Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Plantae includes green, brown and red algae, liverworts, mosses,
ferns and seed plants with or without flowers. They have the following
characteristics:

 They are multicellular organisms with walled and frequently vacuolate

eukaryotic cells.

 These contain photosynthetic pigment in plastids. The principle mode

of nutrition is photosynthesis.

 They are primarily non-motile and live anchored to a substrate.

 Reproduction is primarily asexual or sexual. The reproductive organs

are multicellular. They form a multicellular embryo during
development from the zygote. Algae lack the embryo stage.

 The life cycle consists of alternating haploid gametophyte and diploid

sporophyte generation. This phenomenon is called the alternation of
generation.

Thallophyta (Algae)

They are simple, autotrophic non-vascular plants. They have unicelled sex
organs and no embryo formation. These grow in specialized habitats:

 Cryophytes: These grow on snow or ice.

 Thermophytes: These grow in hot water.

 Epiphytes: These are those algae that grow on other plants (algae,
angiosperms). Examples include Oedogonium, Cladophora, Vaucheria,
etc.

 Endophytes: Some blue-green algae grow as endophytes inside other

plants e.g., Anabaena growing inside the leaf of Azolla (fern).

 Parasites: The alga Cephaleuros virescens grows a parasite on the

tea leaves.

Bryophyta

Bryophyta (Gk: Bryon = moss; phyton = plants) is the grouping that

consists of the simplest and primitive land plants. We also regard these as
‘the of the plant kingdom’. Bryophytes are most common in moist and
shady places. Some bryophytes also grow in diverse habitats like extremely
dry or watery habitats. They reproduce sexually. Antheridium is the male
sex organ. On the other hand, archegonium is the female sex organ.

Pteridophyta

The pteridophytes (Gk. Pteron = feather and phyton = plants) refers to all
those plants with feathers like fronds of ferns. They do not have flowers or
seeds. These plants are mostly terrestrial. They prefer shady habitats. They
have a Sporophytic plant body. The pteridophyte usually has a single apical
cell with three cutting faces in the shoot apex. Let us now look at the sub-
phyla of this group.

 Sub-phylum: Psilopsida: These are the oldest known vascular

plants; most of them (except Psilotum and Tmesipteris) are fossils.
The body of the plant is relatively less differentiated. Roots are absent
in these plants. Instead, you can find a dichotomously branched
rhizome.

 Sub-Phylum: Lycopsida: The plant body is differentiated into root,

stem, and leaves. Leaves are usually small (i.e., microphyllous) with a
single unbranched vein. Sporangia develop in the axil of the
sporophylls.
 Sub-Phylum: Sphenopsida: The stem is differentiated into nodes
and internodes. The leaves are microphyllous. You can find them in
whorls at each of the nodes.

 Sub-Phylum: Pteropsida: The plant body is well-differentiated into

root, stem, and leaves. The leaves are megaphyllous, pinnately
compound.

Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms means “naked seed” and are nonflowering plants. Their

seeds that do not develop within an enclosed structure. Examples are
conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. Gymnosperm seeds develop
either on the surface of scale or a leaf-like appendage of cones or at the
end of short stalks.

Evolution of gymnosperms

Seed ferns were the first seed plants, protecting their reproductive parts
in structures called capsules. Seed ferns gave rise to the gymnosperms
during the Paleozoic Era, about 390 million years ago.

Gymnosperms include the gingkoes and conifers and inhabit many,

ecosystem such as the taiga (cold) and the alpine (high mountain)
forests, because they are well adapted for cold weather.

True seed plants became more numerous and diverse during the
Carboniferous period around 319 million years ago; an explosion that
appears to be due to a whole genome duplication event. Gymnosperms
do not depend on water for fertilization (have air‐borne pollen).
Life Cycle of Gymnosperms
1. Gymnosperms are vascular plants that produce seeds in cones.
Examples include conifers such as pine and spruce trees. The
gymnosperm life cycle has a dominant sporophyte generation. Both
gametophytes and the next generation’s new sporophytes develop
on the sporophyte parent plant.
2. Cones form on a mature sporophyte plant. Inside male cones, male
spores develop into male gametophytes. Each male gametophyte
consists of several cells enclosed within a grain of pollen. Inside
female cones, female spores develop into female gametophytes.
Each female gametophyte produces an egg inside an ovule.
3. Pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from a male to female
cone. If sperm then travel from the pollen to an egg so fertilization
can occur, a diploid zygote results. The zygote develops into an
embryo within a seed, which forms from the ovule inside the female
cone. If the seed germinates, it may grow into a mature sporophyte
tree, which repeats the cycle.
ANGIOSPERMS

The angiosperms are one of the major groups of extant seed plants and
arguably the most diverse major extant plant group on the planet, with at
least 260,000 living species classified in 453 families. They occupy every
habitat on Earth except extreme environments such as the highest
mountaintops, the regions immediately surrounding the poles, and the
deepest oceans.
They live as epiphytes (i.e., living on other plants), as floating and rooted
aquatics in both freshwater and marine habitats, and as terrestrial plants
that vary tremendously in size, longevity, and overall form.
They can be small herbs, parasitic plants, shrubs, vines, lianas, or giant
trees.
Angiosperms are the most successful and advanced plants on earth.

Evolutionary History of Angiosperms

Angiosperms evolved during the late Cretaceous Period, about 125-100

million years ago.

