EDITED BY

Jack Nasar &

Jennifer Evans-Cowley

UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

From Accessability To Zoning

The John Glenn School of Public Affairs

UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

From Accessability To Zoning

 To all the people who work to make our world accessible
and livable for all.

Cover photogaphs by Katharine Hunter-Zaworski, Jack L. Nasar, and Dick Duncan

Book design, layout, and cover graphics by Corrin E. Hoegen
EDITED BY

Jack Nasar &

Jennifer Evans-Cowley

UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

From Accessability To Zoning

The Printing Press

The John Glenn School of Public Affairs

ii UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

First published 2007

Columbus, Ohio

Printed in the United States of America

Nasar, J. L. and Evans-Cowley, J

Universal design and visitability: from accessibility to zoning /
Edited by Jack L Nasar and Jennifer Evans-Cowley
p. cm
Includes bibliographic references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4276-1895-5 (paper)
1. Accessibility. 2. Architecture. 3. City Planning.
4. Universal design. 5. Visitability. I. Nasar, Jack, L. 1947-
II. Evans-Cowley, J. 1974 III. Title.
  iii
iii

Contents Page

Preface v
Jack L. Nasar and Jennifer Evans-Cowley
Forward ix
Deborah Kendrick
1 The Seven Principles of Universal Design
into Planning Practice 11
Wolfgang F. E. Preiser
2 Toward Inclusive Housing and Neighborhood
Design: A Look at Visitability 31
Jordana L. Maisel
3 Universal Design, Architecture and Spatial
Cognition without Sight 45
Shohreh Rashtian
4 Universal Design in Public Transportation:
“Segway” to the Future 51
Katharine Hunter-Zaworski
5 As Your County Gets Older…Planning for Senior
Housing Needs in Howard County, Maryland 69
Stephen Lafferty
6 Making universal design work in zoning and
regional planning: A Scandinavian approach 97
Olav Rand Bringa
7 Research and Teaching Of Accessibility and
Universal Design In Brazil: Hindrances and
Challenges In a Developing Country 115
Cristiane Rose Duarte and Regina Cohen
8 Universal Design Guidelines to Accommodate
Wheelchair Occupants in the Thai Context 147
Antika Sawadsri
9 Universal Design in the Institutional Setting:
Weaving a Philosophy into Campus Planning 159
L. Scott Lissner
Index 171
171 •171
iv UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY
Preface 

Preface

On June 13, 1998, Rosemarie Rossetti went for a bike ride that changed
her life. An 80 foot tree fell on her, leaving her paralyzed from the waist
down, unable to walk or get around her home. Many people have reduced
abilities through birth, accident, or regular activities, such as carrying
bags of groceries and trying to unlock a door in the dark.
In our routine movement through our communities, we may over-
look the need for barrier-free design, until we experience an injury, or have
to negotiate an environment with a stroller, or with someone who uses a
wheel-chair or has vision loss. Then, the simple act of entering a building
and getting to the desired destination often becomes an unpleasant chore.
Yet millions of people experience barriers to movement every day.
The growing aging population in the United States and elsewhere
have elevated the awareness of the need for homes and communities that
accommodate various abilities. We need houses, neighborhoods, and
whole communities designed to work for all abilities and across the lifes-
pan. This means better planning of the arrangement of uses, streets, paths,
public spaces, and transportation systems.
Barriers to fully accessible environments result from actions by many
entities both public and private. Through regulations, and individual de-
sign decisions, humans shape their communities to be more or less acces-
sible. Existing regulations do not accommodate all users, and sometimes,
rather than facilitating comfortable movement, create obstacles.
In recognition of the importance of public awareness, the National
Endowment for the Arts (NEA) invited proposals for its annual Universal
Design Leadership Initiative, calling for: “a project that will create greater
public awareness of and demand for universal designed environments, by
educating designers, consumers, educators, developers, city planners, and
others . . . [and involved] collaboration with the targeted audiences, using
innovative strategies in order to meet the broad social need, while bring-
ing universal design into the mainstream.”
Universal design implies a process that goes beyond minimum ac-
cess codes and standards, to design environments that are comfortably
vi UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

usable by people from childhood into their oldest years. Integrating the
core principles of universal design—equitable use, flexibility in use, sim-
ple and intuitive, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low physical
efforts, and size and shape for approach and use—can improve livability
and quality of life for everyone.
The three of us (Jennifer Evans-Cowley, Jack L. Nasar, and Scott
Lissner) recognized the importance of this project. We believed we could
make a positive impact on the design community in providing outreach
and education. We shared a commitment to building knowledge for deci-
sions about the design, planning, and management of our surroundings;
and we strongly believed in the value of bringing knowledge about design
research (such as that on Universal Design) to planners who propose the
policies that shapes urban form.
Among many other things, our grant proposal to the NEA included
an international conference on universal design and visitability, and an ed-
ited book derived from that conference. In December, 2005, the NEA in-
formed us that our proposal had been selected for the Endowment’s 2005
Universal Design Leadership Initiative. We assembled an international list
of speakers, and invited seven as keynote speakers. With the first accep-
tances in hand, we broadened the scope of the conference to include peer
reviewed presentations of papers and projects, and we developed a series
of awards for the best student papers and projects. We received more than
40 proposals from around the world. Further, Steven Jacobs, President of
IDEAL Group, Inc., offered to put the full conference on-line for active
distance participation. Two hundred people (125 on-site, and 75 on-line)
from as far away as Finland and Japan took part in the conference.
The book introduces the concepts of universal design and visitability.
It presents:
• a paradigm for the future
• rationale for studying it
• design examples
• a discussion of design for individuals with vision loss,
• planning barrier free transportation facilities
• successful county-wide and national policy initiatives
• the importance of education, and
• considerations of certain cultural barriers to adoption of policies.
We hope it advances your interest and understanding of this excit-
ing and ever-widening movement. Further, we hope that it provides the
information needed to teach the concept of universal design, and to plan,
design, and draft policy for making spaces comfortably accessible to ev-
eryone. Many groups have an interest in the creation of barrier-free envi-
Preface vii

ronments: citizens, planners, members of chambers of commerce, students

and professionals in the fields of environmental design and planning. We
also hope that the information provided here can help such groups think
beyond basic access to make our communities more inclusive and thus
agreeable for the broader public (all residents and visitors).

Acknowledgments

The conference and this book would not have materialized without the
support of the National Endowment for the Arts Universal Design Lead-
ership Initiative, and the partnership that supported and planned the Uni-
versal Design and Visitability Conference: The Ohio State University, the
Glenn School of Public Affairs, the Kirwin Institute for the Study of Race
and Ethnicity, the Knowlton School of Architecture, and the Americans
with Disabilities Act (ADA) Coordinator’s Office. We thank all of them.
We are grateful to Scott Lissner for his assistance in organizing and
publicizing the Universal Design and Visitability Conference (July 13-14,
2006 in Columbus, Ohio), to Wolf Preiser (co-editor of The Universal
Design Handbook) and Dick Duncan (Senior Project Manager, The Cen-
ter for Universal Design at North Carolina State University), for their
advise on keynote speakers, and to the contributing authors to this book.
Many students helped in convening the conference: Corrin Hoegen,
Andrea Cooper, Art Curley, Brandy Dunlap, Meghan Gough, Matt Lan-
tow, Heide Martin, Goldie Ludovici, Laura Slocum, Anne Warjone, Brent
Warren, and Shan Wu—helped us run the conference; and we thank
them all.
We thank Corrin Hoegen for designing the cover and laying out the
book.
Lastly, we thank the more than 200 faculty, students and profession-
als and others who took part in the conference. We created this book for
you and others who support the goals of making our world more accessible
for everyone.

Jack L. Nasar
Jennifer Evans-Cowley
The Ohio State University
January 31, 2006
viii UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY
Foreword ix

Foreword

There was a time not so very long ago when the concepts presented in
this book would have seemed futuristic or, at best, quaint but impracti-
cal. Our understanding of universal design and its younger sibling, visit-
ability, have come a long way in a fairly short time, though, and there’s
hope that we will start more rapidly learning to recognize some significant
patterns.
The single most important of these “patterns” is the demonstrated
truth that if a thing is good for what seems to be a small subset of the
population, it will usually be better for and embraced by all.
Here’s one simple example. You go on a short business trip. For the
100-mile drive, you pop a recording of a new suspense novel or manage-
ment tome into the car’s CD player. At the hotel, you instinctively wheel
your luggage up and down the curb cutouts and ramps. In your hotel
room, an important phone call comes while you’re watching an interest-
ing documentary, so you press the mute and closed-caption buttons on
the remote and have a quiet conversation while monitoring your program
in the background.
Each of these conveniences—the audio book, the ramp, curb cutout,
the closed-caption text appearing on the TV screen—was initially invent-
ed to assist people with disabilities. And every one of them has become a
commonplace amenity enjoyed daily by the general population.
With predictions that we will see 40 million Americans over the age
of 65 by the year 2010 and 70 million by 2030, the need to ensure that
public facilities and private homes alike are designed and built to be usable
throughout the lifespan is more pressing than ever. We need communi-
ties in which crossing a street is not a death-defying adventure and where
transportation is readily accessible to everyone. We need multi-family
and single-family homes where anyone—whether on foot or with a walk-
er, scooter, or wheelchair—may enter, navigate, and live independently.
As we catch on to the news, as a society, that universal design and
visitability are concepts that must be implemented coast to coast, in com-
munities rural and urban, large and small, the next step is figuring out
 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

how to accomplish this task.

That’s where this book comes in. Jack L. Nasar, Jennifer Evans-Cow-
ley, and Scott Lissner hosted an international conference on universal de-
sign in July 2006 at The Ohio State University. Recognizing that the
concepts presented at the conference warranted wider distribution, they
have culled the proceedings, revised and edited the best, and gathered
them into this single publication.
You will find guiding principles, valuable statistics, and examples
of the concepts of universal design and visitability at work in this book.
Whether you happen to be a seasoned planner, designer, or policy maker
or a student or advocate wanting to learn more, you will find new and use-
ful information in these pages. Best of all, you may well absorb, as I did,
the pervasive wisdom held by a growing number of leaders in this field
that, far beyond the dry notions of legalities and requirements, univer-
sal design and visitability, when implemented properly, are principles that
just plain make good sense, financially and morally, for all of us.

Deborah Kendrick
Cincinnati, OH
December 4, 2006
The Seven Principles of Universal Design 11
11

1
The Seven Principles of Universal
Design into Planning Practice

Wolfgang F. E. Preiser

Abstract

Universal design is about the power of lifting the human spirit beyond
the minimum requirements legislated by the Americans with Disabilities
Act. In order to ascertain the viability of the Seven Principles of Universal
Design (Preiser and Ostroff, 2001), this chapter will develop objective and
explicit performance criteria that can be aligned with the traditional three
levels of priorities, including: 1. Health, safety, security; 2. Function, effi-
ciency, work processes; and 3. Social, psychological, cultural performance
(Preiser, 2003). These can be related directly to control mechanisms com-
mon in planning, such as building codes, the life safety code, zoning regu-
lations, design review, tax incentives, and guidance, which have emanated
from environment/behavior research over the past 35 years. Due to the
paucity of systematic universal design evaluation research (Preiser, 2001),
the author proposes to scrutinize case study examples at the planning and
urban scale. The underlying theoretical framework is feedback based on
and aiming at continuous quality improvements. This is in the expec-
tation that universally designed environments will facilitate their use by
a vast majority of people. The chapter will make recommendations for
future explorations into the application of universal design at the urban
scale, and to the field of planning in general.

Introduction

Universal design has the power to lift the human spirit, especially when
environments are designed to truly meet the needs of people who use them.
Universal design ranges from inclusive and non-discriminatory design of
products, cars, architecture, and urban environments and infrastructure,
all the way to information technology/telecommunications.
At the scale of very large facilities, such as airports and university
campuses, significant changes occurred after the implementation of the
Americans with Disabilities Act in 1991. The results were usually adapta-
tions and quick fixes to make existing facilities accessible to (almost) all.
12 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

The image that conjures up the antithesis of universal design is the for-
mer TWA Terminal at JFK Airport in New York, which was designed by
the famous architect Eero Saarinen. Eventually, the airport had to cover
the elegant stairs with ramps because everybody using the airport had
to be accommodated. Not just people who use wheelchairs, but all sorts
of other people with wheeled conveyances used the ramps: airline pilots
with wheeled suitcases, families with strollers, and workers pushing hand
trucks on the way to servicing vending machines. Post-facto modifications
like these ramps compromise the idea of universal design because one
should incorporate an inclusive way of thinking and integrative design
concepts into projects from the very beginning. Interestingly, the Mas-
ter Plan for JFK provides for adaptive re-use: the TWA terminal is to be
transformed into a conference center.
At the planning and urban scale, the present fight against sprawl
(Bruegmann, 2005) and what Kotkin (2006) calls “The War Against
Suburbia” seem to ignore the preferences of most Americans. In his book,
The City: A Global History, Kotkin observes: “Across a broad spectrum of
planning schools and practitioners, suburbs and single family neighbor-
hoods are linked to everything from obesity, rampant consumerism, envi-
ronmental degradation, the current energy crisis—and even the predomi-
nance of conservative political tendencies.” Departing from the traditional
subdivision patterns that lack sidewalks and amenities and services that
can be reached without getting into the car, new concepts are emerging
that integrate mixed-use commercial development with residential hous-
ing. These so-called life-style communities have distinct universal design
attributes: they permit everybody, including older adults and persons with
disabilities, to frequent the neighborhood center on their own without
having to overcome great distances requiring transportation. There are
historic precedents for this movement, albeit more all-encompassing new
town concepts dating back to the 1960s like the pedestrian- and bicycle-
oriented town of Tapiola just outside Helsinki, Finland.
At the national scale of planning, Norway appears to have progressed
the most in the world when it comes to the implementation of the concept
of universal design throughout the entire country, all the way down to
the community level (Bringa, 2001). This includes planning and design
school curricula, which must embrace universal design. It indicates that
Norway is taking the long-term perspective as far as the well being of its
citizens is concerned. There is also great concern for the environment,
green building, energy conservation (they have one of the world’s highest
gasoline prices, despite being a major oil producing country), and saving
for the future in general.
 The Seven Principles of Universal Design 13

At the global level, a revolution in information technology, and tele-

communications infrastructure in particular, has been occurring in the
recent past. This is due to the most ubiquitous and perhaps most univer-
sally designed gadget, the mobile phone. Mobile phones have the promise
of bridging the real digital divide between rich and poor countries (The
Economist, 2005): ”Mobile phones are, in short, a classic example of tech-
nology that helps people help themselves.” To that effect, a company plans
to mass produce a $100 cell phone for markets in the developing world
and, it is hoped, for the economically disadvantaged in the U.S. as well.
Overcoming the real digital divide is one of the great benefits of cell
phones already mentioned above. Think of the enormous cost of infra-
structure investments if one had to build land phone lines in a continent
such as Africa, or any poor country, for that matter. Instead, people in
these countries are using cell phones, a realistic way for poor people to
make progress, to connect with the world, and to generate income. Creat-
ing a policy of pooling limited resources will allow informal groups to
form and share access to the resources the cell phone can reach.
Similarly, in the United States cell phones are enabling socio-eco-
nomically weaker segments of the population to communicate, access
services, and relocate jobs and housing (much more frequently than the
average citizen) at a cost that has become much lower than the traditional
land line hookups, especially with the multiple-phone family plans that
are increasingly available.
On the negative side, mobile phones increase the risk of car accidents
fourfold due to distractions, regardless of whether the devices are hand
held or hands free. Consequently, a number of states and municipalities
have outlawed mobile phone use while driving a vehicle. Needless to say,
the problem of distractions caused by cell phones also pertains to pedes-
“the new
trians (Nasar, Hecht, & Wener, 2004).
paradigm...
advocates
self-regulating Paradigm Shift: From Fixed to Living Systems
systems, as
A significant paradigm shift has taken place in the world of business in
well as feed- recent decades (Petzinger, 1999). For hundreds of years the Newtonian
back based paradigm, with its mechanical, hierarchical, and natural resource/capital
continuous driven system, prevailed. Supply side domination of the market place used
quality to dictate and limit consumer choices: you can buy your Model-T Ford
in any color, as long as it is black. Similarly, in the post-World War II era
improvement”
monotonous housing in suburbs like Levittown, New York assumed that
one size fits all.
14 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Table 1.1 Paradigm shift from mechanical to natural model

Einstein’s Theory of Relativity led not only to the development of

cybernetics (von Foerster and Poerksen, 1998)—the science of feedback,
feed forward, and control—it ultimately evolved into the new paradigm
for business: It is alive and it advocates self-regulating systems, as well as
The Seven Principles of Universal Design 15

feedback-based continuous quality improvement. A military application

resulted in the development of cruise missiles, which can read the terrain
and use the feedback to adjust their course toward a target. Similarly, the
new paradigm promotes consumer-driven, customized mass production
of products, cars, and other commodities like housing. Information is the
currency of the day, not extracted minerals or agricultural, industrial, and
consumer products. In Silicon Valley and the film industry, and for high
tech enterprises like Microsoft, creativity is the driving force. The “cha-
ordic” systems approach, as described by Hock (2005), signifies order in
a chaotic world based on non-hierarchical and adaptable principles and
governance. The global expansion of the ubiquitous VISA card, the most
successful business venture in history, exemplified this. It may well be an
appropriate model for planning complex environments that are responsive
to an increasingly diverse social, economic, and cultural world.
Gilroy (2006) observed in his obituary of Jane Jacobs:

”Modern planners have contorted Jacob’s belief in hopes of imposing

their static, end-state vision of a city.”

Gilroy describes this approach as counter to her belief that cities:

“thrive on private initiative, trial-and error, incremental change, and

human and economic diversity.”

and further her view that the best communities:

“are diverse, messy and arise out of spontaneous order, not from a
scheme [dictating] how people should live and how neighborhoods should
look.”

Universal Design at the Planning and Urban Scale

Multiple examples of applying universal design principles at the urban

scale can be found in the Universal Design Handbook (Preiser and Os-
troff, 2001). For instance, this book contains a chapter by Weisman on
“Creating the Universally Designed City: Prospects for the New Cen-
tury”; chapters by Manley and Vescovo on universal design in the urban
realm; chapters by Goltsman, Miyake, and Robb on urban landscaping,
parks, and national parks; a chapter by Beasley and Davies on sports and
entertainment venues; a chapter by Fletcher on waterfront development;
16 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

chapters by Grosbois and Steinfeld on transportation; and a chapter by

Tappuni on the reconstruction of the Beirut CBD. (For details please re-
view these authors’ contributions in the reference section.)
In the following, this chapter attempts to address universal design by
illustrating the “Seven Principles of Universal Design” developed by the
Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University (Story,
2001). The chapter will list and explain the principles; highlight their sys-
tem performance criteria, and describe their applications at the urban and
building scale through select case study examples; outline implications for
control mechanisms like zoning and other regulations; and, finally, pres-
ent ideas for further exploration of relevant issues in the future.
Compared with traditional performance criteria (Preiser, 2003) for
planned and designed environments, some of which are codified in life
safety and building codes, the principles are lofty ideals and guiding prin-
ciples that need to become more quantified and operational so that plan- “provide the
ners and designers can use them in their projects. The following three-
level hierarchy of priorities corresponds to degrees of codification as they
same means
exist today: of use for all
users,
1. Health/Safety/Security Performance: Addressed by “must adhere identical
to” codes and regulations. whenever
2. Function/Efficiency/Process Performance: Covered by guidelines
that may be internal to a community or organization.
possible,
3. Social/Psychological/Cultural Performance: Derived from years of equivalent
research studies on the effect of the planned/built environment on human when not”
well being.

