.4
VT: Visual testing.

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

322 Visual Testing

 References

1. ASTM E 1316, Standard Terminology for

Nondestructive Examinations. West
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM
International (2007).
2. Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
second edition: Vol. 8, Visual and
Optical Testing. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (1993).
3. Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
second edition: Vol. 10, Nondestructive
Testing Overview. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (1996).
4. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third
edition: Vol. 8, Magnetic Testing.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (2008).
5. EPRI Learning Modules. Charlotte, NC:
Electric Power Research Institute.
6. IES Lighting Handbook: Reference
Volume. New York, NY: Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America
(1984).
7. Lovejoy, D. Magnetic Particle Inspection:
A Practical Guide. New York, NY:
Chapman & Hall (1993).
8. TO33B-1-1 (NAVAIR 01-1A-16)
TM43-0103, Nondestructive Testing
Methods. Washington, DC: United
States Department of Defense, United
States Air Force (June 1984).

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.

Visual Testing Glossary 323

From Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 9, Visual Testing © 2010. Reprinted with permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inc.