The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate, resulting

in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas.
These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles,
ammonites and rudists, while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land.

As angiosperms evolved in the Cretaceous period, many modern groups

of insects also appeared, including pollinating insects that drove the
evolution of angiosperms; in many instances, flowers and their pollinators
have coevolved. Angiosperms did not evolve from gymnosperms, but
instead evolved in parallel with the gymnosperms; however, it is unclear
as to what type of plant actually gave rise to angiosperms. Angiosperms
have developed flowers and fruit as ways to attract pollinators and
protect their seeds, respectively.

Flowers have a wide array of colors, shapes, and smells, all of which are
for the purpose of attracting pollinators. Once the egg is fertilized, it
grows into a seed that is protected by a fleshy fruit.

Life Cycle of Angiosperm

1. The adult, or sporophyte, phase is the main phase of an angiosperm's

life cycle.
What Are Sporophytes?
All plants and some algae have a life cycle in which they
undergo alternation of generations. This process involves a haploid
multicellular generation called a gametophyte and a diploid multicellular
generation called a sporophyte.

Function of a Sporophyte
The job of a sporophyte is to produce spores. This makes sense because
'spore' is part of the word 'sporophyte.' The 'phyte' part just means plant.
So, a sporophyte is a plant that has spores.
Spores are haploid reproductive cells. Remember, a sporophyte is a
diploid organism, so in order to produce haploid cells with half the
number of chromosomes, meiosis must occur.

How Is a Sporophyte Produced?

A sporophyte is created by sexual reproduction of the gametophyte
generation. Gametophytes make haploid unicellular gametes, or sperm
and eggs. When a male gamete cell fuses with female gamete egg cell,
this is called fertilization. It creates a unicellular diploid zygote. This
zygote undergoes many rounds of mitosis to become multicellular. We
now have a multicellular diploid organism, or sporophyte.

 As with gymnosperms, angiosperms are heterosporous.

Heterospory means the formation of two distinctly different spores. The

smaller one, designated as microspore later on gives rise to the male
gametophyte and the larger one called megaspore gives rise to female
gametophyte.

 Therefore, they generate microspores, which will produce pollen

grains as the male gametophytes, and megaspores, which will form
an ovule that contains female gametophytes.
 Inside the anthers' microsporangia, male gametophytes divide by
meiosis to generate haploid microspores, which, in turn, undergo
mitosis and give rise to pollen grains.
 Each pollen grain contains two cells: one generative cell that will
divide into two male gametes and a second cell that will become the
pollen tube cell.
2. The ovule, sheltered within the ovary of the carpel, contains the
Megasporangium protected by two layers of integuments and the ovary
wall. Within each megasporangium, a megasporocyte undergoes meiosis,
generating four megaspores: three small and one large. Only the large
megaspore survives; it produces the female gametophyte referred to as
the embryo sac. The megaspore divides three times to form an eight-cell
stage. Four of these cells migrate to each pole of the embryo sac; two
come to the equator and will eventually fuse to form a 2n polar nucleus.
The three cells away from the egg form antipodals while the two cells
closest to the egg become the synergids.

3. The mature embryo sac contains one egg cell, two synergids ("helper"
cells), three antipodal cells, and two polar nuclei in a central cell. When a
pollen grain reaches the stigma, a pollen tube extends from the grain,
grows down the style, and enters through the micropyle, an opening in
the integuments of the ovule.

4. A double fertilization event then occurs. One male gamete and the egg
combine, forming a diploid zygote, the future embryo. The other
sperm fuses with the 2n polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that will
develop into the endosperm, which is tissue that serves as a food
reserve. The zygote develops into an embryo with a radicle, or small
root, and one (monocot) or two (dicot) leaf-like organs called
cotyledons.
ANGIOSPERMS ARE DIVIDED INTO MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
AND DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS.

i. Monocotyledon plants

 Monocotyledon, byname monocot, one of the two great groups

of flowering plants, or angiosperms, the other being
the eudicotyledons (eudicots). There are approximately
60,000 species of monocots, including the most economically
important of all plant families, Poaceae (true grasses), and the
largest of all plant families, Orchidaceae (orchids). Other prominent
monocot families include Liliaceae (lilies), Arecaceae (palms),
and Iridaceae (irises). Most of them are distinguished by the
presence of only one seed leaf, or cotyledon, in the embryo
contained in the seed. Example:

1. Barley
2. Banana
3. Bamboo
4. Bermuda grass
5. Coconut
6. Garlic
7. Lucky bamboo
8. Maize
9. Onion
10. Pine apple
11. Rice
12. Wheat

Evolution

 Monocots form a monophyletic group, meaning that they share a

common evolutionary history. It is widely believed that the
monocots were derived from primitive eudicots. Given that the
various physical features of monocots are regarded as derived
characteristics within the angiosperms, any plant more primitive
than the monocots in these several respects would certainly be a
eudicot. Some of the earliest known monocot fossils
are pollen grains dating to the Aptian Age of the Early Cretaceous
Epoch (125 million–113 million years ago). Molecular clock studies
(which employ differences in DNA to estimate when a group split
from its ancestors) suggest that monocots may have originated as
early as 140 million years ago.