Principle 1: Equitable Use

“The design is useful and marketable to people with diverse abilities”

(Story 2001).

Equal Access
This idea speaks to our democratic principle of equality, meaning that
everybody should have equal access to built and urban environments.
“Provide the same means of use for all users, identical whenever possible,
equivalent when not” (Story 2001) promotes equal access to streets and
sidewalks, public (and privately owned) buildings, community centers,
hospitals, schools and colleges, transportation facilities, urban and na-
tional parks, and so on.
The Seven Principles of Universal Design 17

System Performance Criteria. Provide horizontal pathway systems which

separate travel paths and surfaces from vehicular traffic, thus easing pe-
destrian and wheelchair movement, either at ground level, above, or un-
derground.
For example, street level crossings of vehicular roadways and pedes-
trian sidewalks present a complex situation, especially when travelers who
are blind or have low vision are concerned. Drivers do not obey traffic
lights in some cultures. For example, in Brazil the author found drivers
racing through red lights at night, while drivers with green lights cau-
tiously approached the intersections and then checked cross traffic before
proceeding.
The National Federation of the Blind and the American Council of
the Blind have engaged in considerable debate as to whether sound signals
at pedestrian street crossings (e.g., buzzers, chirping bird sounds) are ef-
fective. The National Federation rejects them and maintains that sound
traffic signals are bad, since they can only be found in relatively few loca-
tions. They say that what is needed is for people who are blind or have low
vision to use white canes and seeing-eye dogs. In Japan the approach has
been for communities to install both rubberized tiles in the pavement,
and sound signals at street crossings.
Different issues arise with skywalk systems. In Minneapolis, where
the severe climate forces people inside for much of the winter, the City
created an extensive skywalk system that is heavily utilized. On the other
hand, in Cincinnati and other U.S. cities with much milder climates, the
skywalk systems have been all but abandoned and/or disrupted in various
places, thus making them dysfunctional. One reason for this is that sky-
walk systems can suck pedestrian life out of sidewalks at street level, while
at the same time presenting passersby with empty store fronts at the sky-
walk level. Similarly, the underground passage and mall system works well
for Montreal, but in balmy Albuquerque, New Mexico the underground
shopping center next to Fountain Square sits mostly empty.
In general, private shopping centers are by definition discriminatory:
the owners often use security to remove “undesirables” such as teenagers
or other persons just hanging out. This has included our students who
were doing observational studies or were trying to conduct surveys of
shoppers.
An anecdote about an accessibility paradox: With tourism being a
major driver of the economy in Edinburgh, Scotland, the cathedral dedi-
cated to the Patron Saint of the Disabled, St. Giles, is a curious example
of inaccessibility. Located on the Golden Mile, and converted into a tour-
ist information center, the cathedral belies its name because its main en-
18 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

trance is not accessible to people with disabilities.

When dealing with an historic structure like St. Giles Cathedral, one
cannot cover the steps with a ramp, as was done in the TWA Terminal
building referred to above. One will have to figure out equal access, per-
haps with clear signage pointing to a side entrance where there is an eleva-
tor that can reach all critical levels of the building.

Principle 2: Flexibility in Use

“The design accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and

abilities.”

Choices and Adaptability

This concept provides for adaptive re-use of existing facilities, such as con-
verting lofts into housing or turning hardware stores into churches. At
the community scale, it also aims at the creation of a variety of mixed,
complementary uses, such as retail and recreation and entertainment in
connection with housing (i.e., so-called lifestyle centers) or even more ad-
vanced and increasingly popular mixed-use suburban town centers. In
“Creating the Missing Hub”, Philip Langdon (2006) characterized these
as follows:

“the ingredient missing from many suburbs is a ‘town center’,

a place people head to for many different purposes—to shop, dine,
visit a library, deliver a package to the post office, take in a movie or a
concert, or just to enjoy being in an animated public place.”

System Performance Criteria. Better meet increasing demand among peo-

ple wishing to reside in downtowns and/or in walking/biking distance
from their employment locations. Similarly, recognize the growing trend
to develop so-called life-style communities, with high density housing in
walking distance from shopping and services, as well as entertainment
and recreation. According to the New Urbanists, an acceptable walking
distance range is from 600 feet to about ¼ mile.
Over the years, there have been many attempts at traffic calming in
Europe and elsewhere, especially in older cities. Design solutions included
roundabouts at street intersections, single lane automobile traffic with on-
street parking, planters, places to sit, and so on. The Village at The Streets
of West Chester (Ohio) is a new town center currently under construction.
One of its designers, Jeff Raser (2006), characterizes this project as pedes-
 The Seven Principles of Universal Design 19

trian-friendly for all pedestrians, whether a person without disabilities, a

person who uses a wheelchair, a person who uses crutches, a person with a
stroller, older adults or young adults.
According to him, wheelchair ramps and handrails are not enough.
A universally designed neighborhood should have narrow streets, easy to
cross, bump-outs for “safe harbor for pedestrians to stand on when await-
ing their chance to cross, sidewalk ramps to crosswalks that are “well de-
fined with a rectangle of contrastingly colored truncated domes along the
back rail of the curb,” and “crosswalks well-marked with texture in the
street, like stamped concrete or asphalt.”
An example of a “beyond the beltway community” on the Minne-
apolis border is Burnsville, Minnesota, with its Excelsior & Grand town
center. Ben Garvin of the New York Times (2006) noted:
“planning for
“The latest thing in suburban development is something very old: city
choice and
living . . . A handful of suburban areas around Minneapolis-St. Paul have
adaptation” begun ambitious plans to create town centers, with pedestrian friendly
sidewalks, condos, restaurants and shops. If it looks like a city, well, it is
supposed to.”

Another example of planning for choice and adaptation are sports

arenas and stadiums. In recent years there have been federal lawsuits
against some major sports arena and stadium design firms, who basically
designed according to code. However, they didn’t understand that sight
lines can be disrupted when spectators get excited and stand up, blocking
the view of a person who uses a wheelchair. The spirit of universal design
is exemplified by arrangements providing for flexible seating and choices
in different locations and price categories.
A good example of flexible arena design for spectators with disabilities
may be the Nationwide Arena in downtown Columbus, Ohio in which
hockey is played. It provides for choices in seating. It has fixed seating and
mobile seating, next to which a wheelchair can be pulled up, in various
price ranges and seating locations. Meanwhile, in the Schottenstein Arena
on the campus at The Ohio State University, and despite the good inten-
tions of the arena planners, sight lines are still disrupted because specta-
tors climb on top of their seats when the action gets wild.

Principle 3: Simple and Intuitive Use

“Use of the design is easy to understand, regardless of the user’s experi-

20 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

ence, knowledge, language skills, or current concentration level.”

Making Urban Environments Legible and Attractive Through Their Spatial

Qualities

System Performance Criteria. Provide accurate and intuitively understand- “provide

able directional guidance or markers for planned and designed environ-
ments, which in themselves need to be legible with a minimum of con-
accurate and
fusion at both pedestrian and automobile speeds. Furthermore, devise intuitively
criteria that apply to persons with different sensory disabilities. understandable
The qualities inherent in good urban design were defined by Kevin directional
Lynch (1960) as focal points for orientation, edges or barriers, places of guidance or
congregation, and so on. These were visual means to describe and de-
fine markers, boundaries, and other spatial features of the urban environ-
markers”
ment, primarily seen from the perspective of pedestrians. At the speed
of automobiles, different mechanisms are at work, such as highly visible
destinations like the Transamerica Tower and Golden Gate Bridge in San
Francisco; the Opera House or Harbor Bridge in Sydney, Australia; the
Wasatch Mountains in Salt Lake City; or the hugely successful harbor
front in Baltimore.
Making public parks, playgrounds, and spaces accessible is just as
important as the free use of public facilities such as toilets that serve ev-
erybody, including people with disabilities and tourists. In Paris, 400 new
and latest model automatic conveniences will be installed, including an
exterior tap for drinking water.

Principle 4: Perceptible Information

“The design communicates necessary information effectively to the user,

regardless of ambient conditions or the user’s sensory abilities.”

Redundancy of Sensory Modes in Signage and Way Finding Systems

System Performance Criteria. Provide for some degree of redundancy

among the different senses, especially when one is dealing with emergency
egress: signage and signals using sound, light, or even strobe lights. Em-
ploy different media, like pictograms, touch, or other means of presenting
stimuli or information. Enhance the legibility of essential information us-
 The Seven Principles of Universal Design 21

ing hierarchies of letter sizes, different fonts, colors, and graphic systems.
An example is tactile and visual clues on sidewalks and subway sta-
tion platforms, as in the case of Japan. These are yellow, rubbery tiles with
raised straight lines, which mean “proceed”, or dots, which indicate “stop
and re-orient”
Another example is the use of distance markers and maps with the
purpose of creating mental maps in drivers. This is in anticipation of what
to expect in making driving decisions, such as turning off of a freeway.
One could argue that amber alert signs are true universal design, since
they are intended to alert all drivers to traffic conditions that lie ahead or
vehicle information on missing persons’ kidnappers.
In transportation facilities such as airports, clarity in signage sys-
tems and communication of information essential to the traveler’s direc-
tion finding is of utmost importance. For example, when the Dallas-Fort
Worth Airport first opened, it was thought that automated trains and vid-
eo displays of gate information could replace a lot of ground personnel. In
reality, once passengers boarded a train, no more feedback on the train’s
location in relationship to one’s destination was provided. The loop routes
of the trains meant that with no reference to the outside many passengers
were disoriented, traveled in circles, were very distressed, and ultimately
“clarity in had to ask for assistance. In recently traveling through that airport, the
author was surprised to find personnel at every corner asking, “Do you
signage
have a question?” In other words, overkill in technology can result in poor
systems and performance and experiences. Similarly, at the Atlanta airport MARTA
communica- (the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority) changed the toll sys-
tion of tem to tickets which are dispensed from a machine. This was so confusing
information that MARTA had to post a person at each machine in order to explain
how to use it. This is self-defeating: can you imagine a person standing at
essential to
every machine once it goes system wide?
the traveler’s Large hospitals, frequently accretions of building phases and ad-
direction ditions over time, are notorious for confusion and stressful way finding
finding is of experiences. One such case is Children’s Hospital in Cincinnati, which
utmost covers a huge area with no clear indication of where to enter, park, and
proceed from there. Accordingly, the hospital developed a color coded
importance”
building directory and synchronized signage system.

Principle 5: Tolerance for Error

22 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

“The design minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of acciden-

tal or unintended actions.”

System Performance Criteria

“Make environments secure and safe to use by all” (Story 2001).
In her article “Making Sidewalks Accessible is the Decent Thing To
“secure
Do”, Deborah Kendrick (2003), who is blind, described that accessible
sidewalks are her most important criterion when selecting a place to live. and
They allow her to access any service, program, or product everybody else safe
uses. Of course, many suburban communities have abandoned the idea for all”
(and cost) of building and maintaining sidewalks. Where they do exist
in urban areas they need to be free of obstructions, cracked concrete, and
other obstacles which might cause a person who has low vision to fall and
get injured. As Kendrick put it, sidewalks are

“ribbons of concrete that, when smooth and unobstructed by

tree roots and utility lines, bring all citizens, with and without dis-
abilities, into the same employment, education and recreational ac-
tivities our communities offer”.

Special elevators for emergency evacuations from high-rise buildings

are an example of progress being made. “Panel May Recommend Fire-
fighter Elevators,” a recent article in The Wall Street Journal (Frangos,
2005) discussed elevator safety for all building users, including rescue per-
sonnel. The article reflects on the commission that is investigating 9/11,
and the fall of the twin World Trade Center towers. Why is it that other
countries’ building codes in Europe and most of Asia require these lifts,
although the rules differ? In the U.S. we not only forbid people to go
down in elevators, but firefighters cannot use elevators to go up and help
people to evacuate. In 1993 they had to walk up the World Trade Center
stairs, which was utterly ineffective. In countries like Malaysia, with the
Petronas Tower in Kuala Lumpur designed by Cesar Pelli, such elevators
are common. The new Freedom Tower in New York City, designed by
SOM, will have such an elevator. To quote June Kailes, a Los Angeles
based disability consultant:

“Disability rights activists are strong supporters of the elevators.

What we learned from 9/11, and many events before 9/11, is the ability to
evacuate multi-story buildings is an issue for a broad spectrum of people
who would never identify themselves as disabled, but who couldn’t negoti-
ate so many steps.”
The Seven Principles of Universal Design 23

This is true because there are many people who are not necessarily
using wheelchairs but have all kinds of mobility problems, and who would
find themselves stranded on the 100th floor, where they would probably
all perish. We have a lot to improve in the area of fire egress from tall
buildings.
Remembering the disastrous evacuation of New Orleans in the af-
termath of Hurricane Katrina, one could argue for universally designed
disaster evacuation plans for cities and regions that are vulnerable and
experience disasters on a recurring basis.

Principle 6: Low Physical Effort

“The design can be used efficiently and comfortably, and with a minimum
of fatigue.” This principle has to do with inclines and the surface charac-
teristics (e.g., carpeting versus hard floor or gravel).

System Performance Criteria

“Find ways to reduce the expenditure of effort and to minimize repetitive
“reduce actions at all scales of the environment” (Story, 2001).
expenditure An example of affordable and accessible mass transportation is a rapid
of effort” transit system, which was developed using dedicated high speed lanes in
Ecuador and Brazil. Bus stations have ramps on either side. After entering
and paying, one is level with the floor of the buses—meaning that they
can be emptied and filled up rapidly. There is no delay for paying or using
a wheelchair. This is a universally designed rapid transport system that is
appropriate for those countries that cannot afford subways.
When it comes to individualized public transportation (i.e., taxis),
London is considered the most accessible city in the world. All new taxis
have to have foldout ramps, which take a few seconds to put in place. All
older model taxis have to have one of these ramps in the trunk. In addi-
tion, the taxis are very comfortable, with high ceilings and multiple seat
configurations. For example, one can put a seatbelt around one’s wheel-
chair in order to secure it. On the other hand, the subways (called “the
tube”) are not accessible at all, except for the recently built Jubilee Line.
At the building scale Zipf’s (1949) famous “Human Behavior and the
Principle of Least Effort” clearly applies. Festinger’s (1950) classic socio-
metric study, “Social Pressures in Informal Groups”, explored how post-
W.W. II GI Bill MIT student housing, demonstrating how the amount
of effort that was implied in overcoming distance and height (number of
24 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

floors) proved critical in the establishment of acquaintance and friendship

patterns among residents. Another multi-stairway investigation (Hanyu
and Itsukushima, 2000) found that increased expenditure of effort re-
sulted in reduced use.
Finally, as was pointed out in connection with evacuation eleva-
tors above, residential elevators are essential for a variety of groups with
disabilities, whether wheelchair-users or not. A new generation of more
affordable elevators, using the suction principle that can accommodate
wheelchairs, is coming on the market (Daytona, 2006).

Principle 7: Size and Shape for Approach and Use

This principle and category clearly does not apply to the urban and plan-
“access
ning scale when interpreted in its original meaning: the limits the human
body and dimensions place on the accessibility of counters, shelving, ap-
for all”
pliances, dispensers, controls, electrical outlets, door handles, and other
critical items. Therefore, in considering the goal of “Access for All” at the
urban scale, different concepts come into play.

System Performance Implications

The elements that are critical for a city to be livable refer to “accessibil-
ity” from the perspective of pedestrian distances in neighborhoods in
high density cities like New York. In Manhattan most necessary daily
services—shopping, the library, churches, and entertainment—are within
a mile’s walking distance from one’s apartment. Lewis Mumford testified
to this in his 1979 film classic, “Toward a Humane Architecture” (Mee-
han, 1991). In short, in this type of community the operating principle
is integration, not separation of uses, and, implicitly, zoning approaches.
Building “Livable Communities” in the interest of maintaining indepen-
dence for seniors is also strongly advocated by the American Association of
Retired Persons (AARP). The common elements of this include: “afford-
able and appropriate housing, public transportation, community services,
nearby shopping and medical services, job opportunities, and recreation”
(Novell, 2006).
An example of this are current inner-urban redevelopment schemes
in the U.S. in which mixed-use zoning calls for high-rise buildings with
residential floors at the top, a hotel underneath, office uses below that,
retail at the street level, and, finally, parking underground.
Many precedents exist in Japan at both Tokyo and Nagoya Stations.
Mixed-use towers have been built with office zones, hotel zones, and res-
The Seven Principles of Universal Design 25

taurant zones, as well as retail shopping centers.

1. The Marunouchi Building in Tokyo connects to the Japan Rail

Station and the city blocks being redeveloped around it via a system of
underground shopping arcades and tunnels, which are fed by the traffic
that is generated by hundreds of thousands of passengers passing through
the station every day. Two remarkable features distinguish this building,
which was fully leased only months after its opening in 2003, while there
was a glut of office space in Tokyo. First, it has a huge atrium space, open
to the public, which is used for exhibits and public gatherings. It is, in
fact, a window to the community, welcoming the public for lunchtime
concerts and other events. Second, at the top level of the tower a viewing
floor is open to the public at no charge. In short, the building has become
a destination in Tokyo—a public place in private property.

2. The JR (Japan Rail) Tower in Nagoya utilizes the air rights above
Nagoya Station and contains a mix of uses that is similar to the Marun-
ouchi Building in Tokyo, plus a Marriott Hotel. What is most unusual is
a buzzing Sky Mall 13-15 floors above street level, a concept that would
never work in the U.S.

At a smaller scale, and in the suburban context of the U.S., many of

the continuously growing communities outside the beltway are playing
catch-up with the increasing need for community infrastructure and sup-
port facilities, like community centers. An example is the Lakota Schools
in West Chester, Ohio. Recent high schools were planned with the “Main
Street “ concept in mind—a large, long space primarily used as student
break areas, but also for community events such as public fairs and gath-
erings.

Field Evaluations at the University of Cincinnati

While the Seven Principles of Universal Design have been devised as ide-
als and general guidelines, almost like the Ten Commandments they lack
specificity and operational utility. This is the reason for a continuing series
of field-based evaluations of all kinds of facilities in a course called “Uni-
versal Design,” offered in the curriculum of the School of Architecture
and Interior Design at the University of Cincinnati. Field learning and
universal design evaluation exercises are an important component (Prei-
ser, 2001). We have carried out evaluations of the university campus, the
26 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

International Airport, the public library system of 42 branches, supermar-

kets, banks, hospitals, the Contemporary Art Center, and other facilities.
We found that many of these facilities, despite meeting the ADA guide-
lines and regulations, are not accessible.
The class checked out brand-new campus buildings, such as the one-
stop center where students register, pay, get assistance, and so on. It was
found that if one pushes the door opener button, by the time one gets to
the door it is already closing again. No one field tested it. What is needed
is a post-mounted button that one can push and get through the door
right away. This is an example of a building that was one year old and not
properly designed.
Thus, when planning such buildings integrative thinking needs to be
used from the start, literally making the built environment a level playing
field.

Ideas for Future Exploration

Future research will need to clarify advantages, disadvantages and cost

implications of the following:

1. Investigating level versus underground and above-ground street

crossings. This includes above-ground (second story) skywalk bridges ver-
sus underground concourse and connector tunnel systems, like the one
in Montreal, Canada referred to above. Another interesting variant is the
system of arcades in Melbourne, Australia, which fills the inside of city
blocks with shopping, restaurants, and other people-intensive uses.
2. Assessing the viability and implications of promoting adaptable
buildings and facilities, as well as mixed-use zoning, which combine
commercial land use with community services, shopping, and residential
housing. This includes downtown revitalization, such as the conversion of
department stores, office buildings, and lofts to residential use; upgrading
centers of older suburbs like Hyde Park and Clifton in Cincinnati; and
the proliferating new town centers in today’s suburbs in more than 60
locations in the country.
3. Developing signage control ordinances that regulate permissible
locations, sizes, and other parameters of signs in public spaces.
4. Devising special ordinances permitting tactile signage systems in
sidewalks and platforms of stations. Developing globally usable signage
for sports venues like the Olympics using pictograms, for example.
5. Investigating how universal design principles can be applied to
The Seven Principles of Universal Design 27

people movement in general, as well as the mitigation and aftermath of

disasters in particular.
6. Establishing realistic distances that pedestrians, the older adults,
children, and wheelchair users can master under various conditions (e.g.,
weather, temperature, traffic density). This should also be extended to
such venues as amusement parks, where covering great distances, waiting
for rides, entering rides, dealing with crowds, as well as accessibility of
toilet rooms and eating establishments are important. Making potential
experiences the same or similar for all is most desirable, like dipping one’s
feet into fountains.

Epilogue

It is hoped that this paper has demonstrated that universal design holds
the potential for humanizing environments, both at the general planning
and urban scales, and especially, if the political will exists to focus various
aspects of urban planning on inclusive planning for all. To quote Kotkin
(2006) again:

“It is time politicians recognized how their constituents actually

want to live. If not, they will only hurt their communities, and force
aspiring middle-class families to migrate ever further out to the pe-
riphery for the privacy, personal space and ownership that constitutes
the basis of their common dreams.”

Universal Design Handbook: A Resource

Many questions about universal design can be answered by Preiser and

Ostroff’s (2001) Universal Design Handbook. It has chapters on concep-
tual frameworks and policies for universal design at the building, commu-
nity, and global scales, as well as case studies from around the world. The
back cover of the Universal Design Handbook contains a CD with the
Americans with Disabilities Act Guidelines (ADAG), and other helpful
materials. One can download these and use them to determine what pro-
visions are relevant to specific design projects. However, one needs to re-
emphasize that universal design is intended to transcend the ADA, which
usually addresses only minimum requirements and dimensions.
28 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Acknowledgements

For the conceptual basis of this paper (i.e., “Feedback, Feed Forward and
Control”) I am indebted to my mentor, the late Dr. Heinz von Foerster.
A world renowned cyberneticist, he was Professor Emeritus and found-
ing director of the Biological Computer Laboratory at the University of
Illinois, Urbana, IL. Thanks are owed to Elaine Ostroff, without whose
expertise and global network in the field of universal design the Universal
Design Handbook could not have been created.

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Toward Inclusive Housing and Neighborhood Design 31
31

2
Toward Inclusive Housing and
Neighborhood Design:
A Look at Visitability

Jordana L. Maisel

Abstract

As a population ages and faces a greater number of physical disabilities,

housing and community design must be re-examined. This research ex-
plores the growing need for accessible housing in the United States and
the recent emergence of visitability as an affordable and sustainable design
strategy aimed at increasing the number of accessible single family homes
and neighborhoods. The research uses both qualitative and quantitative
methods to study the evolution of accessible housing policy in the Unit-
ed States, the history and fundamental principles of visitability, and the
number and diversity of visitability initiatives and programs. The research
explores trends in the visitability movement, as well as the challenges and
controversies currently surrounding the visitability movement and poten-
tially threatening its future success.

In the next twenty years, as millions of Americans reach their senior years,
the nation will confront profound challenges in the domestic environment,
including a lack of affordable and accessible housing. Although housing
and neighborhood design affect everyone, the complex relationship be-
tween people and the built environment has a more significant impact
on people with disabilities and the older population. Housing can either
inhibit or facilitate the ability of these individuals to live and age success-
fully with independence and with dignity. As the population ages and the
number of people with physical disabilities increases, existing paradigms
of housing and neighborhood design must be given greater scrutiny from
a lifespan perspective. Unfortunately, most of today’s housing stock fails
to meet the basic needs and preferences of these two population groups.
Accessible residential arrangements that maximize individual autonomy
and empower older adults and people with disabilities are extremely rare,
particularly in the single family housing market.
Responding to the need for more accessible homes, changes in public
policy and new design practices have emerged. Visitability, a concept that
describes affordable, sustainable, and accessible design for single family
32 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

housing, continues to gain popularity throughout the country. This paper

examines four key topics: (1) the origins of this new, inclusive design strat-
egy; (2) its components and goals; (3) the rate of adoption by communi-
ties; and (4) obstacles to its adoption.
In an effort to examine visitability thoroughly, both qualitative and
quantitative methods were utilized. Conducted between December 2003
and June 2004, this research attempts to obtain a comprehensive under-
standing of visitability’s history and document the most recent devel- “Visitability...
opments in its adoption. This research is intended to update and build describes
upon previous research by Spegal and Liebig (2003) and Kochera (2002). affordable,
Besides extensive Internet searches and postings on the visitability dis-
sustainable,
cussion list sponsored by the IDEA Center , many telephone interviews
were conducted with federal, state, and local housing agencies, finance
and accessi-
departments, and disability advocates’ offices. Unlike earlier research, this ble design for
study thoroughly analyzes both existing and proposed initiatives to track single-family
the diffusion of visitability and explore reasons for the observed patterns. housing.”
Moreover, it attempts to explain recent challenges and controversies sur-
rounding visitability.
Because not all locations use the term “visitability” in their efforts, it
is difficult to track the adoption of visitability across the country. Other
factors complicating the research include the lack of an organization as-
signed to monitor visitability ordinances and ordinances and laws that
often do not specify the agency responsible for implementation (Spegal &
Liebig, 2003). To capture as much information as possible on new acces-
sible-housing initiatives, this research uses a loose definition of visitability.
Thus, the results include some programs that neither specifically identi-
fied the three architectural features associated with visitability nor made
visitability mandatory. As a result, this chapter uses the term “visitability
initiatives and programs” rather than “visitability laws and ordinances.”

The Need for Accessible Housing

Most single family homes, duplexes, and town homes have formidable
barriers to people with disabilities. Many of them have steps at all entranc-
es and hallways and doorways too narrow for wheelchair use. Since most
people in this country live in such housing, this lack of accessibility means
that seniors and neighbors with disabilities are placed at a disadvantage in
both their social lives and the housing market.
These accessibility problems negatively affect millions of Americans
who have mobility impairments and, therefore, experience barriers within
 Toward Inclusive Housing and Neighborhood Design 33

their own homes. This population includes, but is not limited to, people
who use assistive devices. An analysis of data from the Disability Statis-
tics Center reveals that approximately 6.8 million American residents use
assistive devices to help them with mobility (Kaye, Kang, & LaPlante,
2000). Research also suggests that the use of mobility devices is expected
to continue to grow with the aging of the population (LaPlante, Hender-
shot, & Moss, 1992).
A study published by the Department of Housing and Urban Devel-
opment (HUD) emphasized the discrepancy between the need for and
supply of accessible homes. The research found that over one million ag-
ing homeowners have unmet housing needs. Many have serious home re-
habilitation and modification needs that, if unmet, could force them to
move or seriously reduce their quality of life (HUD, 1999).
Researchers and policymakers expect these housing problems to
worsen in the next few decades as the country’s population experiences
a major demographic transformation. Projections based on U.S. Census
Bureau data indicate that the number of persons age 65 and older will
grow to almost 40 million by the year 2010 (Jones & Sanford, 1996) and
70 million by 2030. In addition to living longer, people are now living
longer with disabilities. The same advancements in medicine and technol-
ogy that have increased the human lifespan now enable people to survive
“the number accidents and illnesses that were once fatal.
of persons Another factor contributing to the housing problem is a lack of feder-
age 65 and al legislation encouraging accessibility in housing. The Rehabilitation Act
older will amendments of 1977 and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) only
apply to housing constructed with government funding and only require
grow to
five percent of the units in covered projects to be accessible. Although
almost 40 the Fair Housing Act Amendments of 1988 require all newly constructed
million by the multifamily housing with four or more units in elevator-equipped build-
year 2010” ings to be accessible, since these regulations do not apply to single family
homes they exclude the largest section of the housing supply.

The Advent of Visitability

Despite existing legislative limitations, new strategies to incorporate ac-

cessibility in single family housing are emerging and gaining recognition.
Recent legislation, advocacy movements, and shifting philosophies not
only appeal to a greater segment of the population, they also strive to
fill the current gap in housing accessibility by specifically targeting single
family housing.
34 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Unlike home modifications, where supportive features are incorpo-

rated to address residents’ individual needs, visitability strives to provide
a baseline level of accessibility in all new home construction in hopes of
benefiting the entire population by creating accessible neighborhoods.
Visitability is an affordable, sustainable, and accessible design approach
that targets single family homes. Originating in Europe, the visitability
movement was initiated in the United States in 1986 by Eleanor Smith, a “make
disability rights advocate, and her group Concrete Change. Her ultimate all new
goal is to make all new homes not covered by current access regulations homes...
“accessible enough” for visitors with disabilities. Thus, a visitable home is accessible
intended to be a residence for anyone and to provide access to everyone.
Many advocates and researchers view visitability as a major step to-
enough for
wards achieving universal design on a neighborhood level. In acknowl- visitors with
edging the valuable role of visitability in developing active communities, disabilities”
Truesdale and Steinfeld contend, “Although less than the ideal of a uni-
versally designed home, visitability is actually universal design practiced
through community and neighborhood planning. It ensures that a basic
level of accessibility will be provided in all housing, and, it opens op-
portunities for participation in community life” (Truesdale & Steinfeld,
2002, pp. 8-9). Data from the 2002 National Health Interview Survey
(NHIS) confirm that building designs act as barriers to participation in
community activities for many people. Among people with disabilities
who reported that barriers limited or prevented their community partici-
pation, 43.1 percent mentioned problems with building design, such as
stairs, bathrooms, or narrow doors (Hendershot, 2004). The built envi-
ronment, therefore, greatly impacts whether or not an individual engages
in their community.
Rather than force individuals to remain isolated and confined to
their personal surroundings, visitability allows individuals with a variety
of abilities to interact with each other and engage in community activities.
It also provides benefits to a wide range of users, including those without
disabilities who may, from time to time, become temporarily impaired by
their circumstances or environment.

Three Principles of Visitability

There are three fundamental principles of visitability. First, visitability is

based on the idea that inclusion of basic architectural access features in all
new homes is a civil right that improves every person’s ability to live pro-
ductively and comfortably (Concrete Change, n.d.). People with disabili-
 Toward Inclusive Housing and Neighborhood Design 35

ties should be able to visit their neighbors for mutual assistance, friendship
formation, and childcare. Visitability strives to create opportunities for all
neighbors in a community to socialize, help each other, and interact more
effectively. It attempts to break down attitudinal as well as physical barri-
ers to social integration of people with disabilities.
Second, visitability rests on the notion that through good design ba-
sic accessibility to single family housing can be provided, in most cases
with minimal financial cost. The design philosophy contends that access is
cost-effective if planned in advance (Concrete Change, n.d.; Truesdale &
Steinfeld, 2002). Incorporating accessible architecture features into hous-
ing designs during the early stages of development, before construction,
remains affordable. Although only a limited number of studies have actu-
ally analyzed the specific costs associated with visitability, these studies all
agree that introducing visitability through retrofitting results in signifi-
cantly higher costs.
The third principle of visitability suggests that simplicity promotes
implementation. Prioritizing access features ensures that the supply of
accessible homes will increase more rapidly. Visitability advocates argue
that a long list of demands can create the misconception that all access
Three principles features are equally urgent, and therefore must all be included in homes.
of visitability: Therefore, a visitable home is one that meets only three conditions: one
1. Inclusion zero-step entrance, doorways that have 32 inches of clearance, and basic
of basic archi- access to at least a half bath on the main floor. These three features are
considered essential for a person with mobility impairments to visit or live
tectural access
in a home, at least temporarily (Truesdale & Steinfeld, 2002).
features in a
home.
2. Good basic The Visitability Movement
accessibility at
minimum cost. Recognizing the benefits of and growing need for more accessible housing,
3. Simplicity many state and local jurisdictions have joined the visitability movement.
promotes imple- In fact, several municipalities and states across the country have already
mentation. formalized and enacted visitability programs. Despite their common goal
of increasing the supply of accessible housing, these visitability programs
vary significantly. The three primary ways they tend to differ are the geo-
graphic regions they cover, the scope of features they include, and the
strategy by which they are implemented and enforced. For instance, some
visitability initiatives are mandatory, whereby builders and homeowners
are required by a law or ordinance to include visitable features during new
construction. Other programs are purely voluntary or, perhaps, include
additional architectural elements such as blocking for grab bars in bath-
36 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

room walls and accessible environmental controls.

Mandatory Visitability Initiatives and Programs

In 1992, Atlanta, Georgia passed the first ordinance requiring basic visit-
ability features in single family homes or duplexes built with any type of
subsidy from the city. These subsidies include tax incentives, city loans or
financial grants, land grants, or local dispositions of federal block grants
(Kochera, 2002). The success of this influential ordinance led to the imple-
mentation of similar legislation in other locales across the United States,
including Austin, Texas (1998), Urbana, Illinois (2000), and Scranton,
Pennsylvania (2005). Georgia (1998), Texas (1999), and Kansas (2002)
were the first states to pass similar legislation.
Although most existing visitability legislation at both the state and
local level only applies to new publicly funded housing, some munici-
palities, such as Naperville, Illinois (2002), Pima County, Arizona (2002),
and Bolingbrook, Illinois (2003), have mandatory visitability legislation
that applies to all new housing, including privately financed homes.

Voluntary Visitability Initiatives and Programs

In lieu of mandatory visitability initiatives, some states and munici-
palities have chosen to support voluntary programs for builders, develop-
ers, and consumers to promote the integration of visitability principles in
new housing. These programs include cash and tax incentives for builders
and consumers, consumer awareness campaigns, and certification pro-
grams, and they have emerged in locations from California to New York.
The city of Irvine, California established a Universal Design Program in
1999. The program requires builders to provide consumers with a list of 33
optional accessibility features. The builders are then obligated to include
any of the elements that consumers request. Consumer awareness cam-
paigns also exist in San Mateo County, California (2001), Albuquerque,
New Mexico (2001), and Syracuse, New York (2003).
Rather than approving a mandatory or incentive-based program,
representatives in Visalia, California initiated a certification program in
2001. The voluntary “Visitable Home Program” rewards builders with a
certificate if they incorporate visitable features in their designs. Although
these builders do not receive direct monetary compensation, the positive
publicity often leads to additional clients and new projects. The EasyLiv-
ing Home cm program is another certification program designed to en-
courage builders of single family homes to incorporate several features
that both increase the sellers’ market and offer buyers a home easy for
all to live in and visit (Concrete Change, n.d.). Established in Georgia in
 Toward Inclusive Housing and Neighborhood Design 37

2002, the EasyLiving Home (CM) program was developed by a group of

public and private organizations to encourage the voluntary inclusion of
key accessible features in single family homes. Extending beyond the three
elements of visitability, the EasyLiving Home (CM) program also requires
a bedroom on the main floor as well as some entertainment space and a
kitchen in its list of approvable features. Homes that incorporate these
features receive a seal of approval from the Easy Living Home Coalition.

Existing Visitability Initiatives and Programs

“as of June
As of June 2006, 44 state and local municipalities had a visitability pro-
2006, 44 state gram in place. Table 2.1 presents a distribution of both the mandatory
and local and voluntary visitability initiatives currently active in the United States.
municipalities It shows that visitability programs are not limited to a specific region
had a of the country or to a particular type of community. They are geographi-
cally dispersed across the country, and although the majority of local pro-
visitability
grams are in urban counties, which have higher populations and housing
program in densities, visitability programs also exist in suburban and rural locales.
place” Furthermore, initiatives are not limited to the states in the west that are
expecting the largest surge in their older population. States such as Penn-
sylvania, Kansas, and Illinois that are not expecting large gains in their
older populations also have visitability efforts.
Table 2.1 shows that visitability programs are not limited to a spe-
cific region of the country or to a particular type of community. They are
geographically dispersed across the country, and although the majority of
local programs are in urban counties, which have higher populations and
housing densities, visitability programs also exist in suburban and rural
locales. Furthermore, initiatives are not limited to the states in the west
that are expecting the largest surge in their aging population. States such
as Pennsylvania, Kansas, and Illinois that are not expecting large gains in
their aging populations also have visitability efforts.