Physical Characteristics
 Monocot plants are marked by seeds with a single cotyledon,
parallel-veined leaves, scattered vascular bundles in the stem, the
absence of a typical cambium, and an adventitious root system.
Flower parts typically come in multiples of three, and the pollen
grains characteristically feature a single aperture (or furrow).

The roots of a monocot lack a vascular cambium (the area of

secondary xylem and phloem, or secondary vascular tissue,
development) and therefore have no means of secondary thickening.
 In other structural respects, monocot roots are essentially similar to
those of eudicots.
Many eudicots have a taproot or several strong roots, with several
orders of branch roots, all originating eventually from the embryonic
root (radicle). The taproot or primary roots in such a system have a
 vascular cambium and are thickened by secondary growth. This kind of
root system is not available to monocots.
 Instead, the primary root that originates from the radicle of the
embryo soon aborts or is undeveloped so that no primary root is
produced. The root system of monocots is thus wholly
adventitious—i.e., the roots originate laterally from the stem or
from the hypocotyl (the region of transition between the root and
the stem in the embryo). The roots are all slender, and the plant is
said to be fibrous-rooted.

 Flowers of monocots differ from those of eudicots mainly in the

number of parts of each kind. Monocot flowers most often have the
parts in sets of three (monocot flowers tend to have a number of
parts that is divisible by three, usually three or six), occasionally
four, but almost never five. The numbers are especially
characteristic of the sepals and petals. The stamens and pistils may
be numerous even when the perianth (the outer part of a flower,
consisting of the calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals) is trimerous (in
sets of three), or the single ovary may have only
two carpels instead of three. Often there are six stamens,
representing two whorls of three.

Pistil, the female reproductive part of a flower. The pistil, centrally

located, typically consists of a swollen base, the ovary, which contains
the potential seeds, or ovules; a stalk, or style, arising from the ovary;
and a pollen-receptive tip, the stigma, variously shaped and often sticky.

ii. Dicotyledon Plants

 Dicotyledon, byname dicot, any member of the flowering plants,

or angiosperms, that has a pair of leaves, or cotyledons, in the
embryo of the seed. There are about 175,000 known species of
dicots. Most common garden plants, shrubs and trees, and broad-
leafed flowering plants such as Bean, pea, mango, tomato, potato,
groundnut, roses, oaks, walnuts, legumes , sunflowers. The
eudicots, containing approximately 75 percent of all angiosperm
species, comprise several distinct ancestries. The earliest branches
of eudicots are the Ranunculales, which include the Ranunculaceae
(buttercup family) and Papaveraceae (poppy family), as well as the
Buxaceae (boxwood family) and Platanaceae (sycamore family).
 Most eudicots form a large clade, composed of three main branches
and several smaller ones.

A clade is a group of organisms that evolved from a common

ancestor.

The main branches of eudicots are the eurosids (made up of members of

the traditional subclasses Rosidae, Dilleniidae, and Asteridae), the
asterids (containing members of subclasses Asteridae, Dilleniidae, and
Rosidae), and the Caryophyllales; there is no clade that corresponds to
subclass Dilleniidae.

Dicots typically also have flower parts (sepals, petals, stamens, and
pistils) based on a plan of four or five, or multiples thereof, although
there are exceptions. The leaves are net-veined in most, which means
the vessels that conduct water and food show a meshlike pattern. In the
stems the vessels are usually arranged in a continuous ring near
the stem surface. About 50 percent of all dicot species are woody; they
show an annual increase in stem diameter as a result of the production of
new tissue by the cambium, a layer of cells that remain capable of
division throughout the life of these plants.
Branching of stems is common, as are taproots. The microscopic pores
(stomates) on the leaf surfaces are usually scattered and are in various
orientations. The pollen grains typically have three germinal furrows or
pores (tricolpate condition), except in the more primitive families.

 Botanists long theorized that the monocots were derived from an

ancient group of dicots during the early diversification of the
angiosperms.
 Phylogenetic trees of relationship derived from molecular data
confirm this longstanding hypothesis and pinpoint the possible close
relatives of the monocots.

A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that represents evolutionary

relationships among organisms. Phylogenetic trees are hypotheses, not
definitive facts. The pattern of branching in a phylogenetic tree reflects
how species or other groups evolved from a series of common ancestors.

The first angiosperms that appear in the fossil record possess those
characteristics typically assigned to the dicots, and both the monocots
and eudicots evolved later. The eudicots can be identified in the fossil
record by their three-grooved pollen as early as 110 million years ago.
Following the origin of this group, it diversified rapidly, and by 90 to 80
million years ago many of today's prominent families of angiosperms
were established and are clearly recognizable in the fossil record.