Proposed Visitability Initiatives and Programs

The research identified eleven states with visitability programs and sixteen
visitability initiatives underway in other states, counties, and cities across
the country. They range from organized groups of individuals with an
expressed interest in beginning a visitability program to locations that are
in the final stages of developing a program. While the final outcomes of
these initiatives remain uncertain, their emergence symbolizes a growing
interest in incorporating more accessibility elements in both public and
private housing.
38 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Mandatory Voluntary
Mandates
For All
New Consumer
Mandates Homes, Awareness
Tied to Including Programs/
Public Privately Builder Certificate
Funds Financed Incentives Consumer Incentives Programs
Southampt
Atlanta, GA Naperville, on, NY Irvine, CA
(1992) IL (2002) (2002) Freehold Borough, NJ (1997) (1999)

Pima San Mateo

Austin, TX County, AZ Houston, County
(1998) (2002) TX (2004) Southampton, NY (2002) (2001)

Urbana, IL Bolingbroo Visalia, CA

(2000) k, IL (2003) Escanaba, MI (2003) (2001)
Albuquerqu
e, NM
Fort Worth, (2001-
TX (2000) Pittsburgh, PA (2004) 2002)
Long Howard
Local Initiatives

Beach, CA County,
(2002) MD (2001)
San Onondaga
Antonio, County
TX (2002) (2002)
Iowa City, Syracuse,
IA (2002) NY (2003)

Chicago, IL Sacramento
(2003) , CA (2003)
St. Louis Prescott
County Valley, AZ
(2003) (2005)

St.
Petersburg,
FL (2004)
Toledo, OH
(2005)
Auburn,
NY (2005)
Scranton,
PA (2005)
Arvada, CO
(2005)
New
Texas Florida Illinois Mexico
(1999) (1989) (2002) Georgia (1999) (2001)

Easy Living
Home
Project in
State Initiatives

Georgia Vermont Pennsylvan Georgia

(2000) (2000) ia (2004) Virginia (1999) (2002)
Minnesota
(2001)
Kansas
(2002)
Kentucky
(2003)
Oregon
Table 2.1. Existing visitability initiatives and programs
(2003)
(Source:
Maisel,Michigan
2006)
(2006)
Toward Inclusive Housing and Neighborhood Design 39

Challenges and Controversies

Despite its rise in popularity and widespread diffusion, visitability con-

tinues to face some challenges and controversies. Questions regarding the
legality of local ordinances, the cost effectiveness of programs, and the
feasibility of implementation have loomed since the philosophy emerged.
Homebuilders are often the most vocal critics of visitability, arguing that
besides infringing on homeowners’ “rights,” inclusive design costs too
much and negatively affects the aesthetic quality of homes (Lawlor, 2004;
Byzek, 1998).
Visitability supporters also disagree, struggling over the best strategies
to promote the construction of accessible single family housing. Whereas
some supporters argue for mandatory visitability legislation, others see
voluntary efforts as more feasible yet still effective. In addition to enforce-
ment strategies, advocates and visitability supporters disagree over the
limited amount of accessibility included in visitability. Some believe that
the basic access features typically required in visitability ordinances do
not go far enough, and by settling for them advocates lose the opportunity
for more desirable standards. Others see visitability as the best way to get
some housing built now with at least a basic level of accessibility.
Confusion and conflict exist between visitability and other residential
design philosophies. Many individuals incorrectly use the terms visitabil-
ity and “aging in place” interchangeably. While visitability and aging in
place share some characteristics, they have fundamentally different goals.
Whereas visitability strives to improve every person’s ability to engage in
social participation, aging in place targets older and middle-aged people
by addressing their preference to stay in their own homes. Aging in place
requires more accessibility features than visitability; therefore, any cor-
responding legislation should reflect these differences. This confusion and
ambiguity ultimately creates problems for advocacy and policy develop-
ment.
Traditional Neighborhood Development (TND) and “New Urban-
ism” also have conflicts with visitability. New urbanists advocate the use
of traditional neighborhood design to create European-style, pedestrian-
oriented communities ([Link]). While TNDs have many fea-
tures beneficial to both older people and people with disabilities, such as
narrow streets, a dense mixture of residential and commercial uses, and
an emphasis on pedestrian life and public transportation, the traditional
housing designs often lack accessibility (Smith, 2005). For instance, they
often have steps at every entrance. Fortunately, attempts to reconcile the
two philosophies are underway. Representatives from the Congress for
40 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

the New Urbanism, a chartered organization established in 1993, and the

visitability movement met in June 2004 at CNU XXII and again in June
2006 at CNU XXIV to begin discussing the resolution of conflicts be-
tween the two design strategies (New Urban News, 2004).
Besides these broad policy issues, visitability proponents from many
cities and states with proposed initiatives cite specific reasons for delays
in adoption. Perhaps the most severe obstacle for proposed mandatory
initiatives exists in California and New York, where legal restrictions may
impede adoption of local visitability ordinances. Californians hold the
position that their state law preempts any attempts to regulate privately
funded, single family construction. Similarly, many visitability efforts
in New York State have stalled because of laws that limit local legisla-
tion from exceeding the requirements of the State Building Construction
Code. Consequently, many cities within New York State and California
have turned to voluntary efforts to promote visitability.
These potential barriers to the adoption of new visitability programs
are compounded by the lack of visitable homes being built in communi-
ties that have already adopted visitability. Primarily because many loca-
tions place numerous restrictions on the homes that must comply with or-
dinances and other mandatory programs, municipalities with established
visitability programs are failing to build large quantities of visitable homes.
For example, in Oregon (2000) accessibility requirements only apply to
new rental housing units and, consequently, they exclude the single fam-
ily housing market. Moreover, visitability programs in Minnesota (2001)
and Kentucky (2003) only apply to homes financed with funds from the
Minnesota Housing Finance Agency (MHFA) and the Kentucky Hous-
ing Corporation (KHC), respectively. This, again, limits the number of
homes covered by established visitability programs.
It appears that the various broad and specific policy issues surround-
ing visitability may have to be reconciled in order to ensure the future
success of this inclusive design strategy. Although interest in visitability
has grown significantly and the number of proposed initiatives has risen
exponentially, the number of active initiatives appears to be leveling off
(see Figure 2.1).
This figure may indicate an overall decline in the rate of adoption
of visitability programs, but we need more time before declaring such a
trend. Because of the length and variability of time it takes to get an or-
dinance passed, many of the proposed initiatives may appear in the next
few years. Additional research that tracks the progress of these proposed
initiatives will help document the actual impact of the aforementioned
challenges and policy issues.
Toward Inclusive Housing and Neighborhood Design 41

A Look to the Future

Regardless of these challenges, the visitability movement continues to

push ahead. Perhaps the greatest indication of its popularity and con-
tinued support is a relatively new federal bill, H.R. 1441: The Inclusive
Home Design Act. The bill was first introduced in the House of Represen-
tatives in 2002 by Representative Jan Schakowsky (D-IL). A revised bill
was reintroduced on March 17, 2005, and it now has approximately 36

Figure 2.1 Total Number of Visitability Programs, 1989-2006 (Source:

Maisel, 2006).

co-sponsors and the support of over 25 organizations. As the bill pass-

es through various congressional committees and undergoes numerous
changes, advocates continue to garner additional sponsors and support. If
eventually passed in its current form, the federal legislation would man-
date that all federally financed housing include visitability features. Such
revolutionary legislation would significantly contribute to closing the gap
between the demand for and the supply of accessible housing available in
today’s housing stock.
Until federal legislation passes, the future adoption rate of visitabil-
ity can be influenced by additional research as well as continued support
from advocates, builders, and legislators. More definitive and compre-
hensive studies on the costs and benefits of visitability and research on
the number of visitable homes built using each implementation strategy
would help strengthen visitability supporters’ efforts. Studies that demon-
strate how visitability provides more accessible, safer, and more convenient
homes would also demonstrate the effectiveness and general value of the
concept.
As the recent demographic shift begins to compound the current
lack of accessible housing and neighborhoods, a growing segment of the
42 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

population will confront challenges in the accessibility and usability of

their dwellings. Visitability not only addresses the need for more acces-
sible housing, it also recognizes that this need extends beyond the mul-
tifamily housing market. Individuals who prefer to live in single family
homes express a need and desire for accessible housing as well. Visitability
ultimately provides an innovative, cost effective, and viable strategy for
transforming and improving the nation’s housing supply and meeting the
needs of a changing population.

References

Byzek, J. (1998, May/June). The National Association of Home Builders

takes on all comers in its unrelenting fight against building homes all
of us can enter. Ragged Edge Online.
Concrete Change. (n.d.). Georgia’s EasyLiving Home (CM) Program.
Retrieved September 28, 2004, from [Link]
org/ga_easy_living.htm
Hendershot, G. (2004). Building Design is Leading Barrier to Community
Participation. Washington, D.C.: National Organization on Disability.
Jones, M., & Sanford, J. (1996). People with mobility impairments in
the United States today and in 2010. Assistive Technology, 8, 43-53.
Kaye, S., Kang, T., & LaPlante, M. (2000). Mobility device use in the
United States. Disability Statistics Report (14). Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Department of Education, National Institute of Disability and
Rehabilitation Research.
Kochera, A. (2002). Accessibility and visitability features in single-fam-
ily homes: A review of state and local activity (Report #2002-03).
Washington, D.C.: AARP Public Policy Institute.
LaPlante, M., Hendershot, G., & Moss, A. (1992). Assistive technology
devices and home accessibility features: Prevalence, payment, need
and trends. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics, 217.
Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health Statistics.
Lawlor, J. (2004). Arizona court upholds wheelchair access regulations.
American Planning Association, 70(3): 37.
Search is underway for accord on ‘visitability’. (2004). New Urban News.
October/November, 9, 7.
Spegal, K., & Liebig, P. (2003). Visitability: Trends, approaches, and
outcomes. University of Southern California: The National Resource
Center on Supportive Housing and Home Modification.
Smith, E. (2005). Activists call ‘New Urbanism’ to account over lack
Toward Inclusive Housing and Neighborhood Design 43

of visitability. Retrieved June 27, 2006, from [Link]

[Link]/focus/[Link]
Truesdale, S., & Steinfeld, E. (2002). Visitability: An approach to univer-
sal design in housing. Buffalo, NY: IDEA Center.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (1999). Hous-
ing our elders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.

End Notes

1. This article is a reprint of Maisel, J. (2006). p. 26-34 .Toward Inclusive

Housing and Neighborhood Design: A Look at Visitability. Community
Development: Journal of the Community Development Society, 37, 3.

2. Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access (IDEA Center),

University at Buffalo, State University of New York (Visitability-List@
[Link]).

3. Detailed spreadsheets of visitability initiatives and proposed programs

and initiatives are regularly updated and available for download in mul-
tiple formats at [Link]

4. The group included members from AARP of Georgia, Atlanta Regional

Commission, Concrete Change, Georgia Department of Community
Affairs, the Governor’s Council on Developmental Disabilities, Home
Builders Association of Georgia, Shepherd Center, and the Statewide
Independent Living Council of Georgia.
44 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY
Architecture and Spatial Cognition 45
45

3
Universal Design, Architecture and
Spatial Cognition without Sight

Shohreh Rashtian

Abstract

The growing interest in Universal Design has produced many studies

about modifying color, contrast, and glare to improve the accessibility
of users with low vision and partial sight. However, spatial perception,
spatial cognition, and navigation without sight need further study. Ap-
proximately 45 million people are blind worldwide; and the United States
has more than 1.3 million people who are blind and 3.4 million people
who are or have low vision (World Health Organization Program for the
Prevention of Blindness and Deafness, 1997). This number will only grow
as the population increases.
Designers, managers, legislators, and decision makers need better in-
formation on the needs of people with visual impairment and blindness.
This chapter addresses the importance of being aware of the design needs
of people who are blind or have low vision. It presents background infor-
mation about the differences among sensory systems in perceiving and
learning the environment, discusses spatial learning and navigation aids
for people who are blind or have low vision, and offers recommendations
on how to improve designs for everyone.

Differences Among Sensory Systems in Reporting Spatial Informa-

tion

To design environments and products usable for all people including

people with severe visual impairment and blindness, designers should
consider the fundamental differences among sensory systems in reporting
spatial information. Vision permits observation of a large area of space
at one time from substantial distances. It enables an individual to com-
prehend the total image of an object and its location, related distance,
and direction from a distance. Humans can identify color and brightness
through vision. Through long experience in deriving information from
auditory and tactual senses, people who are blind learn to relate more ef-
fectively to non-visual aspects of their environment than do people who
46 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

do not have vision loss. Thus, for people who have vision loss, the sight
impaired, the auditory and tactual system becomes an important source
of perceptual input. Because hearing conveys the distant environment, it
helps individuals to comprehend their surroundings and to recognize and
locate some objects and events in their immediate surroundings. Using
their auditory system, humans can estimate the distance and direction
of sounds. The auditory system also provides echolocation. By using re-
flected sounds, echolocation helps one detect the presence or absence of a
surface or object outside of one’s path. The haptic (or touch) system only
provides information through proximal contact, but people cannot touch “For the
many things that they can see. They cannot reach some items, and other sight im-
items are too delicate or dangerous to touch. The olfactory system detects paired, the
the presence of odors, but it does not help much in locating the direction
of the source. Also, few objects have distinctive odors.
auditory and
tactual sys-
Challenges of Traveling and Spatial Learning without Sight tem becomes
an important
People who are blind code spatial relations through direct experience
sources of
by using a frame of reference, learning object to self and object-to-object
spatial relationships while taking care to avoid hazards and overcome ob- perceptual
stacles. input.”
Travelers without vision loss can overcome their disorientation and
resolve problems in finding their way around by using multiple sources of
information, such as signs, maps, street names, and directories. Lacking
access to such information, travelers with vision loss face serious disad-

UPDATING INFORMATION THROUGH USING DISTANCE LANDMARK AND MAP

No Information on
Tactile Reference

?
Points

TACTILE MAP

Figure 3.1 Blind travelers need wayfinding cues

Architecture and Spatial Cognition 47

vantages and challenges, such as lacking the opportunity to preview infor-

mation and to see distant landmarks and signage (Figure 3.1).

Current Wayfinding and Navigational Supports for People with Se-

vere Visual Impairment and Blindness

Since the 1970s researchers have tried to create navigation and wayfind-
ing supports for people with severe sight impairment. These supports in-
clude:

• Mobility devices;
• Accessible traffic signals;
• Signage technologies;
• Wayfinding technologies;
• Spatial learning supports; and
• Tactile ground surfaces and environmental modifications.

Mobility devices (long cane and electronic travel aids) seek to detect
hazards and obstacles a few steps ahead of the individual using them. Ac-
cessible traffic signals inform users when they can cross safely at light-con-
trolled intersections. Communities throughout the U.S. have used various
kinds of accessible traffic signals for years.
Signage technologies include tactile and audible signage. Tactile sig-
nage, such as Braille signs, identify a particular space, but to read the sign
the traveler must be near it, know where it is, find it, touch it, and read
it. Also, only about 10 percent of people who are blind can read Braille.
Furthermore, finding the room without having access to floor plan is very
difficult. Researchers have developed new technologies for presenting text
signs verbally. Remote, infrared, audible signage systems (trademarked as
Talking Signs, TS, in the U.S.) are accepted by the ADA and ABA Acces-
sibility Guidelines, developed by Eye Research Institute (William Cran-
dall, Smith-Kettlewell original developers), this technology uses an infra-
red beam system. A portable receiver within range (variable) and aimed in
the direction of a transmitter can pick up a speech message, transmitted
directionally in a 56-degree cone. To receive the audible message, one
must point the receiver toward the transmitter and be within the cone.
For wayfinding technologies, several projects have explored global
positioning system (GPS) applications to help people with visual impair-
ments find their way around.
Some researchers have worked on the development of GPS, MoBic
system, Atlas Speak system, and Golledge and Klatzky at UC Santa Bar-
48 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

bara in 1985 created Personal Guidance System (PGS) to provide naviga-

tion assistance during outdoor travel. These systems have three functional
components: a component determining the traveler’s position and orienta-
tion in space, a spatial database of the environment in which travel will
occur, and an interface which displays information to the user and allows
the user to control the system. These systems give good support for out-
door and urban travel, but travelers cannot use them indoors.
Any person moving through a building needs to have general layout
information and a signage system to make appropriate spatial decisions,
recognize choice points, use short cuts, survive in emergency situations, “any per-
and resolve disorientation. People who are blind have to systematically son mov-
search the perimeter of a room to learn the room’s size and shape and to
ing through
identify properties of features on the walls. Then, through a grid pattern
search and right-angle turns, they locate objects and features in the room.
a building
This makes the direct exploration of a building very time consuming. needs to
Considering the size of many buildings and the quantity of rooms, person have general
who is blind often does not have a chance to explore every room they layout infor-
enter, especially during a meeting in a public building. In addition, an
mation and
unfamiliar area presents unknown hazards and obstacles that can make a
direct search more difficult. Background noise and the lack of landmarks
a signage
and cues makes learning the layout of open and large areas even more system”
challenging.
Communities use tactile warning surfaces on curb ramps and on the
edges of rail platforms to assist blind persons in detecting hazards along
their path. Tactile directional path surfaces assist and improve navigation
in large open spaces. However, once inside a building, users who have vi-
sual impairments still need better access to information about its layout.
Compared to printed information and maps, we have few tactile
maps. Many of the tactile maps that are available have several problems:
inconsistency with spatial cognition and wayfinding without sight, fail-
ure to recognize fundamental differences between vision and touch, and
the small percentage of the visually impaired population who can read
Braille. The Nomad system (developed by Don Parkes at the University of
Newcastle in Australia) eliminates the need for Braille labels or legends on
tactile maps. Nomad Touch Blaster software and Nomad pressure sensi-
tive pads and voice synthesizers run in conjunction with IBM-compatible
computers. The pad has a matrix of pressure sensitive addressable points,
each of which relates to some information in spoken or digitized form.
Points or groups of points representing features are programmed to gen-
erate a tactile map that can appear in a pad that has 9600 addressable
points at a resolution of 5 mm. The pad can present the information for
Architecture and Spatial Cognition 49

each point or area in synthesized speech or digitized sound. Tactile Audio

Maps resolve the problem of reading Braille labels but still users need to
use the tactile map on sensitive pads. As a result, static information about
layout of the building on the tactile map is inconsistent with the way
people learn the environment without the use of vision.

Conclusion

To improve navigation for persons with visual impairments, we need a

comprehensive knowledge of perception, cognition, and traveling behav-
ior. Such knowledge, which has both theoretical and practical value, can
lead to improvements in the design of products and environments for use
by everyone. Successful solutions will:
• Have appropriate spatial representations for all, regardless of de-
gree of their vision, and
• Incorporate tactile, audible, and feasible navigational reference
points in buildings, and integrate tactile directional guides in the flooring
of large public places, such as lobbies, airports and metro stations.
50 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY
Universal Design in Public Transportation 51
51

4
Universal Design in Public
Transportation: “Segway” to the Future
Sub theme: Safe, Seamless, and
Dignified Community-based Public
Transportation

Katharine Hunter-Zaworski

Abstract

Universal design in public transportation is the basis for universal access.

In the United States, accessible public transportation is a fundamental hu-
man right. This paper provides an overview of universal design principles
as applied to public transportation. It introduces universal design issues
for public transportation concepts, systems, and modes. Translink, the
accessible multi-modal public transportation system in the city of Van-
couver, B.C., illustrates the successful application of these concepts.

Introduction

Everyone needs accessible transportation to allow them to access educa-

tion and employment and to live independently. As embodied in the U.S.
Federal Civil Rights legislation (Americans with Disabilities Act, ADA,
1990), Americans have a fundamental right to accessible transportation.
A fundamental challenge in the planning, design, and operation of acces-
sible transportation services is the accommodation of a diversity of human
characteristics and abilities. Translink, an accessible, multi-modal transit
system in Vancouver, B.C., illustrates a number of aspects of universal
design in accessible transportation.
All of us, the young, old, and in between, are both users and benefi-
ciaries of accessible transportation services. The added amenities associ-
ated with accessible transportation benefit all travelers. The National Cen-
ter for Accessible Transportation (NCAT) has research and development
projects that are expanding the current understanding of accessible trans-
portation. Instead of considering stakeholders as people with disabilities,
NCAT approaches problems from the perspective of abilities. In design
solutions, NCAT does not merely satisfy the “customer requirements”,
in common approach to design, such as the “house of quality or quality
functional deployment” but goes further to consider design for experience
52 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

and emotion. (Ullman, 2003). This chapter reflects the holistic and broad
approach to accessible transportation that is the central mission of the
NCAT.
Accessible transportation service has traditionally focused on provid-
ing transportation to individuals with obvious disabilities, such as people
who use crutches, canes, and wheeled mobility aids like wheelchairs and
scooters. However, many people who have hidden disabilities are more
public transportation dependent than those with visible disabilities. Some
of these less visible disabilities include epilepsy, traumatic brain injury, or
chronic fatigue syndrome. Also, people with sensory impairments such as
low vision or blindness cannot drive their own vehicles. Individuals who “All people
are hard of hearing or deaf require travel information in visual rather than
audible modes. In addition, many people with disabilities travel with ser-
benefit from
vice animals that are essential travel partners that enable them to live and accessible
travel independently. Service animal accommodation is a key element of transporta-
accessible transportation. tion.”
All people benefit from accessible transportation. Anyone who has
traveled with a child in a stroller or with a bicycle or rolling luggage appre-
ciates curb cuts, level boarding, and elevators. In addition, absent-minded
or distracted travelers benefit when essential travel information is present-
ed in both audible and visual formats.

Public Transportation

All of the links on a trip chain must be accessible for the total trip to be
accessible. If any link is missing or broken, it is unlikely that an accessible
trip can be completed successfully. Figure 4.1 shows the elements of a
trip chain. It has twelve modules. Pre-trip information, reservations, and
schedules must be available in accessible formats. The civil infrastructure
for the total route and the transition to the vehicles must be accessible as
well. Many modules are not related to infrastructure or vehicles, but are
still important elements of an accessible trip.
All accessible transportation systems have certain features that char-
acterize the service and make it accessible. These features are discussed in
terms of infrastructure, transport and information systems,.

Infrastructure
The basic element of any accessible transportation system is that the civil
and mechanical, or vehicle, infrastructure be free of barriers. The acces-
sibility of civil infrastructure is often beyond the scope of public trans-
Universal Design in Public Transportation 53

Figure 4.1. Trip Chain Conceptual Model

portation providers because infrastructure is controlled by different agen-

cies, such as a public works departments, airport authorities, or operating
railroads. The infrastructure includes interfaces and transition zones such
as terminals, stops, stations, and the local areas around these facilities like
side walks and right of way. Typically, public transportation agencies are
responsible for the design, procurement, and operation of the accessible
vehicles that must interface with the civil infrastructure and facilities.
One of the challenges in the provision of accessible transportation is the
transition between the civil infrastructure and the vehicles. The transition
is also the interface between a vehicle and a terminal. This transition is
often the broken “link” on the trip chain. One of the challenges in acces-
sible transportation is that the terminal designs must meet the Americans
with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements for buildings, while many of
the vehicles must meet similar guidelines for vehicles. The interface, or
“gap”, between a vehicle and a terminal is often a problem because it is a
regulatory “black hole”. The gaps between the infrastructure and vehicle
are bridged by lifts, ramps, bridging plates, kneeling vehicles, gangways,
or other devices specifically designed to “bridge the gap”. The Ameri-
cans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG, US Access
Board, 1998) for Transportation Vehicles provide a number of specifica-
tions for this equipment. Despite the guidelines and regulations, the oper-
ating environment of public transportation is very harsh and these devices
54 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

require regular and ongoing maintenance. Public transportation systems

that have high ridership by people with disabilities usually have regular
and intensive maintenance programs for their accessible transportation
equipment. As a result, many of these transit agencies also have excellent
maintenance and reliability records.

Types of Accessible Transportation Systems

This chapter only considers community-based surface modes of transpor-

tation that are in common use in North America. The surface transporta-
tion modes include urban public transportation provided by rubber-tired,
steel-tired, or passenger ferry vehicles. Intercity public transportation
modes include over the road bus (ORTB), passenger rail (e.g., Amtrak),
and passenger ferry. Many large cities have many different modes of trans-
portation, while others simply have one. The term “community” can break
down artificial silos of classification on public transportation. For exam-
ple, New Jersey Transit provides statewide but community-based transit.
Senior center based dial-a-bus service in rural America also provides com-
munity-based public transit services. All of these systems provide public
transportation to the communities that they serve. The community may
be New York City or rural Benton County in Oregon, but each public
transportation system is characteristic of the community it serves. The
chapter discusses modes of service in the following sections.

Urban Public Transportation Modes

Two basic types of service—fixed route-fixed schedule and demand re-

sponsive—define urban public transportation. Fixed route service is pro-
vided by rubber-tired vehicles such as buses or by steel-tired vehicles such
as metro rail, light rail, or commuter rail. Demand responsive service is
almost always provided by rubber-tired vehicles that range in size from
personal automobiles, accessible taxis, and vans to small and large buses.
Several cities in North America have passenger ferry services that fully
integrate into urban public transportation systems. Typically, these vessels
do not carry vehicles. Due to long-distance commutes in many regions,
it is difficult to draw the line between urban public transportation and
inter-city public transportation. In many parts of the United States, urban
public transportation modes provide service on route segments and trip
lengths that inter-city public transportation modes provide in other parts
of the world.
Universal Design in Public Transportation 55

Vehicle Accommodations
Vehicle accommodations include design elements on the vehicles that in-
sure the safety of all passengers, such as safe stair geometry, contrasting
stair nosing, and strategically placed stanchions, hand rails, and grab bars.
Good illumination is important as well, particularly in stairways.
For vehicles with level boarding, design elements include wide aisles
that permit transportable mobility aids to easily enter a vehicle and navi-
gate the aisle to a securement location. Some vehicle design elements may
increase the risks for semi-ambulatory passengers. For example, on transit
buses the side-facing priority seats near the driver are dangerous for many
older passengers because there are no stanchions for them to hold onto.
Seats are often upholstered in vinyl that is easily maintained but can be
slippery. Seat orientation is also important for accessibility. Forward-fac-
ing or rear-facing seats provide more secure seating for older passengers,
but these seats may not be located near the operator, and passengers who
are older or have a disability may feel less secure. On rubber-tired vehicles,
the interior should have hand holds and stanchions that provide a high
level of contrast so that all passengers have something to grab onto in case
of sudden accelerations or decelerations. The floor surface and texture can
also impact the ease of access to the vehicle. Slip-resistant, hard surfaces
are recommended, and the use of carpet is strongly discouraged. Space
should be provided for the safe accommodation of service animals.
The safe securement of mobility aids is a complex topic. The type
and level of securement is dependent on the size or mass of the transport
vehicle and the vehicle’s operating environment. (Zaworski & Hunter-
Zaworski, 2004). Smaller vehicles require securement systems that are
more robust than those on larger vehicles. This is a result of the accelera-
tion forces transmitted to and experienced by passengers. Large urban rail
systems operating on an isolated guideway do not need any mobility aid
securement systems. Mobility aid securement systems must be designed to
accommodate a vast range of mobility aids, and also meet the needs of the
particular vehicle and its operating environment. Passenger restraint sys-
tems for mobility aid occupants should also be provided on smaller vehi-
cles and, in particular, on any vehicle with a gross vehicle weight (GVW)
of less than 15,000 pounds. It should be noted that although personal
restraints are strongly recommended, there are certain physical condi-
tions that may prevent their use. There are also certain mobility aids that
can not be safely secured by any of the commonly available securement
systems. However, most of these mobility aids can be accommodated by
“docking type” securement systems. These systems require the use of ad-
ditional interface hardware that attaches permanently to the frame of a
56 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

mobility aid. Mobility aid users who drive a vehicle while seated often use
these docking systems. Anchorage, Alaska is the only public transit system
in the U.S. that uses docking type securement systems in regular fixed
route operations. It has used this system for ten years. With the advent
of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in North America, rear-facing securement
compartments (Figure 4.2) are an option for mobility aids that cannot be
secured by belts or straps.

Figure 4.2. Rear-facing securement

Rubber-Tire Vehicles

Rubber-tire vehicles, used in public transportation range in size from small

sedans providing demand responsive service to double-decked or articu-
lated buses that can carry almost a hundred passengers. Articulated buses
are long buses that bend in the middle. There are several key character-
istics of rubber-tire vehicles that pertain to accessible transportation. The
mass of a vehicle has a direct impact on the type and level of mobility aid
securement and occupant restraint required. In general, the smaller and
lighter the vehicle the more robust the securement and restraints system
needs to be to provide an adequate level of occupant protection. Massive
transit buses, by virtue of their mass and power transmission systems, ex-
perience low acceleration forces. The type of operating environment also
has an influence on the level of mobility aid securement and occupant
restraint required. Vehicles that operate on isolated guideways or in exclu-
sive bus lanes have a more controlled operating environment than vehicles
operating on congested urban streets, and therefore are not subjected to
rapid accelerations or decelerations. Urban topography can also have an
influence on the options for mobility aid securement.
Universal Design in Public Transportation 57

Rubber-tire vehicles are either high floor or low floor. Typically, an

accessible rubber-tired vehicle is equipped with a lift or a ramp. There
are advantages and disadvantages to both high- and low-floor vehicles. In
recent years there has been a trend towards the procurement of low-floor
vehicles since they are easier for all passengers to use. The main disadvan-
tage of a low-floor vehicle is that in areas where there are no sidewalks the
ramps deploy directly to the ground at angles that are often too steep for
users of mobility aids to access the vehicles independently. Some low-floor
vehicles also have difficulty on non-paved road surfaces, but this is rare for
most urban operating environments. Low-floor vehicles do not have any
steps, so the boarding and deboarding times are much lower than with
high-floor vehicles and are easier for all passengers to board. (King, 1998)
Also, the ramps on low-floor vehicles usually accommodate larger mobil-
ity aids than many lifts, but this can cause problems. Many of the larger
mobility aids are wider as well as longer than the footprint of a “common
wheelchair” . Even if these mobility aids can get up a ramp, many cannot
get past a fare machine or maneuver to a securement station. In urban en-
vironments in which the fleet of vehicles includes both high- and low-floor
vehicles, passengers with large mobility aids are often stranded because
not all trip segments are served by the same type of accessible vehicle.
Two disadvantages of accessible, high-floor vehicles are stairs at board-
ing and lifts. Many vehicles have a lift at the front of the bus that negates
the use of stairs when it is deployed. The cycling of the lift and the time for
securement and restraint add to the vehicle dwell time and detract from
the on-time performance. Most lifts also limit the size of a mobility aid
that can access a transit vehicle. Many high-floor and low-floor vehicles
have a kneeling feature that reduces the height of the first step at board-
ing, but stairs present a barrier for many older passengers. High-floor ve-
hicles are better equipped to operate in rural and unimproved areas where
a lift may need to descend to the ground.
The type of operating environment also has direct influence on the
type of access to vehicles. In many parts of Canada and Sweden where
there is snow, there is rear-door access to demand responsive vehicles. The
disadvantage of this approach is that mobility aid passengers are relegated
to the “back of the bus”, where they ride behind the rear axle. The ride
quality, particularly in smaller vehicles, is much better just over or be-
hind the front axle. In addition, mobility aid users are further from the
driver in these cases. Since the enactment of the ADA in 1990, almost no
research has been conducted on the dynamic characteristics of smaller
vehicles (those less than 15,000 pounds GVW) in the United States.
Demand-responsive public transportation can serve either the gen-
58 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

eral public or only eligible individuals. There are federal regulations that
pertain to complementary paratransit service, but almost every agency has
its own procedures for determining eligibility (Weiner, 1998). In many
suburban and rural areas, the demand-responsive service is available to
all, and in a few rural regions it is integrated with a school bus service.
Typically, demand-responsive public transportation requires a user to plan
ahead and reserve a trip. Many agencies still prioritize trips according to
trip purpose, even though this is not permitted under the Americans with
Disabilities Act. However, since many systems have major supply and de-
mand problems, it is often used as a method to prioritize trips.
Vanpools and carpools provide an option for many commuters. In
Washington and Oregon, vanpool organizations provide accessible vehi-
cles when requested (King County Metro). Accessible taxis provide more
spontaneous service, particularly after hours or for visitors and tourists. In
Portland, Oregon the accessible taxi service is regulated to make sure that
service is available and affordable. However, there are many large cities in
the U.S. that still do not have any accessible taxi service. In London, Eng-
land the accessible taxis are purpose-built vehicles that have low floors,
ramps, and securement systems.
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) is at the other end of the vehicle-size and
operating spectrum. BRT includes rubber-tired vehicles, enhanced sta-
tions, and limited-use guideways or exclusive bus lanes, as well as the ser-
vice amenities of light rail transit. There are a number of new vehicles that
are being designed for BRT service, and they accommodate a variety of
wheeled mobility aids, including segways, bikes, and strollers. Most of
these new vehicles are articulated and have low floors that can accommo-
date three or more mobility aids. Rear facing securement compartments
are being designed and procured for many of these vehicles These systems
include a compartment that permits mobility aids users to travel facing
the rear of the bus without being secured with belts or other devices. Rear-
facing securement lets people travel independently and does not involve
a vehicle operator (Rutenberg & Hemily, 2003). Many of the new BRT
vehicles also include “café” type seating so other passengers can also travel
in rear-facing seats.

Steel-Tire Vehicles

Steel-tire vehicles include streetcars, light rail, heavy rail, and commuter
rail. Typically, electricity from an overhead wire or catenary powers a
streetcar, which runs on rails in the street. Streetcars are usually a single
Universal Design in Public Transportation 59

car or single unit, although sometimes they can be hitched together in a

“married” pair. Light rail transit (LRT) vehicles are usually larger than
streetcars, have electric power from overhead wires, and run on rails. LRT
systems almost always run in two-, four-, or six-car train sets. Many of the
newer LRT systems include low-floor vehicles, while many older systems
run a mix of high- and low-floor vehicles. Both LRT and streetcars have
stations that are on part of the sidewalk area. The floor level of the vehicles
influences the design of these stations. Some stations include mini-high
platforms or wayside lifts to accommodate high-floor vehicles. The na-
tional trend is towards level boarding with low-floor vehicles. Also, LRT
systems run a mix of isolated guideway and on-street service. In general,
LRT stations provide more amenities than street cars and nearly always
include off-vehicle fare payment mechanisms.
There are no clear distinctions between light rail and heavy rail. Sky-
train, which operates in Vancouver, Canada, uses light vehicles, but the
system has all the features of a heavy rail system. A powered third rail pro-
vides the power, and the guideway is completely isolated. Linear traction
motors that permit the system to operate on steeper slopes than traditional
rail propulsion systems because the motors “pull” the train along. In tradi-
tional rail systems the friction between the tire and rail is the limiting fac-
tor and restricts the grade or operating slope. Skytrain is similar to many
systems in the world that are completely computer controlled—there are
no drivers on the vehicles. This type of control is only possible on systems
that run on completely separated guideways. Computer-controlled sys-
tems have the potential to operate with shorter headways and are more en-
ergy efficiency than operator-controlled systems. There are always trade-
offs between isolated guideway and on-street systems. Isolated guideways
cost more to construct than on-street systems, but they are more flexible
and have fewer capacity constraints. There are also trade-offs between ini-
tial construction costs and long-term operational efficiencies. Heavy rail
urban systems run independently of street systems. In cities with large
underground networks, these systems can also run in adverse weather or
congested traffic conditions.
Both LRT and heavy-rail, fixed-guideway systems also have an im-
pact on urban growth and development. Real estate values tend to in-
crease within a quarter mile of stations, and decrease as the distance from
a station increases. Toronto, Vancouver, and Portland are examples of cit-
ies in which transit stations have become catalysts for urban development
and renewal.
Commuter rail systems operate either with electric or diesel engines
and, in general, provide longer distance service than urban rail systems.
60 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Typically, commuter rail systems operate multiple-car trains with sta-

tions spaced miles apart. In the U.S. many of these systems share the rails
with long-distance passenger rail and freight operations. Some of these
vehicles are bi-level and provide a “business” class level of service, with
many on-board amenities. The passenger rail section discusses many of
the similar features of commuter and inter-city rail. Stations that provide
park-and-ride options for passengers are important for both urban rail and
commuter rail service. Park-and-ride lots must provide accessible parking
and accessible routes from parking facilities to stations. Stations must be
accessible and transition zones between platforms and vehicles must be
bridged by ramps, lifts, or bridging plates. Figure 4.3 shows a boarding
bridge ramp, used by Sound Transit in Puget Sound, Washington.

Figure 4.3. Bi-level vehicle with bridge ramp (Source: Paul Ryus)

Information Systems for all Transport Modes

The public information systems, fare machines, and safety and security
amenities must be accessible to accommodate the needs of passengers with
a spectrum of physical, sensory, and cognitive abilities. Figure 4.4 shows a
color-coded ticket machine.

Passenger Ferry Service

Considering that many of the world’s oldest and largest cities are either
major ports or harbors or are located on waterways, many urban trans-
portation systems include a passenger ferry service,. For most commuter
Universal Design in Public Transportation 61

Figure 4.4. Trimet’s ticket machine is color coded for each step in the
process (Source: Paul Ryus).

systems, ferry vessels only serve pedestrian traffic. Many ferry vessels and
docks were designed and built years before there were any considerations
for accessibility of passengers who use wheeled mobility aids. As a result,
many passenger ferry systems are not particularly accessible. Newer sys-
tems are accessible, and most of the old systems have undergone major
overhauls and retrofits to become more accessible. The forces of nature,
such as tides and weather, often have an influence on the slope of gang-
ways and can make even the most accessible ferries a challenge at certain
times. In general, most passenger vessels accommodate mobility aids.
However, on older vessels with raised doorsills many of the restrooms may
not be accessible. Figure 4.5 shows Seabus in the middle of the inner har-
bor in Vancouver, B.C., and shows the high rise development surrounding
the Seabus and Transit Terminal.

Inter-city Public Transportation Modes

Inter-city public transportation modes include over the road buses,

passenger rail service, ferry service, and air transportation. Typically, the
vehicles and vessels are larger than those that provide urban public trans-
portation, the stops are infrequent, and the trip segments and trip lengths
are much longer than those of urban public transportation. Inter-city pub-
lic transportation includes amenities such as food service and on-board
lavatories. The major issues for accessibility on these modes include board-
ing the vehicles, on-board circulation, accessible on-board lavatories, ac-
cess to amenities such as food service, on-board information and commu-
nication systems, and safety and security procedures.
62 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Figure 4.5. Translink’s Seabus, Vancouver, B.C. (Source: Paul Ryus).