GENERAL FEATURES OF ANGIOSPERMS

The variety of forms found among angiosperms is greater than that of

any other plant group. The size range alone is quite remarkable, from the
smallest individual flowering plant, probably the watermeal (Wolffia;
Araceae) at less than 2 millimetres (0.08 inch), to one of the tallest
angiosperms, Australia’s mountain ash tree (Eucalyptus regnans;
Myrtaceae) at about 100 metres (330 feet). Between these two extremes
lie angiosperms of almost every size and shape. Examples of this
variability include the succulent cacti (Cactaceae), the
fragile orchids (Orchidaceae),
the baobabs (Adansonia species; Malvaceae), vines, rosette plants such
as the dandelion (Asteraceae), and carnivorous plants such
as sundews (Drosera; Droseraceae) and the Venus flytrap (Dionaea
muscipula; Droseraceae).
To understand this vast array of forms, it is necessary to consider the
basic structural plan of the angiosperms.The basic angiosperm form is
woody or herbaceous. Woody forms (generally trees and shrubs) are rich
in secondary tissues, while herbaceous forms (herbs) rarely have any.
 Annuals are herbs that complete their growing cycle (growth,
flowering, and death) within the same season. Examples of annuals
can be found among cultivated garden plants, such
as beans (Phaseolus and other genera; Fabaceae), corn (maize, Zea
mays; Poaceae), and squashes (Cucurbita; Cucurbitaceae), as well
as among the wildflowers, such as
some buttercups (Ranunculus; Ranunculaceae)
and poppies (Papaver and other genera; Papaveraceae).
 Biennials are also herbs, but, unlike annuals, their growing cycle
spans two years: the vegetative (nonreproductive) plant growth
takes place from seed during the first year, and flowers
and fruit develop during the second. The beet (Beta
vulgaris; Amaranthaceae) and carrot (Daucus carota; Apiaceae) are
well-known biennials.
 A perennial grows for many years and often flowers annually. In
temperate areas the aerial parts of a perennial die back to the
ground at the end of each growing season and new shoots are
produced the following season from such subterranean parts
as bulbs, rhizomes, corms, tubers, and stolons.
A bulb is structurally a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases that
function as food storage organs. E.g. Onion

A rhizome (also known as rootstocks) is a type of plant stem situated

either at the soil surface or underground that contains nodes from which
roots and shoots originate (shown below). Rhizomes are unique in that
they grow perpendicular, permitting new shoots to grow up out of the
ground. E.g. ginger, turmeric, lotus.

Corm, vertical, fleshy, underground stem that acts as a food-storage

structure in certain seed plants. It bears membranous or scaly leaves and
buds, and, unlike in bulbs, these do not appear as visible rings when the
corm is cut in half. Corms have a fibrous covering known as a tunic, and
the roots emerge from a smooth area at the base known as the basal
plate. E.g. gladiolus, crocus (ornamental plants).

Tuber, specialized storage stem of certain seed plants. Tubers are

usually short and thickened and typically grow below the soil. Largely
composed of starch-storing parenchyma tissue, they constitute the
resting stage of various plants and enable overwintering in many species.
As modified stems, most tubers bear minute scale leaves, each with
a bud that has the potential for developing into a new plant. The potato is
a typical tuber.

Stolon, in biology, a special slender horizontal branch serving

to propagate the organism. In botany a stolon—also called a runner—is a
slender stem that grows horizontally along the ground, giving rise to
roots and aerial (vertical) branches at specialized points called nodes.

BODY STRUCTURE OF ANGIOSPERM

 The basic angiosperm body has three parts: roots, stems,

and leaves.
 These primary organs constitute the vegetative (nonreproductive)
plant body. Together, the stem and its attached leaves constitute
the shoot.
 Collectively, the roots of an individual plant make up the root
system and the shoots the shoot system.

Root systems

The roots anchor a plant, absorb water and minerals, and provide a
storage area for food.
 The two basic types of root systems are a primary root system and
an adventitious root system.
The most common type, the primary system, consists of
a taproot (primary root) that grows vertically downward
(positive geotropism). From the taproot are produced smaller lateral
roots (secondary roots) that grow horizontally or diagonally. These
secondary roots further produce their own smaller lateral roots (tertiary
roots). Thus, many orders of roots of descending size are produced from
a single prominent root, the taproot. Most dicotyledons produce taproots,
as, for example, the dandelion. In some cases, the taproot system is
modified into a fibrous, or diffuse, system, in which the initial secondary
roots soon equal or exceed the primary root in size. The result is several
large, positively geotropic roots that produce higher-order roots, which
may also grow to the same size. Thus, in fibrous root systems there is no
well-defined single taproot. In general, fibrous root systems are shallower
(thinner) than taproot systems.

The second type of root system, the adventitious root system, differs
from the primary variety in that the primary root is often short-lived
and is replaced or supplemented by many roots that form from the
stem. Most monocotyledons have adventitious roots; examples
include orchids (Orchidaceae), bromeliads (Bromeliaceae), and many
other epiphytic plants in the tropics. Grasses (Poaceae) and many
other monocotyledons produce fibrous root systems with the
development of adventitious roots.

Adventitious roots, when modified for aerial support, are called prop
roots, as in corn or some figs (Ficus; Moraceae). In many
tropical rainforest trees, large woody prop roots develop from
adventitious roots on horizontal branches and provide additional
anchorage and support. Many bulbous plants have contractile
adventitious roots that pull the bulb deeper into the ground as it
grows. Climbing plants often grip their supports with specialized
adventitious roots. Some lateral roots of mangroves become
specialized as pneumatophores in saline mud flats; pneumatophores
are lateral roots that grow upward (negative geotropism) for varying
distances and function as the site of oxygen intake for the submerged
primary root system. The plants mentioned above are only a few
examples of root diversity in angiosperms, a condition that is
unparalleled in any other vascular plant group. Many primary root and
adventitious root systems have become modified for special functions,
the most common being the formation of tuberous (fleshy) roots for
food storage. For example, carrots and beets are tuberous roots that
are modified from taproots, and cassava (manioc) is a tuberous root
that is modified from an adventitious root.
Stems

The stem is an aerial axis of the plant that bears leaves and flowers and
conducts water and minerals from the roots and food from the site of
synthesis to areas where it is to be used.
The main stem of a plant is continuous with the root system through a
transition region called the hypocotyl (the part of the stem of an embryo
plant beneath the stalks of the seed leaves or cotyledons and directly
above the root). In the developing embryo, the hypocotyl is the
embryonic axis that bears the seedling leaves (cotyledons). In a maturing
stem, the area where a leaf attaches to the stem is called a node, and the
region between successive nodes is called an internode. Stems bear leafy
shoots (branches) at the nodes, which arise from buds (dormant shoots).
Lateral branches develop either from axillary, or lateral, buds found in the
angle between the leaf and the stem or from terminal buds at the end of
the shoot. In temperate-climate plants these buds have extended periods
of dormancy, whereas in tropical plants the period of dormancy is either
very short or nonexistent.
 

The precise positional relationship of stem, leaf, and axillary bud is

important to understanding the diversity of the shoot system in
angiosperms.

Understanding this relationship makes it possible to identify organs such

as leaves that are so highly modified they no longer look like leaves, or
stems that are so modified that they resemble leaves.
Cladophylls are flattened main stems that resemble leaves (e.g.
butcher's‐broom, greenbrier, and some orchids). Edible asparagus shoots
left to grow produce many small fern‐like cladophylls. Cladodes (also
called cladophylls or phylloclades) are shoot systems in which leaves do
not develop; rather, the stems become flattened and assume the
photosynthetic functions of the plant.
Branching in angiosperms may be dichotomous or axillary.
In dichotomous branching, the branches form as a result of an equal
division of a terminal bud (i.e., a bud formed at the apex of a stem) into
two equal branches that are not derived from axillary buds, Although
axillary buds are present elsewhere on the plant body. The few examples
of dichotomous branching among angiosperms are found only in
some cacti, palms (Arecaceae),and bird-of-paradise plants
(Strelitziaceae).

The two modes of axillary branching in angiosperms are monopodial and

sympodial. Monopodial branching occurs when the terminal bud continues
to grow as a central leader shoot and the lateral branches remain
subordinate—e.g., beech trees (Fagus; Fagaceae). Sympodial branching
occurs when the terminal bud ceases to grow (usually because a terminal
flower has formed) and an axillary bud or buds become new leader
shoots, called renewal shoots—e.g., the Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia;
Asparagaceae). Plants with monopodial growth are usually pyramidal in
overall shape, while those with sympodial growth often resemble a
candelabra. By combining monopodial and sympodial branching in one
plant, many different tree architectures have evolved. A simple example
is found in dogwoods (Cornus; Cornaceae), where the main axis is
monopodial and the lateral branches are sympodial. Very different plant
forms result from simply changing the lengths of the internodes. Extreme
shortening of the internodes results in rosette plants, such as lettuce
(Lactuca sativa; Asteraceae), in which the leaves develop but the
internodes between them do not elongate until the plant “bolts” when
flowering. Extreme lengthening of the internodes often results in twining
vines, as in the yam (Dioscorea esculenta; Dioscoreaceae).

Stem Modifications

Some plant species have modified stems that are especially suited
to a particular habitat and environment.

A rhizome is a modified stem that grows horizontally underground; it has

nodes and internodes. Vertical shoots may arise from the buds on the
rhizome of some plants, such as ginger and ferns.
Corms are similar to rhizomes, except they are more rounded and fleshy
(such as in gladiolus). Corms contain stored food that enables some
plants to survive the winter.

Stolons are stems that run almost parallel to the ground, or just below
the surface, and can give rise to new plants at the nodes. Runners are a
type of stolon that runs above the ground and produces new clone plants
at nodes at varying intervals: grass, strawberries are an example.

Tubers are modified stems that may store starch, as seen in the potato.
Tubers arise as swollen ends of stolons, and contain many adventitious or
unusual buds (familiar to us as the “eyes” on potatoes).

A bulb, which functions as an underground storage unit, is a modification

of a stem that has the appearance of enlarged fleshy leaves emerging
from the stem or surrounding the base of the stem, as seen in the Onion.

Modifications to the aerial stems, vegetative buds, and floral buds

of plants perform functions such as climbing, protection, and
synthesis of food vegetative propagation. Aerial modifications of
stems include the following:

 Tendrils are slender, twining strands that enable a plant (like the
buckwheat vine; Polygonaceae) to seek support by climbing on other
surfaces. These may develop from either the axillary bud or the
terminal bud of the stem.
 Thorns are modified branches appearing as hard, woody, sharp
outgrowths that protect the plant; common examples include roses,
osage orange, and devil’s walking stick.
 Bulbils are axillary buds that have become fleshy and rounded due to
storage of food. They become detached from the plant, fall on ground
and develop into a new plant. e.g., Dioscorea (air potato, air yam),
Glabba, Agave, Oxalis
 Cladodes are green branches of limited growth (usually one internode
long) which have taken up the functions of photosynthesis. E.g.
Asparagus sp.