Passenger Rail

In the United States the accessibility of passenger rail depends on the

vehicle or rolling stock and station design, and this varies regionally. The
passenger rail vehicles that operate up and down the west coast are very
different from those that operate in the northeast corridor. The rail ve-
hicles on the west coast travel at higher speeds, the stations are compara-
tively new, and most of them have low-level platforms. The “Cascades”
service that operates between Eugene, Oregon and Vancouver, B.C. uses
the “Talgo” train technology developed in Spain. The train interiors are
accessible, and the service works very well for many people with disabili-
ties. The boarding ramps are mounted to the interior of the train vehicles.
The restrooms are quite spacious and they meet the needs of many people
with disabilities. Wayside lifts are used in west coast Amtrak stations to
access the West Coast Starlight. This bi-level train runs from southern
California to Seattle, Washington. Accessible accommodations are only
available on the lower level, and many of the amenities, such as the dining
car, are not available to passengers who use mobility aids.
Long distance train service that includes accessible overnight accom-
modation is available, but it must be booked in advance. In general, people
who use wheeled mobility aids have limited access to amenities on trains.
Universal Design in Public Transportation 63

Over the Road Buses

Over the road bus (OTRB) transport includes inter-city buses. For discus-
sion purposes, the public transportation aspect of this industry includes
only regularly scheduled service, not the large charter coach industry. Am-
trak operates a thruway bus service across the country either directly or
under contract. In Oregon and Washington, Amtrak operates a fleet of
accessible coaches, or thruway buses, that provide feeder service that inter-
faces directly with their mainline rail operations. The OTRB industry has
adopted accessibility more slowly than many other modes. An accessible
vehicle provides a lift at the front, middle, or rear of each bus. Most pas-
sengers prefer to transfer from their mobility aids to regular seats if they
are able, but mobility aid securement is also provided. Passengers may also
choose to travel in their own mobility aids. Figure 4.6 shows an over the
road bus with the lift deployed in the center of the bus.

Figure 4.6. An over the road bus, with a lift deployed.

Passenger Ferry

Inter-city passenger ferries may or may not transport motor vehicles—it

depends upon the size of the vessel, the trip length, and the destination.
Passenger ferry service is essential for accessing coastal communities. It is
important that accommodations are available for drivers and passengers
who use wheeled mobility aids on vessels that carry motor vehicles and re-
quire or encourage passengers to leave their vehicles on board for the dura-
64 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

tion of their trips. In general, this implies that there are accessible parking
spaces that permit egress on either side of a vehicle and an accessible path
to passenger amenities. Many older vessels have retrofitted elevators, and
many newer vessels have accessibility features designed and built in. Many
ships have raised door sills not only between exterior doors and interior
space, but also throughout the vessel. Raised door sills are being removed
to make interior circulation spaces more accessible to all. Stairs and raised
door sills are barriers for all, not just people who used wheeled mobility
aids. Passenger vessels are also being retrofitted or designed with acces-
sible lavatories. New vessels often include accessible unisex lavatories that
meet the needs of families as well as individuals. Regulations for accessible
accommodations on cruise ships and passenger ferries are still under de-
velopment, so many vessels do not have ADA-compliant sleeping accom-
modations. Individual agencies will try to accommodate passengers with
special needs, provided that passengers provide adequate advance notice.

Community Public Transportation

The term “community public transportation” is introduced for discussion

“Most of the
in this paper because it crosses between the artificial silos and categoriza-
tions that are so prevalent in public transportation. Every community in
innovative
North America has unique characteristics that impact the type of public agencies are
transportation that is available. Some of the characteristics are a result of those that
local politics and attitudes, while others are a result of land use patterns, try to go
topography, and climate. The community public transportation systems
above and
encountered in the midwest are different from those in the pacific north-
west. The differences are important. Public transportation systems with
beyond what
strong community support are often those with high ridership or tax bond is required
success. These are the same systems that have strong and innovative pro- because ‘it
grams for meeting the needs of transit-dependent passengers; they invest is the right
regularly in staff training and vehicle maintenance. It is interesting to note
thing to
that most of the innovative agencies are those that try to go above and
beyond what is required because “it is the right thing to do”.
do’.”
All public transportation providers, whether they provide weekly se-
nior bus service in a rural community or bus service in downtown New
York, are facing ever-increasing challenges. These challenges include se-
curing fuel for their vehicles; providing safe, secure, and affordable trans-
portation; and operating within in the confines of local, state, and federal
regulations. The demand for public transportation is increasing as fuel
costs increase. For some agencies this will be the “tipping” point, while for
Universal Design in Public Transportation 65

others it will reaffirm their vital role in community life.

New Design Paradigm

The National Center for Accessible Transportation (NCAT) is the host of

the Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center (RERC) for Accessible
Public Transportation. The RERC part of the center’s research portfo-
lio focuses on access challenges of inter-city public transportation. The
NCAT team works on a number of design projects that influence the de-
sign of the next generation of vehicles. It moves beyond silos and categori-
zations in a number of aspects of design and looks at the capabilities of the
full human spectrum. This implies removing the “dis” from disability and
developing new technologies that focus on capability and ability. In addi-
tion, the team examines new design paradigms that move beyond merely
satisfying customer or stakeholder needs and look at designs of products
that not only meet stakeholder needs but also delight the user.

Ideas into Action

Good designs are a result of building consensus. Strong, respectful, and

collaborative partnerships are essential to NCAT’s design projects and
most of its research activities. The design of accessible transportation vehi-
cles and infrastructure requires finding solutions that may not be optimal
but are based on consensus. Designs that favor one particular group of
users may pose hazards for others. A prime example is a curb cut that does
not include a detectable warning to provide information on the transi-
tion from a pedestrian to a vehicular environment. There is general agree-
ment that a detectable warning is necessary to help delineate the transition
zone, but it should also be noted that the consensus that truncated domes
provide the only solution does not exist.

Case Study

Vancouver, B.C. is a world class city that started planning, designing, and
engineering a multi-modal accessible transportation system in the early
1980s when the British Columbia Provincial government mandated that
the new urban rail system, Skytrain, be barrier free. Skytrain is one of the
first systems designed and built to be barrier free. At the same time, a strong
coalition of stakeholders and politicians with disabilities decided to make
66 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Vancouver’s new public buildings and transportation system accessible to

all. The government made this decision before there were any national or
international design guidelines or standards for accessible design, and the
concept “barrier free” was not very well understood. The B.C. Building
Code Part 10 for building accessibility was the one of the first and most
progressive code of its kind in the world. At the same time, the passenger
ferry service called Seabus was updated to be more accessible. When Sky-
train started revenue service in 1986, the City realigned a bus system that
included both fixed-route and paratransit service to provide feeder service
to Skytrain. In 1986 the fixed-route bus system was not accessible, but the
region was served by an extensive network of paratransit operators who
provided feeder service to the stations when the use of Skytrain began to
decrease travel time. It quickly became apparent that the fixed-route bus
system also needed to be accessible and, in 1990, the operating company
“Vancouver’s
purchased new, large buses that were accessible. Initially this included transportation
lift-equipped, high-floor vehicles, but now all of the new purchases are system is still
low-floor vehicles. Vancouver is one of the most accessible cities in the one of the
world as a result of progressive community attitudes. It did not become ac- most acces-
cessible because of regulations such as the Americans with Disabilities Act
or the Canadian Charter of Human Rights. It became accessible because
sible in the
of the foresight of a number of individuals with and without disabilities world.”
who simply required that new public buildings and the transit system be
accessible. It is interesting to note that the current mayor of Vancouver is
a quadriplegic who uses a power wheelchair. In addition to the engineer-
ing aspects of the barrier-free system, the City developed public informa-
tion and staff training programs to increase awareness and understanding
of the needs of travelers with disabilities (Hunter-Zaworski, 1989). The
consultant responsible for the barrier-free design of Skytrain worked with
a large team of engineers, architects, and planners who also supported
the mandate for a barrier-free system design. They were often required to
make difficult decisions that were contrary to those of politicians, but the
design team prevailed in favor of access for transit-dependent individuals
and public safety.
In 2005 Translink, the operating company of the multi-modal sys-
tem, still strives for continuous improvement and has made a significant
effort to identify and correct deficiencies to make a great system even bet-
ter. Translink has engaged a number of consulting teams to evaluate the
current status of many aspects of the accessible transportation system.
The teams presented their recommendations in November 2005 (Nel-
son/Nygaard. 2005). Their report states that Vancouver’s transportation
system is still one of the most accessible in the world. The stakeholders
Universal Design in Public Transportation 67

and Translink staff are very savvy and progressive and are working on
accessibility issues that most agencies do not even understand. Accessible
transportation in Vancouver goes beyond transportation facilities and ve-
hicles. The Province of British Columbia has had a very progressive build-
ing code for accessibility since the late 1970s. The public buildings built
since the mid-1980s are designed to be accessible and barrier free. Today,
twenty years after the start of service by Skytrain, people with disabili-
ties in Vancouver can live, travel, and work independently. Skytrain is so
popular that the demand for mobility aid accommodation in the stations,
elevators, and vehicles often exceeds capacity. No one ever imagined the
opportunities that accessible transportation would provide for all of the
residents and visitors in Vancouver, B.C. The integrated, multi-modal
transportation system in the greater Vancouver region is a showcase for
universal design and access for all.

References

Hunter-Zaworski, K. M. (1989, January). A Synopsis of Accessibil-

ity features of Skytrain – Vancouver’s Rapid Transit System. ITE
Journal, 23-27.
King, R. D. (1998). TCRP Synthesis Report 41: New Designs and
Operating Experiences with Low-Floor Buses, TRB, National
Academies Press, Washington DC.
Nelson/Nygaard. (2005, November). “Accessibility Status Report on
Fleet and Facilities” prepared for Translink, Vancouver BC.
Rutenberg, U., & Hemily, B. (2003). TCRP Synthesis Report 51: Use
of Rear Facing Position for Common Wheelchairs on Transit
Buses, A synthesis of transit practice, TRB, National Academies
Press, Washington DC.
Ullman, D. (2003). The Mechanical Design Process (3rd Edition),
McGraw Hill.
US Access-Board (1998). The American’s with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Accessibility Guidelines for Transportation Vehicles, Part 1192.
Weiner, R. (1998). TCRP Synthesis Report 30 ADA Paratransit Eligi-
bility Certification Practices, A synthesis of transit practice, TRB,
National Academies Press, Washington DC.
Zaworski, J. R., & Hunter-Zaworski, K.M. (2004, December) “As-
sessment of Rear Facing Wheelchair Accommodation on BRT
Vehicles” IDEA Project T-38 Final Report, National Academies,
Washington DC.
68 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 69
69

5
As Your County Gets Older…Planning
for Senior Housing Needs
in Howard County, Maryland

Stephen Lafferty

Abstract

Howard County, Maryland is located between Washington, DC and Bal-

timore. While its median age is less than 35 years old, it is predicted that
31 percent of the population will be over the age of 55 in the next 25 years.
This shift has begun and is having a significant impact on the county’s
housing stock. The change has caused the county to take a new look at the
needs for and the provision of housing for older residents.
The result was a Senior Housing Master Plan, completed in late 2004.
Working with an advisory group of residents, developers, and advocates,
county officials crafted a report and a set of recommendations to create
more units, to assist older residents as they age in place, and to address the
growing need for affordable units. Two key concepts wove throughout the
discussion about senior housing—access to needed services and the prin-
ciples of universal design. This chapter describes the issues, recommenda-
tions, and status of efforts to provide more senior housing in the county.
Approximately 70 percent of older county residents express the desire
to “age in place”. Therefore, new efforts are needed to support their desire
and also to ensure that the community is supportive. Modifications, reno-
vations, and assistance are important to helping seniors remain in their
communities.
While Howard County is a very hot housing market for families, new,
often smaller units are needed for aging residents. Fostering the develop-
ment of senior housing units through new zoning regulations, attention to
compatibility, and different types of units was examined. Howard County
has been thinking forward by adopting universal design guidelines for the
construction of new, age-restricted housing.
The greatest challenge is to create affordable units in a county where
the average unit price is $450,000. This chapter suggests that the county
reconsider matters of density, its housing unit allocations, and the applica-
tion of its zoning regulations and new financing mechanisms to under-
write the cost of affordable units.
70 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Introduction

Good planning brings vision, experience, and the successes and failures of
others together with the realities of the community. However, good plan-
ning alone is not sufficient to address the needs of a changing jurisdiction
such as Howard County, Maryland: affluent, highly educated, dynamic,
well located, and aging.
How can a local government take on the challenge of meeting the
housing needs of older adults? Howard County has many older residents
who were tied to agriculture and a more rural life, as well as Columbia,
Maryland “pioneers” who settled in that model community 35-40 years
ago to be a part of a more diverse, open, and creative community building.
There are wealthy “active” adults, low-income seniors living in tax credit
funded buildings, and thousands of older residents aging in place.
Howard County undertook its first Senior Housing Master Plan in
2004. It brought to the surface many critical issues, fostered discussions
among groups that were not necessarily talking with each other, and led to
important recommendations. The master plan is not radical, yet it raised
some serious concerns with the County Council. What seemed like a ba-
sic endorsement resolution led to a delay, further discussion, and, finally,
modified language that said that the recommendations of the plan would
“The master
be “considered.” plan illus-
The master plan illustrates how the concepts and tools associated with trates how
universal design are translated at the planning and implementation stages. the concepts
Lessons and strategies can be taken from Howard County’s development
and tools as-
of its Senior Housing Master Plan.
Howard County, Maryland is a relatively small county that is located
sociated with
between the Washington, DC and Baltimore metropolitan areas. It has a universal
young population of approximately 275,000 people with a median age of design are
less than 35 years old. It is the fifth wealthiest county in the nation, with translated at
an annual household median income of over $82,600. It has the highest
the planning
performing school system in the state of Maryland, a major factor in at-
tracting and retaining families.
and imple-
Geographically, the western and eastern parts of the county are divid- mentation
ed by what is know as the Public Service Area boundary, with 40 percent stages.”
of the land located in the rural west and 60 percent of the land in the east
and serviced by sewer and water. However, approximately 84 percent of
the residents live in the east. Columbia, the renowned planned commu-
nity of the late James Rouse, has a population of approximately 100,000
people and was the impetus, 40 years ago, for the transformation of the
county from its rural, agricultural roots to a more suburban community.
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 71

Howard County’s population is aging. Over the next 25 years the

over-55 age group is predicted to increase by more than 46,000 people,
rising from 19 percent to 31 percent of the total population. At the same
time the number of County residents aged 20 to 54 is expected to remain
relatively level, at about 140,000 persons, while decreasing from 52 per-
cent to 44 percent of the County’s population. This growth in the older
population mirrors similar changes throughout the Baltimore metropoli-
tan region and the nation.

Howard County Population by Age, 2000 - 2030

Age 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
0-4 18,248 18,481 18,337 20,228 21,775 21,261 19,993
5-19 55,837 62,673 64,744 62,161 61,208 61,347 62,829
20-44 96,212 97,914 98,102 100,781 104,479 106,031 103,360
45-54 38,322 42,782 49,095 49,170 42,596 35,648 36,077
55-64 20,755 28,234 33,147 36,490 41,391 40,861 35,402
65-74 10,370 13,201 18,337 24,617 28,541 30,935 35,056
75-84 5,955 7,107 8,232 10,167 13,698 17,631 20,050
85+ 2,143 3,009 3,836 4,486 5,012 5,786 7,243
TOTAL 247,842 273,401 293,830 308,100 318,700 319,500 320,010
0-4 7% 7% 6% 7% 7% 7% 6%
5-19 23% 23% 22% 20% 19% 19% 20%
20-44 39% 36% 33% 33% 33% 33% 32%
45-54 15% 16% 17% 16% 13% 11% 11%
55-64 8% 10% 11% 12% 13% 13% 11%
65-74 4% 5% 6% 8% 9% 10% 11%
75-84 2% 3% 3% 3% 4% 6% 6%
85+ 1% 1% 1% 1% 2% 2% 2%
TOTAL 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Source: U.S Census Bureau, Projections from MDP based on Round 6A
Table 5.1. Howard County population by age (Source: U.S. Census
Bureau, Projections from MDP based on Round 6A).

The shift to an older population will affect both every area of life in
the county and county government programs and policies. In late 2003,
the Howard County government initiated a Senior Housing Master Plan
to examine one of the most significant areas of concern—the provision of
adequate and affordable housing for older adults.
The need for a Senior Housing Master Plan was raised during public
hearings on the county’s 2004 Comprehensive Zoning Plan. As zoning
amendments concerning senior housing were discussed, it became evident
that other planning tools were needed to address the demand for new
housing for older adults while maintaining the county’s existing stable
communities. Additionally, the County Office on Aging saw an increased
need to support and assist seniors who wanted to age in place.
The initial workgroup on Senior Housing included representatives
from the Commission on Aging, the Office on Aging, the Department
of Planning and Zoning, the Department of Housing and Community
Development, and the Department of Inspections, Licenses, and Permits.
The workgroup found that the issues went beyond the development regu-
lations for new housing. The county’s housing stock, existing and future,
72 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

needed to be evaluated in light of major demographic changes and the

scarcity of land available for new construction.
The issues, questions, and data generated by the workgroup were pre-
sented to an advisory committee of representatives from the community
and the development industry, advocates, organizations representing se-
niors, and county officials. The advisory committee met in the spring and
summer of 2004 to study and discuss this difficult topic. Three subgroups
developed recommendations related to existing housing, new construc-
tion, and affordability. The committee’s recommendations were reported
in the plan. In addition to the recommendations that will be described
in this chapter, it is understood that the Howard County Senior Hous-
ing Master Plan will need to be revisited periodically. This periodic re-
view will evaluate the effectiveness of the Plan’s strategies in light of new
market conditions and demographic data, the success in implementing
the recommendations, and the ability to implement the Universal Design
criteria.

Purpose of the Howard County Senior Housing Master Plan

The county’s housing needs are changing due to the aging of its population
and the serious challenge of affordability. Most of Howard County’s hous-
ing has been built since 1970, and it is designed, primarily, for families
with children. This reflects the market demands caused by the county’s
rapid growth as a suburban community. The older subdivisions have lots
ranging from 8,000 square feet to an acre. Newer developments are being
built with very large homes (i.e., an average of 3,500 square feet) on these
and smaller lots. Although many “empty nesters”, or retirees, continue to
live in the homes in which they raised their families, the changing demo-
graphics suggest the need for housing developments or individual units
designed for older adults.
The terms “older adults” and “seniors” are used interchangeably in
this chapter to refer to persons 55 years of age and older. This is not
intended to imply that this is a homogeneous population. The over-55
population includes persons still in the workforce, retirees, and adults in
full health as well as frail elderly. Many prefer to remain in their homes,
while others look for new housing with single-level living areas and lower
maintenance requirements. Some seniors seek out “active adult” housing
developments that are restricted to persons older than 55. Seniors with
health or mobility limitations may seek out units accessible for wheel-
chairs and walkers such as assisted living or a nursing home, or they may
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 73

decide to stay in place with in-home assistance.

In developing the Senior Housing Master Plan, it was recognized that
Howard County’s housing stock must evolve to meet the needs of an older
population or the county will lose more of its long-time residents as they
age and are compelled to look for housing opportunities outside of the
county. If this population is lost, the county will lose family and com-
munity ties and the energy that fuels many volunteer-based organizations.
It will also lose an important part of its tax base and other assets derived
from the experience, diversity, and stability of older adults.
The development industry has been responding to a changing market
demand for more housing choices. During the past ten years, the county
has seen an increase in the number of active adult housing developments,
senior apartment buildings, and assisted living facilities. However, coun-
ty regulations and policies have not encouraged greater diversity in new
housing products or modifications that make the existing housing stock
suitable for older residents. The following sections describe the implemen-
tation challenges the county faced in meeting the needs of the county’s
aging population.

Master Plan Goals

The Senior Housing Master Plan sought to identify the problem areas, set
strategies, and develop recommendations to ensure an adequate supply of
safe, decent, and affordable housing for the older adults in Howard Coun-
ty. This grew from the Howard County’s General Plan 2000, the county’s
blueprint for the future. The General Plan has three areas that establish
policies affecting the housing stock needed to serve older adults.
1) Provide housing for older adults within stable, attractive commu-
nities through maintenance, renovation, and modification of existing
homes;
2) Produce new housing that meets the needs of older adults and
enhances existing neighborhoods; and
3) Provide affordable and diverse housing to meet the needs of the
senior population.

Key Concepts

The master plan work group determined that, additionally, there were
two concepts of pervasive importance to each of the three areas identified
above. These concepts, the provision of services and universal design, were
74 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

incorporated into each section of the plan as goals.

• Provision of Services: Provide adequate and convenient access to
services for all of the county’s older adult residents.
Appropriate housing cannot exist without needed services—re-
tail and service businesses, medical and health care services, transporta-
tion, recreation, cultural and religious activities, and others. Seniors with
good health and adequate incomes will find the services they need, driving
longer distances or paying higher costs if needed. However, seniors with
limited mobility, health problems, or limited incomes will have greater
difficulty obtaining services and are more likely to experience declining
health or diminished quality of life. The population growth will have a
huge impact on hospital and other medical services, transportation, and
community services. If essential services are not available within their
communities, seniors may need to be uprooted.
The Senior Housing Master Plan focuses on housing, not the avail-
ability of services; however, it does point to the need for coordination of
services and housing. The county acknowledges this need, in small part,
by requiring the provision of a community center and recreational facili-
ties in age-restricted communities and the location of transit routes. The
State also recognizes the importance of this linkage when it rates and
ranks applications for tax credits for developing senior housing.
• Universal Design: Create new housing using universal design prin-
ciples and modify existing housing to incorporate as many elements of
universal design as possible.
Universal design is the design of products and environments so that
they are usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the
need for adaptation or specialized design. The intent of universal design
is to simplify life for everyone by making products, communications, and
the built environment more usable by as many people as possible at little
or no extra cost. Universal design benefits people of all ages and abilities.
General Plan 2000 recognized the importance of universal design
in housing constructed for older adults. Since 2001, the county zoning
regulations have required that all new, age-restricted housing units incor-
porate elements of universal design. Guidelines were adopted that identify
required, desirable, and customized items to be included.
The plan does not directly propose strategies for enhancing or in-
creasing service linkage. Neither does it present a full discourse on or ac-
tion plan for increasing the use of universal design. However, the plan and
its implementation fully recognize the importance of both in addressing
the housing needs in Howard County.
 Planning for Senior Housing Needs 75

Existing Housing

Background
New homes designed and built for older adults will be only a small por-
tion of the housing needed to meet the needs of the aging population. The
existing housing stock, most of which was designed for younger families,
will continue to provide the housing for most of the county’s older resi-
dents.
At the end of 2003, Howard County had 1,866 senior apartments or
age-restricted (55+) active adult developments. In addition, assisted liv-
ing facilities, nursing homes, and a continuing care community provided
2,248 beds. By contrast, the county’s total housing stock was 97,782
units.
According to the Maryland Department of Planning’s Projections in
2000, Howard County is expected to have more than 63,800 persons
who are 55 or older by 2010. Housing construction in the county is lim-
ited by growth management regulations to about 1,750 units per year.
This includes an annual set-aside allocation of 250 units for age-restricted
“five types
housing. Even if a substantial portion of the new housing is designed for
of senior seniors, it will accommodate only a small portion of the senior popula-
housing tion. Most seniors will continue to live in existing housing.
communi- Howard County has five types of senior housing communities:
ties are: age • Age-restricted Adult Housing: These are developments of indepen-
dent dwelling units with full kitchens that are designed for and restricted
restricted,
to households having at least one member who is 55 years of age or older.
independent Age-restricted adult housing may include related facilities or services for
living, con- residents, such as social, recreational, or educational facilities and house-
tinuing care keeping, security, transportation, or personal services.
retirement • Independent Living: These are apartment buildings that provide
housing for older adults and disabled individuals able to perform all of
communi-
their own activities of daily living. Services are not provided within these
ties, assisted buildings but may be brought into them to enable individuals to age in
living, and place.
nursing fa- • Continuing Care Retirement Communities (CCRC): Also known as

cilities” Life Care Communities, these offer independent living facilities as well as
assisted living units (see below) and skilled nursing care.
• Assisted Living: This is a program that provides housing and sup-
portive services, supervision, personalized assistance, health-related ser-
vices, or a combination of these services to meet the needs of residents who
are unable to perform, or who need assistance in performing the activities
of daily living.
76 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

• Nursing Facility: These are facilities that offer non-acute inpatient

care to patients suffering from a disease, condition, disability or advanced
age, or terminal disease that requires maximal nursing care without con-
tinuous hospital services and medical services and nursing services ren-
dered by or under the supervision of a licensed nurse.

Aging In Place

“Aging in place” refers to the ability to remain in one’s home or neighbor-

hood as long as possible and to be in control of those decisions which im-
pact one’s life. Surveys consistently show that most seniors prefer to stay in
their familiar homes and neighborhoods. Developing and supporting pro-
grams that allow residents to age in place is good public policy for Howard
County. Such programs enable more of the county’s long-term residents to
remain in the county, and provide for the continued use and maintenance
of the county’s existing housing as the population grows older. The Office
on Aging’s 2001 study of aging in place affirmed this goal of assisting all
who want to stay in their homes and/or neighborhoods.
Most of the county’s over-55 residents are homeowners, often living
in homes with multiple levels and large yards. When older homeowners
have physical limitations, home modifications and resources available in
the community can make the difference between staying in a familiar
home and neighborhood or moving. To help people age in places of their
choice, the plan recommended strategies to address both the physical fea-
tures of housing and the services needed in the community.
In 2001, the Office on Aging’s Study of Demographics and Needs
of the Senior and Middle Age Populations found that 70 percent of the
county’s older adults want to remain in or near their homes and 49 percent
of those 60 and over express a need for home repairs. As a result, the of-
fice launched an Aging in Place Initiative to find creative ways to enable
seniors to stay in the environments that they choose, to obtain services in
their homes, or to move to other homes that can be more accommodating.
The program provides the following:
• Home visits and assessments by an occupational therapist or retro-
fit specialist to help senior homeowners determine the modifications
that can be made to their homes to ease living with physical limita-
tions;
• Assistance finding and contracting with a contractor for home re-
pairs or modifications;
• Grants to cover the cost of labor and materials for repairs and
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 77

modifications (funded with Community Development Block Grant

funds) for low- or moderate-income homeowners, both seniors and
those with disabilities;
• A partnership between the Office on Aging and Rebuilding To-
gether (previously Christmas in April), a community volunteer orga-
nization that does home repairs and modifications funded through
the Community Development Block Grant program; and
• Referrals to sources providing in-home health care and assistance,
including a partnership with a service provider that uses sliding scale
fees based on income.
Neighborhoods have natural cycles that correspond to the age or
stage in life of their homeowners. Most Howard County neighborhoods
of single-family detached homes were originally settled by young families.
Many of Howard County’s subdivisions are now neighborhoods with a
high proportion of older residents. A term frequently used to identify sim-
ilar communities throughout the country is Naturally Occurring Retire-
ment Communities, or NORCs. A NORC has been defined as “seniors
living independently residing in a facility or geographic area where more
than 50 percent of the residents are over age 65.” Nationally, 27 percent of
seniors living independently reside in a facility or geographic area where
more than 50 percent of the residents are over 65. Over time, these neigh-
borhoods often cycle back to being home to young families.
Although the senior population is distributed throughout the county,
several areas show especially high concentrations. The 2000 Census indi-
cates that the Ellicott City region in the east, older villages of Columbia,
and the western communities of West Friendship and Clarksville have
relatively high concentrations of residents 65 or older. NORCs are likely
to be found in these areas, as well as in communities in the east along the
Route 1 corridor. These natural concentrations of seniors suggest that ser-
vices such as transportation, home repair and modifications, and in-home
health services are needed. The county currently has senior centers that
serve all of the areas except Clarksville. Understanding NORCs assists in
implementing the recommendations for referrals and information to con-
nect older residents with the resources available in their communities.

Home Repairs, Renovation, and Modification

The county’s existing housing stock is aging. Older adults who have lim-
ited mobility will have increased problems performing home maintenance
tasks themselves. As costs increase and seniors’ incomes stay the same,
78 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Figures 5.1 and 5.2. 2000 Population by age, 60 to 74 year olds, and
75 and over (Source: Howard County, MD).

many will have more difficulty paying for basic maintenance and repairs.
The seniors who have limited incomes are most likely to remain in older
homes that will need the most extensive repairs. Those who are able to
move often seek communities where they have little, if any, maintenance
or responsibility.
A 2001 survey, reported in the 2002 Study of Demographics and
Needs, found that older county residents had a need for assistance with
home repairs and home or yard maintenance, particularly in finding and
selecting contractors. However, it is very difficult to find professionals to
take on small jobs needed for individual home maintenance. Some older
homeowners need help with the process of contracting with a handyman
 Planning for Senior Housing Needs 79

or contractor. Older homeowners might be accustomed to doing these

jobs themselves or may be faced with the need to take on tasks that a re-
cently disabled or deceased spouse previously performed.
Much of the existing housing does not allow for safe and easy move-
ment or access for those with physical limitations. In many cases, modi-
fications are necessary. Some modifications are limited and relatively
inexpensive, such as constructing sidewalks and ramps for access, widen-
ing doorways, replacing door handles, or adding grab bars to bathrooms.
Other, more complex options could include creating complete living units
“Much of on one level by adding rooms or installing bathrooms, installing elevators,
or remodeling kitchens to be usable by those in wheelchairs. Modifica-
the existing
tions can be quite expensive. The Office on Aging provides home visits,
housing does assessments, and, in some cases, financial assistance to modify houses to
not allow for allow aging in place. In addition, the National Association of Homebuild-
safe and easy ers (NAHB) has begun to certify contractors as “Certified Aging in Place
movement (CAP) Specialists”. Contractors receive training and take continuing edu-
cation courses to receive the certification. NAHB reports that the Mary-
or access for
land program is small, with just 31 CAP Specialists. Its expansion holds
these physi- promise for addressing the challenges of using the existing housing stock
cal limita- for an older population. There are five specialists in Howard County.
tions.” Unfortunately, the county’s Office on Aging has limited resources
to help seniors get home repair work done or to help finance the repairs.
There is a small home modification program, and the county’s non-profit
Rebuilding Together program also provides some support. Fortunately,
since Howard County has numerous resources, volunteers, service and
faith organizations, homeowners, and community associations, the poten-
tial exists to multiply these services.
Universal design principles provide valuable guidance in home reno-
vation to allow one to age in place. Homeowners do not need to wait until
they are elderly or have limited mobility before incorporating universal
design features into their home renovations. Community education about
the benefits of universal design could encourage young, middle-aged, or
active senior homeowners to use these principles when designing addi-
tions or undertaking renovations. A housing stock that has universal de-
sign features can increase options for many county residents or potential
residents, especially older adults.
80 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Accessory Apartments

Accessory apartments are one option for making existing single-family

homes more usable for older residents. Accessory apartments can be cre-
ated by converting part of a home into an apartment or by building an
addition to a home to accommodate an apartment. Senior homeowners
may create an accessory apartment for themselves, while younger family
members live in the remainder of the house. Senior homeowners may also
create an apartment and rent it for additional income or have a younger
family member live in the apartment, providing support and companion-
ship. Homeowners may also create an accessory apartment as a home for
an aging parent or relative.
The zoning regulations allow homeowners to create accessory apart-
ments in single-family detached homes in most residential districts, with
approval of a building permit. The house must be owner-occupied and the
accessory apartment no larger than 800 square feet in floor area, or no
more than one-third of the floor area of the dwelling. An apartment larger
than these limits can be approved as a conditional use. Given the county’s
need to diversify its housing stock for a changing population, and given
the size of many of the county’s single-family homes, the size limit of
800 square feet is no longer appropriate and needs to be increased. A pro-
posal in the 2005 Comprehensive Zoning process would have increased
the maximum square footage, but that change is held up due to a citizen’s
referendum.

Assisted Living, Nursing Facilities, and Community-Based Services

In 2004 Howard County had 88 assisted living facilities and two nursing
homes that together provided 1,954 beds. One continuing care commu-
nity provides independent living units as well as assisted living and nurs-
ing care and has an additional 294 beds.
In early 2004 the large assisted living facilities in the county, rang-
ing in size from about 50 to almost 300 beds, were 87 percent occupied,
while the small facilities, accommodating from four to 16 seniors, were
at 73 percent of capacity. One of the nursing homes was at 92 percent of
capacity.
Based on the number of available beds, the supply of assisted living
and nursing care beds appears to be sufficient. The State of Maryland
has indicated this much, since it will not allocate any additional beds to
Howard County. However, low- and moderate-income seniors who would
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 81

benefit from an assisted-living arrangement are not always able to afford

these facilities. The Office on Aging administers State and County funds
to help make assisted living facilities affordable for low-income seniors. In
fact, Howard County is one of the few counties in Maryland that contrib-
utes county funds to supplement the State subsidy. Unfortunately, based
on the number of applications made to the Office on Aging, the available
funds do not meet the current need. The unmet need for assisted liv-
ing placement among low- and moderate-income seniors is a concern that
must be monitored as the senior population increases.
Maryland’s Older Adult Medicaid Waiver provides an alternative to
Medicaid-funded nursing home care for seniors. The Waiver allows funds
to be used for home modifications and in-home care or for placement in
an assisted-living facility for persons who would otherwise have no alter-
native to nursing home care. At this time, Maryland is not funding the
program for new applicants. Expanded funding should be advocated to
provide seniors with alternatives to nursing home care.

Program and Policy Recommendations

Based on the principles, concerns, and facts applicable to the county’s

existing housing, the master plan laid out specific recommendations. The
County Office on Aging has the primary responsibility for coordination
and implementation of most of these recommendations. In a few areas,
the Departments of Inspections, Licenses, and Permits or Planning and
Zoning are the lead agencies.
The Plan proposed short-, mid-, and long-term recommendations.
The short-term recommendations included the following:
• Expand the Office on Aging’s capacity to provide consultation and
guidance to older homeowners who need home repair, maintenance,
renovation, or modification services;
• Develop partnerships with community groups, local businesses,
government agencies, real estate specialists, contractors, service or-
ganizations, and faith organizations to educate about and provide
maintenance needs;
• Create, maintain, and disseminate a list of individuals or busi-
nesses able to provide home maintenance and repair and lawn/land-
scape maintenance;
• Educate consumers about universal design in home renovation, re-
modeling, and expansion projects, emphasizing the benefits for all;
• Promote an increase in the number of local Certified Aging in
82 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Place Specialists;
• Increase the size of accessory apartments allowed, by right, within
owner-occupied, single-family detached dwellings; and
• Streamline procedures for approving building permits for renova-
tions, repair, and modifications.
In the next five years, it recommended incentives, such as property
tax credits or abatements, for renovations that meet universal design stan-
dards.
It also had the following specific long-term recommendations that
pertain to the county’s assisted living, nursing facilities, and community-
based services:
• Assess whether there are sufficient assisted-living facilities in the
community, particularly those that are affordable to low and moder-
ate income seniors and
• Maintain advocacy for public funding for the Medicaid Waiver for
Older Adults program to support community-based living.

New Housing

Background
Howard County has a limited supply of land remaining for new develop-
ment. Based on the current zoning regulations, build out is expected by
2030. The demand for housing in the county is high, and most types of
housing built will sell without difficulty. It is important that the remain-
ing, limited land be used to provide housing that will meet the needs of
the changing population and not detract from the county’s existing com-
munities.
Most housing being produced for older adults is built under the zon-
ing provisions for active adult housing. Only a small amount of senior
housing is being produced in zoning districts allowing multifamily de-
velopment. At least two housing developments in the county are “senior
by design,” having no legal restrictions to limit them to older adults, al-
though the units are designed for and being purchased by seniors.
Howard County remains a hot housing market for families. Almost
all of the single-family detached and attached (townhouse) dwellings be-
ing built have two to three floors and are not designed to be easily acces-
sible, except for the small proportion of attached dwellings in active adult
communities. Most new apartment developments are garden apartments
without elevators, and they provide few units accessible to persons with
limited mobility. Given the expected increase in the older population, the
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 83

question is whether the county should be doing more to encourage that

a greater percentage of new housing be designed for seniors. The master
plan included a look at the current regulations and recommended a num-
ber of changes.