Leaves
The basic angiosperm leaf is composed of a leaf base, two stipules, a
petiole, and a blade (lamina).
The leaf base is the slightly expanded area where the leaf attaches to the
stem. The paired stipules, when present, are located on each side of the
leaf base and may resemble scales, spines, glands, or leaflike structures.
The petiole is a stalk that connects the blade with the leaf base. The
blade is the major photosynthetic surface of the plant and appears green
and flattened in a plane perpendicular to the stem. When only a single
blade is inserted directly on the petiole, the leaf is called simple. Simple
leaves may be variously lobed along their margins. The margins of simple
leaves may be entire and smooth or they may be lobed in various ways.
The coarse teeth of dentate margins project at right angles, while those
of serrate margins point toward the leaf apex. Crenulate margins have
rounded teeth or scalloped margins.

Leaf margins of simple leaves may be lobed in one of two patterns,

pinnate or palmate. In pinnately lobed margins the leaf blade (lamina) is
indented equally deep along each side of the midrib (as in the white oak,
Quercus alba; Fagaceae), The term pinnate comes from the Latin
word pinnātus which means feathered or winged (like a feather).
And in palmately lobed margins the lamina is indented along several
major veins (as in the red maple, Acer rubrum; Sapindaceae). A great
variety of base and apex shapes also are found.

Many leaves contain only some of these leaf parts; for example, many
leaves lack a petiole (grass plants) and so are attached directly to the
stem (sessile), and others lack stipules (exstipulate). In compound
leaves, a blade has two or more subunits called leaflets: in palmately
compound leaves, the leaflets radiate from a single point at the distal end
of the petiole (Examples of plants with palmately compound leaves
include poison ivy, the buckeye tree, or the familiar house
plant Schefflera sp. (commonly called “umbrella plant”);
In pinnately compound leaves, a row of leaflets forms on either side of an
extension of the petiole called the rachis. The most common tree
species with this leaf configuration are rose leaves, hickory (walnut
family), walnut, pecan, ash, box elder, black locust and honey locust
(which is bipinnate). The most common shrubs and smaller trees are
mountain-ash, Kentucky yellowwood, sumac along with invasive exotic
mimosa, alanthus, and chinaberry trees.

Some pinnately compound leaves branch again, developing a second set

of pinnately compound leaflets (bipinnately compound).
The many degrees of compoundness in highly elaborated leaves, such as
bipinnately or tripinnately compound, cause these leaves to often appear
to be shoot systems.

Unipinnate
Single leaflets are present on the rachis in opposite fashion.
Example: Azadirachta indica (Neem tree)

Bipinnate
When the single leaflets of the unipinnate leaf gets replaced with
unipnnate leaves themselves becomes bipinnate leaves. Example:
Mimosa pudica (Touch me not)

Tripinnate
When the single leaflets in the unipinnate leaves get replaced with
bipinnate leaves, it is called as tripinnate leaves! Example: Moringa
oleifera
It is always possible to distinguish them, however, because axillary buds
are found in the angle between the stem and the petiole (axil) of
pinnately or palmately compound leaves but not in the axils of leaflets.

The three patterns of leaf arrangement on stems in angiosperms are

alternate, opposite (paired), and whorled.
o In alternate-leaved plants, the leaves are single at each
node and borne along the stem alternately in an
ascending spiral.
o In opposite-leaved plants, the leaves are paired at a
node and borne opposite to each other.
o A plant has whorled leaves when there are three or
more equally spaced leaves at a node.
Leaf modifications
Whole leaves or parts of leaves are often modified for special functions,
such as for climbing and substrate attachment, storage, protection
against predation or climatic conditions, or trapping and digesting insect
prey. In temperate trees, leaves are simply protective bud scales; in the
spring when shoot growth is resumed, they often exhibit a complete
growth series from bud scales to fully developed leaves.

Stipules often develop before the rest of the leaf; they protect the young
blade and then are often shed when the leaf matures. Spines are also
modified leaves. In cacti, spines are wholly transformed leaves that
protect the plant from herbivores, radiate heat from the stem during the
day, and collect and drip condensed water vapour during the cooler night.
In the many species of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae), the stipules
are modified into paired stipular spines and the blade develops fully. In
ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens; Fouquieriaceae), the blade falls off and the
petiole remains as a spine.

Many desert plants, such as stoneplants (Lithops; Aizoaceae) and aloe

(Aloe; Asphodelaceae), develop succulent leaves for water storage. The
most common form of storage leaves are the succulent leaf bases of
underground bulbs (e.g., tulip and Crocus) that serve as either water- or
food-storage organs or both. Many nonparasitic plants that grow on the
surfaces of other plants (epiphytes), such as some of the bromeliads,
absorb water through specialized hairs on the surfaces of their leaves. In
the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), swollen petioles keep the plant
afloat.
Leaves or leaf parts may be modified to provide support. Tendrils and
hooks are the most common of these modifications. In the flame lily
(Gloriosa superba; Colchicaceae), the leaf tip of the blade elongates into
a tendril and twines around other plants for support.
In the garden pea (Pisum sativum; Fabaceae), the terminal leaflet of the
compound leaf develops as a tendril. In nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus;
Tropaeolaceae) and Clematis (Ranunculaceae), the petioles coil around
other plants for support. In catbrier (Smilax; Smilacaceae), the stipules
function as tendrils. In certain vining angiosperms with compound leaves,
some of the leaflets have modified into grapnel-like hooks—e.g., Tecoma
radicans. Many monocotyledons have sheathing leaf bases that are
concentrically arranged and form a pseudotrunk, as in banana (Musa). In
many epiphytic bromeliads, the pseudotrunk also functions as a water
reservoir.
Carnivorous plants use their leaves to attract and trap insects. Glands in
the leaves secrete enzymes that digest the captured insects, and the
leaves then absorb the nitrogenous compounds (amino acids) and other
products of digestion. Plants that use insects as a nitrogen source tend to
grow in nitrogen-deficient soils.

Reproductive structures

General features
The vast array of angiosperm floral structures is for sexual reproduction.
The angiosperm life cycle consists of a sporophyte phase and a
gametophyte phase. The cells of a sporophyte body have a full
complement of chromosomes (i.e., the cells are diploid, or 2n); the
sporophyte is the typical plant body that we see when we look at an
angiosperm.
The gametophyte arises when cells of the sporophyte, in preparation for
reproduction, undergo meiotic division and produce reproductive cells
that have only half the number of chromosomes (i.e., haploid, or n). A
two-celled microgametophyte called a pollen grain germinates into a
pollen tube and through division produces the haploid sperm. (The prefix
micro- denotes gametophytes emanating from a male reproductive
organ.) An eight-celled megagametophyte called the embryo sac
produces the egg. (The prefix mega- denotes gametophytes emanating
from female reproductive organs.)

Angiosperms are vascular plants, and all vascular plants have a life cycle
in which the sporophyte phase (vegetative body) is the dominant phase
and the gametophyte phase remains diminutive. In the nonvascular
plants, such as the bryophytes, the gametophyte phase is dominant over
the sporophyte phase. In bryophytes, the gametophyte produces its food
by photosynthesis (is autotrophic) while the nongreen sporophyte is
dependent on the food produced by the gametophyte. In nonseed
vascular plants, such as ferns and horsetails, both the gametophyte and
sporophyte are green and photosynthetic.

1. Flower

Flowers, the reproductive tissues of the plant, contain the male and/or
female organs. They may terminate short lateral branches or the main
axis or both. Flowers may be borne singly (as in the daffodil and
Magnolia) or in clusters called inflorescences (e.g., bromeliads,
snapdragons, and sunflowers). Fruits are derived from the floral parts of
the angiospermous plant.
A complete flower is composed of four organs attached to the floral stalk
by a receptacle. From the base of the receptacle upward these four
organs are the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. In dicots the organs
are generally grouped in multiples of four or five (rarely in threes), and in
monocots they are grouped in multiples of three.
The sepals, the outermost layer, are usually green, enclose the flower
bud, and collectively are called the calyx.
Petals are the next layer of floral appendages internal to the calyx; they
are generally brightly coloured and collectively are called the corolla. The
calyx and corolla together compose the perianth. The sepals and petals
are accessory parts or sterile appendages; though they protect the flower
buds and attract pollinators, they are not directly involved with sexual
reproduction. When the colour and appearance of sepals and petals are
similar, as in the tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) and Easter lily (Lilium
longiflorum), the perianth is said to be composed of tepals.
Internal to the corolla are the stamens, spore-producing structures
(microsporophylls) that are collectively called the androecium. In most
angiosperms, the stamens consist of a slender stalk (the filament) that
bears the anther (and pollen sacs), within which the pollen is formed.
Small secretory structures called nectaries are often found at the base of
the stamens and provide food rewards for pollinators. In some cases the
nectaries coalesce into a nectary or staminal disc. In many cases the
staminal disc forms when a whorl of stamens is reduced into a nectiferous
disc, and in other cases the staminal disc is actually derived from
nectary-producing tissue of the receptacle.
At the centre of the flower are the carpels, collectively called the
gynoecium. Carpels are megasporophylls that enclose one or more
ovules, each with an egg. After fertilization, the ovule matures into a
seed, and the carpel matures into a fruit. Carpels, and thus fruit, are
unique to angiosperms.

Floral structures characteristic of angiosperms.

A complete flower contains all four organs, while an incomplete flower

is missing at least one. A bisexual (or “perfect”) flower has both
stamens and carpels, and a unisexual (or “imperfect”) flower either
lacks stamens (and is called carpellate) or lacks carpels (and is called
staminate). Species with both staminate flowers and carpellate flowers on
the same plant (e.g., corn) are monoecious, from the Greek for “one
house.” Species in which the staminate flowers are on one plant and the
carpellate flowers are on another are dioecious, from the Greek for “two
houses.”

Floral organs are often united or fused: connation is the fusion of similar
organs—e.g., the fused petals in the morning glory; adnation is the fusion
of different organs—for example, the stamens fused to petals in the mint
family (Lamiaceae). The basic floral pattern consists of alternating whorls
of organs positioned concentrically: from outside inward, sepals, petals,
stamens, and carpels.

1.1. The receptacle

The receptacle is the axis (stem) to which the floral organs are attached.
Floral organs are attached either in a low continuous spiral, as is common
among primitive angiosperms, or in alternating successive whorls, as is
found among most angiosperms.
The peduncle is the stalk of a flower or an inflorescence. When a flower is
borne singly, the internode between the receptacle and the bract (the last
leaf, often modified and usually smaller than the other leaves) is the
peduncle. When the flowers are borne in an inflorescence, the peduncle is
the internode between the bract and the inflorescence; the internode
between the receptacle of each flower and its underlying bracteole is
called a pedicel. Thus, in inflorescences, bracteole is the equivalent of
bract, and pedicel is the equivalent of peduncle.

1.2. The calyx

The sepals (collectively called the calyx) most resemble leaves because of
their generally green colour. From their base and along most of their
length, sepals remain either separate (aposepalous, or polysepalous) or
marginally fused (synsepalous), forming a tube with terminal lobes or
teeth.
 A conspicuous red calyx tube envelops the closed yellow petals of the bell-shaped Abutilon
megapotamicum.

The sepals enclose and protect the unopened flower bud. The calyx is
commonly persistent and evident when the fruit matures (e.g.,
persimmon, Diospyros virginiana; Ebenaceae), in contrast to the more
short-lived petals and stamens. Sepals may be brightly coloured and
function as petals when true petals are missing—for example, the virgin’s
bower (Clematis; Ranunculaceae) and the Bougainvillea. Petaloid sepals
in this case differ from tepals because the first group of stamens are on
the same radii as the sepals, indicating the absence of the petals, which
would normally be positioned on alternating radii in the next floral whorl.

1.3. The corolla

The petals composing the corolla are typically brightly coloured or white
and attract insects and birds for pollination. The number of petals is
usually the same as the number of sepals. Floral symmetry is defined by
the petals.

When the petals of the corolla are of the same size and shape and when
they are equidistant from each other, the flower has radial symmetry,
and the flower is called regular or actinomorphic (e.g., buttercup,
Ranunculus; Ranunculaceae). In regular flowers, any line drawn through
the centre will divide the flower into two identical halves. When at least
one petal of the corolla is different, the flower has bilateral symmetry and
is called irregular or zygomorphic (e.g., violets, Viola; Violaceae).

Zygomorphy, or bilateral symmetry, of the viola (Viola), which produces a delicate five-
petaled flower with two dissimilar pairs.

The petals of the corolla may be separate, or apopetalous, or marginally

fused (fusion of like floral parts is called connation), or sympetalous, for
all or part of their length. When joined, they form a tubular corolla with
terminal lobes (see photograph above). A tubular corolla may be present
in regular flowers (e.g., blueberries, Vaccinium; Ericaceae) or irregular
flowers (e.g., sage, Salvia officinalis; Lamiaceae).

Stamens are commonly united to a tubular corolla (fusion of two unlike

floral parts is called adnation). A marginally fused (synsepalous) calyx, a
marginally fused (sympetalous) corolla, and stamens may fuse to form a
cuplike floral tube called a hypanthium that surrounds the carpels, as
in cherries (Prunus; Rosaceae), for example. Fusion and reduction of
flower parts are common and have occurred in many unrelated lineages.
Many wind-pollinated angiosperms do not have petals, nor do they have
floral parts modified as petals; examples of wind-
pollinated species include the amaranth family (Amaranthaceae) and
the birch family (Betulaceae).
1.4. The androecium
Stamens (microsporophylls) are structures that produce pollen in
terminal saclike structures (microsporangia) called anthers. The number
of stamens comprised by the androecium is sometimes the same as the
number of petals, but often the stamens are more numerous or fewer in
number than the petals. There are generally two pairs of spore-containing
sacs (microsporangia) in a young stamen; during maturation the partition
between the adjacent microsporangia of a pair breaks down so that there
are only two pollen-containing sacs (one in each lobe of the anther) at
the time the stamen releases the pollen.

Anthers
A transverse section of the anther reveals four areas of tissue capable of
producing spores. These tissues are composed of microsporocytes, which are
diploid cells capable of undergoing meiosis to form a tetrad (four joined
cells) of haploid microspores. The microspores become pollen grains and
may eventually separate.
During pollen development, the layer of cells beneath the dermis of the
anther wall (the endothecium) develops thickenings in the cell walls. The cell
layer immediately inside the endothecium (the tapetum) develops into a
layer of nutritive cells that either secrete their contents into the area around
the microsporocytes or lose their inner cell walls, dissociate from each other,
and become amoeboid (moves) among the microsporocytes. The pollen
grains develop a thick wall of at least two layers, the intine and the exine.
The intine, or inner layer, consists primarily of cellulose and pectins. The
exine, or outer layer, is composed of a highly decay-resistant chemical called
sporopollenin. The exine usually has one or more thin areas, or pores,
through which the pollen tubes germinate, and the thick area of the exine is
usually highly sculptured. The number of pores and pattern of exine
sculpturing are characteristic within an angiosperm family, genus, and often
within a species.

Each microspore (pollen grain) divides mitotically to form a two-celled

microgametophyte; one cell is a tube cell (the cell that develops into a pollen
tube), and the other is a generative cell, which will give rise to two sperm as
a result of a further mitotic division. Thus, a mature microgametophyte
consists of only three haploid cells— the tube cell and two sperm. Most
angiosperms shed pollen at the two-celled stage, but in some advanced
cases it is shed at the mature three-celled stage. When the pollen grains are
mature, the anther wall either splits open (dehisces) longitudinally or opens
by an apical pore.

Because the sporopollenin is resistant to decay, free pollen is well

represented in the fossil record. The distinctive patterns of the exine are
useful for identifying which species were present as well as suggesting the
conditions of early climates. The proteins in the pollen walls are also a major
factor in hay fever and other allergic reactions, and the spinose sculpturing
patterns may cause physical irritation.

1.5. The gynoecium

……