Figures 5.3 and 5.4. Uncommitted residential parcels in the

West and the East.
84 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Growth Management System

Howard County has had an Adequate Public Facilities Ordinance (APFO)

since 1992. This is a critical tool for directing growth to areas with ad-
equate infrastructure and for pacing the rate of growth and development.
Prior to adopting the APFO, the county was averaging more than 3,000
housing units per year. Under our current standards, 1,750 allocations
are available annually, with build out expected by 2030. Housing unit
allocations are the first step towards construction of homes in the county.
By limiting the number of allocations, the county has slowed “build out.”
Slowing the growth allows the county to better manage and provide the
required infrastructure. However, it is also a significant factor in the rap-
idly escalating costs of housing. The cost of housing in Howard County
has nearly doubled in the last five years, going from a median sales price of
$236,421 in 2000/01 to $417,627 in 2005 (Development Monitoring Sys-
tem Report, Jan. 2006). Single-family attached and condominium units
have increased the fastest. There were over 6,900 home sales in 2005.
Housing for older residents is encouraged through a set-aside of 250
units per year out of the total allowed allocations in the eastern portion
of the county. The requests are placed in line in the order they were ap-
proved to receive the available housing allocations. Senior housing plans,
at a rate of up to 250 units per year, are given immediate approval. After “Part of
the 250-unit set-aside is used, plans for senior housing must compete for
the boon in
allocations with other submissions, although these plans still have an ad-
vantage in that they can be built in areas where the county schools are
creating age-
over capacity. The “schools test” has had a major impact on closing out restricted
non-age-restricted development in three Planning Areas. housing is
Part of the boon in creating age-restricted housing is avoiding the avoiding
“test” for school capacity. Developers have been able to move ahead, pro-
the ‘test’ for
viding an added benefit for older residents. In 2005 484 age-restricted
units were built; over 700 units were approved from October 2004 to
school ca-
September 30, 2005; and as of September 2005 nearly 1200 units were pacity.”
proposed in development plans in process. However, while the number of
units may seem impressive, it cannot meet the demands of the growing
population. It should also be noted that age-restricted communities are,
generally, being occupied by active adults between the age of 58 and 62.
These communities are too new to determine the average length of stay.
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 85

Zoning Regulations

Since the 2000 General Plan was adopted, several provisions have been
added to the zoning regulations to encourage the construction of age-re-
stricted housing. This is housing for households with at least one member
who is 55 years of age or older and no permanent household members who
are less than 18 years of age. The new regulations recognize the lesser im-
pacts of senior housing on a community due to the smaller average house-
hold size and the lack of school-age residents. These regulations replaced
older ones dealing with senior housing. The need for the new regulation
was immediately evident as developers seized on the new opportunity in
early 2001. Since the adoption of the regulations, nine active adult hous-
ing developments have been built, with a total of 871 units. Nearly 2,000
more units in sixteen developments have been approved or in process since
that time.
All age-restricted development must incorporate universal design ele-
ments, provide at least ten percent of the units as Moderate Income Hous-
ing Units, provide an indoor community space, and have covenants that
limit the units to sale or rental by older adults. Those plans submitted after
March 2001 for conditional uses and after April 2004 for the Planned
Office Research (POR) zoning district are also required to have universal
design features. Under the Howard County Zoning Regulations, age-re-
stricted housing is allowed in residential zoning districts as a conditional
use. This use allows detached, attached, and apartment units at a greater
density than the underlying zoning.
In most districts the conditional use allows about twice the number of
dwellings permitted without the conditional use. Conditional use require-
ments include perimeter setbacks and at least 35 percent open space. The
Planned Senior Community (PSC) District allows age-restricted housing,
assisted living facilities, and nursing homes. It is a floating district that
allows moderate-density development (8 units per net acre) on sites large
enough to accommodate at least 50 dwelling units. Three other districts
also allow age-restricted housing as a matter of right. In each, the permit-
ted density is greater than many other districts in order to encourage more
compact development.

Design Diversity

Builders of “active adult” housing have found a ready market for their
products in Howard County. They report that customers want homes that
86 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

are not much smaller than the ones they had, but want more amenities
and complete living units on one floor with non-essential living space on
other levels. They want units with less maintenance and more services.
Condominium communities that require no maintenance by the hom-
eowners, even if the homes are detached, are most popular.
However, the active adult housing that is being built and successfully “custom-
marketed in the county does not meet the needs of all of the county’s ers want
seniors. These units appeal primarily to older adults who are still working. homes that
They are not affordable for most county residents. Developers and builders are not much
are not providing homes that are on single-levels with low maintenance
unless they are in age-restricted communities. The county also has limited
smaller than
housing suitable for older seniors who can live independently but would the ones
prefer a much smaller unit than those currently being built. they had, but
There has been a shift to the construction of attached units, but these want more
are usually tract construction of villas and town homes. No builder has amenities
focused on small units, cottages, or ranch style units. In large part, this is
due to the costs of land and development. Legislation was recently passed
and complete
to provide allocations, specifically for one- and two-bedroom units. living units
on one floor”
Design Compatibility

Many of the remaining undeveloped parcels with residential zoning are

small and surrounded by established neighborhoods. Sites of five acres or
less have the potential to provide an important resource for people to age
in place. If used for age-restricted housing or small assisted living facili-
ties, these sites would allow older residents to find new housing in or prox-
imate to their own neighborhoods and provide options for older adults
who would prefer not to live in communities limited to older adults.
Redevelopment is becoming more economically attractive. Currently,
an active adult housing development is being built on land that formerly
had three single-family detached houses. In some neighborhoods older
homes are being demolished to allow construction of larger new homes.
The possibility of redevelopment expands the potential for new develop-
ment within established neighborhoods. At the same time, it is important
that infill development and redevelopment of small parcels be compatible
with existing, older neighborhoods.
Sites of less than ten acres have proven to be the most difficult to
develop for age-restricted housing in a manner compatible with existing
neighborhoods. Larger properties, when developed either under the con-
ditional use provision or the PSC (Planned Senior Community) zoning
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 87

district, generally have their own character and identity and can be set
apart from the surrounding community by open space, perimeter set-
backs, roads, and other features. Although their design features are im-
portant, they are able to fit into the larger community in part because they
are set apart from existing homes.
Under the Zoning Regulations in place from 2001 until 2003, R-20
(Residential—Single Detached) sites as small as four acres could be used
for age-restricted housing under the conditional use provisions, at a den-
sity of five dwelling units per acre with a minimum of 20 units. However,
as a result of a proposal to build an out-of-scale project of 28 age-restricted
units as an in-fill development, the regulations were changed. Commu-
nity residents successfully argued that the scale and massing of the proj-
ect would be grossly incompatible and was out of character with existing
homes. The County Council amended the regulations to require that the
minimum development size be 50 dwelling units in the single-family de-
tached zoning districts (RC, RR, R-20, and R-12). Now at least ten acres
are needed in R-20, where potential sites are the most likely to be found.
This all but eliminates the potential for such development.
Increasing the minimum development size solved the immediate
problem by eliminating small sites for age-restricted housing. However,
this is counter to the goals of increasing the diversity and the quantity of
housing designed for older adults. The master plan committee that devel-
oped the Plan felt that there were design solutions that would allow senior
housing to be built in character with the existing neighborhoods.
One approach would be to build “multiplexes,” or buildings that look
like large houses but actually contain three or four units that could be more
affordable. These housing units would be visually compatible with the sur-
rounding housing but would have smaller units for more older adults.
Other regulatory requirements for age-restricted housing for smaller sites,
such as the following, would also need to be addressed:
• The landscape character of the sites must be designed carefully
to ensure that small developments blend with existing homes and
yards;
• The required 75-foot perimeter setback takes up a greater percent-
age of the land on smaller sites, making it harder to design homes that
fit into the neighborhood; and
• Generally, there is limited room on smaller sites for a transition
along the perimeter to make the entire site reasonably compatible
with neighboring properties.
88 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Universal Design Requirements

Beginning in 2001, the zoning regulations required plans for age-restrict-

ed housing to show how universal design features would be incorporated.
As a result, a task force comprised of members of the building industry,
advocates, and county officials developed a set of guidelines to be applied
to all subsequent development. Since cost was of utmost importance to the
builders, the county’s guidelines focused on the universal design features
with the highest potential benefit in relation to their cost. The guidelines
have features that are “required”, such as a no-step entrance, 36” door-
ways and hallways, blocking for grab bars and adequate maneuvering, and
turning areas in kitchens and bathrooms. The “desirable” and “optional
features” are features that a builder could provide or that a builder and
purchaser could negotiate. Unfortunately, negotiation requires knowledge
and education by both parties. This has been sorely lacking in Howard
County, but is one area upon which the Office on Aging is focusing.
The Department of Planning and Zoning’s guidelines ensure that
housing can be easily modified for residents who find themselves in need
of additional features to ease accessibility later in their lives. Developers
report that homebuyers in active adult communities often do not perceive
themselves as needing universal design features. This comports agrees
with national findings that suggest that most who buy into active adult
communities see themselves as healthy individuals who do not need these
features. Nevertheless, these housing communities need to be designed
to allow long-term independent living by seniors who may find that they
need these features as they age in place.
When the zoning regulations were changed, a number of projects
were grandfathered. The projects that are subject to universal design are
those applications for conditional uses and Planned Senior Communities
filed after March 5, 2001 and the POR plans submitted after April 1,
2004. As of now, there are 16 developments with nearly 1,700 units where
universal design features are required. The number of units reinforces the
importance of using universal design features.
Since the adoption of the master plan, the Departments of Planning
and Zoning and Inspections, Licenses, and Permits and the Office on Ag-
ing have revised the guidelines and worked with advocates and develop-
ers on the challenges of the no-step entrance. The guidelines require one
no-step entrance per unit. While it is highly preferable to have this be a
front or external entrance, construction difficulties may require using an
entrance through the garage as an alternative.
The land where age-restricted housing is now being built or proposed
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 89

has significant topographical and grade issues. The houses being built are
generally tract or production houses with basements. Therefore, construc-
tion of houses with no-step entrances has presented significant challenges
for builders, who tend to build the same housing type instead of custom
units. The county has been urging builders to be creative in design and
engineering, but only a few have tried to find solutions. A local advocacy
group recently presented awards to two builders for their efforts to use
universal design. Since there is no waiver to any of these guidelines, coun-
ty agencies have been able to push for solutions throughout the review and
construction processes.

Program and Policy Recommendations

Changes in land use policy and regulations were deemed essential for
fostering new senior housing in the county. The rising cost of land and
its diminishing availability requires more diverse and creative design. In
order to encourage more design and price diversity for 55+ housing while
ensuring that infill senior housing is a good neighbor to existing hous-
ing, various short-term recommendations for the zoning regulations were
proposed. The Department of Planning and Zoning is the lead agency in
researching and drafting land use regulations to implement many of the
recommendations. The Departments of Housing and Community De-
velopment, and Inspections, Licenses, and Permits area also important
collaborators. Some of the recommendations are as follows:
• Allow conditional uses for smaller senior developments in RC, RR,
R-20, and R-12 Districts in conjunction with revised and enhanced
design requirements, enabling developments of 20 or more dwelling
units rather than the current minimum of 50 units to be built.
• Amend the conditional use for age-restricted housing and the PSC
District to improve compatibility with the community, with special
attention to sites smaller than ten acres, including the following:
• Create clearer criteria for the required landscaping;
• Limit the total building area per acre while allowing a greater
number of units if they are smaller; and
• Limit the total building length and size for attached units to
be more architecturally compatible with surrounding neighbor-
hoods.
• Allow age-restricted housing in dwellings (multiplexes) that
resemble single-family houses located in single-family detached
neighborhoods.
90 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

• Amend the conditional use for age-restricted adult housing in

western Howard County to allow housing in business zones where
there is access to appropriate services.
• Promote universal design features in new, non-age-restricted
housing and educate consumers and the construction and real es-
tate industries regarding the benefits of universal design.
• Create a Design Advisory Panel to review compatibility of new,
age-restricted adult housing on sites in existing neighborhoods.

In order to support an increase in the construction of more senior

housing units, the following recommendations were made:
• Amend Zoning Regulations to provide more opportunity to use
small, infill sites in the RC, RR, R-20, and R-12 zoning districts for
age-restricted housing and to encourage creation of smaller units.
• Encourage accessory apartments in new or existing single-family
detached homes.
• Increase the annual allocation set-aside of 250 units for senior
housing if linked to an increase in moderate income housing units.

Mid-Term recommendations to be addressed over the next five years

will include the following:
• A periodic review of the universal design guidelines to determine
appropriateness and cost-effectiveness;
• A determination of whether there is flexibility in development re-
quirements to promote creativity and innovation;
• Research of culturally-appropriate design features or services for
different segments of the senior population;
• A determination of whether the Howard County Housing Com-
mission projects can use alternative designs such as multiplexes, cot-
tages, zero lot line dwellings; and accessory apartments; and
• Identification and evaluation of incentives to encourage builders
to incorporate universal design features into new housing.

Affordability

Background
Housing affordability is one of the most difficult issues facing Howard
County. Prices for all types of housing have escalated rapidly over the past
five years for both new and existing units. Additionally, renovations and
modifications to existing homes have become more expensive.
 Planning for Senior Housing Needs 91

Housing affordability is also a very significant issue for a substantial

number of older residents. Over the last seven years, starting with survey
data in 1999, approximately 30 percent of Howard County adults over 60
have had household incomes less than 40 percent of the median, or less
than $29,000. Another 29 percent have incomes between 40 percent and
80 percent of the median. In its 2002 Study of Demographics and Needs,
the Office on Aging also reported the following:
• Younger seniors tend to have a larger income, with 62 percent of
those 60-64 earn more than $50,000;
• Adults over age 75 are twice as likely as those between 60-74 to
have incomes under $20,000;
• Senior females are more likely to have annual incomes under
$20,000, with 36 percent of females reporting yearly income under
$20,000; and
• Males are twice as likely as females to have annual incomes of
$50,000 or greater with over 50 percent of senior men reporting in-
comes of at least $50,000.

“To provide To provide housing appropriate for seniors, there must be reasonable
provision of the services that will be needed by residents. The county’s
housing ap-
over-60 age group reported that about 70 percent had no limitation on
propriate for their activities of daily living, 12 percent had a single limitation, and 18
seniors, there percent had multiple limitations. On average, seniors with lower incomes
must be reported higher numbers of ADL limitations. The relationship between
reasonable housing and services cannot be ignored.
The implication of these numbers is dramatic. How can the housing
provision of
needs of nearly a third of the older residents be met? What about those
the services with even moderate incomes?
that will be Standard measures for determining housing affordability do not gen-
needed by erally apply to seniors since assets play a larger role than income. Afford-
residents.” ability is influenced by the available down payment and other demands
such as health care and rising utility costs. Equity from their prior homes
and low debt enable some seniors to purchase homes that would not be
affordable based only on income.
For many seniors, owning their home outright allows them to live on
a modest income. The major source of affordable housing will continue
to be the existing housing in Howard County. As discussed previously,
financial or practical assistance with repairs and modifications, which en-
able seniors to remain in their existing homes, can address more of the
county’s housing needs than new construction.
92 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Moderate Income Housing Units

Since the adoption of the General Plan 2000, requirements to build Mod-
erate Income Housing Units (MIHU) for seniors have been added to the
zoning regulations. Generally, in any housing development that is re-
stricted to older adults, at least ten percent of the units must be affordable
for households with incomes between 50 and 80 percent of the median
household income for the Baltimore region. In 2005 this meant a house-
hold income range of $33,650-$53,840. These households are not eligible
for low-income, subsidized housing and would, generally, be priced out of
the vast majority of Howard County’s housing market.
The MIHU program is administered by the Department of Hous-
ing and Community Development (DHCD), which qualifies potential
buyers and renters and retains enough control over the housing units to
ensure that they remain affordable in successive sales or rentals. Through
a shared equity program, DHCD assists first time homebuyers in purchas-
ing units, and also ensures that there is a financial benefit to the buyer at
time of sale.
The MIHU regulations allow developers to build some moderately
priced units off-site, rather than creating obligation by building within the
development. This has proven especially useful for senior developments
because the condominium fees and taxes cause the monthly expenses to
be too high for moderate-income purchasers. These condo fees are high
because the buyers of these homes want amenities and maintenance-free
living. Ideally, units would be priced so that the combination of mort-
gage plus fees would be within the ability of moderate-income buyers to
pay, but condominium fees can also rise based on maintenance and repair
costs. The county is limited in its ability to adjust these fees by State law.
The Department of Housing and Community Development has built
two rental apartment buildings for moderate-income seniors using this
off-site approach. The county is currently seeking to change its code to
further increase the flexibility of developers, allowing more off-site trans-
fer, a different housing type to be built, or the payment of a fee-in-lieu in
exchange for providing more MIHUs.
Developers can also meet their MIHU obligations by repairing and
renovating existing homes. Fifty thousand ($50,000) dollars must be
spent on an existing dwelling to meet the obligation. To be used for se-
nior housing, an existing home would need to be repaired and modified
to meet universal design requirements, then sold to a moderate-income
senior. As with new units, the Department of Housing and Community
Development retains some ownership so that it can exercise control when
Planning for Senior Housing Needs 93

the unit is sold to a moderate-income senior.

Affordability for the 80-110 Percent Income Range

The income eligibility requirements for potential purchasers of MIHUs

limit the number of potential buyers and do not serve those with incomes
between 80 and 110 percent of the median of $72,155. According to data
from the Multiple List Service, the average house now sells for more than
$450,000. As of May 3rd of 2006 realtors reported that only 50 of more
than 1,000 houses on the market cost less than $270,000. Because hous-
ing prices are so high in Howard County, even residents in this group
have difficulty finding affordable housing. However, since the definition
of MIHUs is established by federal and state programs, people in this
income range cannot utilize any federal funds to help them purchase or
rent housing.
This Senior Housing Master Plan focused on two approaches with
the best potential to provide the housing needs of middle-income seniors.
One is to make use of the existing housing stock and assist those who
wish to age in place. The second is to encourage production of more senior
housing and a greater variety of housing for seniors by encouraging acces-
sory apartments and smaller, new units.

Program and Policy Recommendations

The creation and retention of a sufficient number of affordable housing

units remains the primary challenge. New approaches must be consid-
ered. For most of these, the Department of Housing and Community
Development is the primary agency coordinating and implementing the
recommended actions. In a few areas, the Department of Planning and
Zoning is the lead agency.
The plan emphasizes the importance of providing zoning and regula-
tory incentives and standards to encourage the creation of more Moderate
Income Housing Units (MIHUs). In the short term, it was recommended
that the county do the following:
Consider zoning incentives to increase the number of Moderate In-
come Housing Units in age-restricted housing, including the following:
• Eliminate the indoor community space requirement if a higher
percentage of MIHUs is provided or if the site is within two miles of
a senior center;
94 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

• Allow higher density as an incentive for increased MIHU percent-

age for larger age-restricted developments; and
• Allow additional density in the PSC (Planned Senior Community)
zoning district if a higher percentage of MIHUs is provided along
with increased setbacks or buffering from surrounding properties.
• Consider increasing the allocation set-aside for senior housing
above 250 units per year with a higher percentage of required MI-
HUs.
• Continue to allow the MIHU obligation associated with senior
housing to be satisfied through renovation and modification of exist-
ing homes.
• Revise the zoning regulations to encourage some of the new mar-
ket-rate dwellings to be built as smaller units.
• Support acquisition of accessible housing units (such as ranch
homes) that can be maintained as affordable units by the Howard
County Housing Commission and nonprofit housing providers.

With the cost of housing escalating, the plan recommends that

there be more financial incentives for the creation of more MIHUs to keep
more senior housing affordable. For this, the short-term recommendations
included the following:
• Create a Housing Trust Fund to increase the supply of affordable
senior housing through new construction or modification of existing
homes using fees paid in lieu of providing required moderate income
housing, bonds, transfer taxes, and county general funds as funding
sources.
• Acquire houses that can be renovated to incorporate universal de-
sign elements and selling or renting the homes to moderate-income
seniors.
• Establish a loan pool with private lenders to facilitate and help
underwrite the acquisition of houses that are affordable to moderate-
income seniors.
The mid-term recommendations would include considering the fol-
lowing:
• Tax Increment Funding legislation for the construction of new,
affordable units;
• A tax abatement or credit for improvements where the dwelling is
maintained as an affordable unit;
• Tax relief to moderate-income renters of age-restricted units, par-
allel to the real estate tax relief provided to homeowners with incomes
below a certain threshold; and
 Planning for Senior Housing Needs 95

• A reevaluation of the schools’ portion of the $1.80 excise tax obli-

gation ($1.00 per square foot) on MIHUs for seniors if more MIHUs
are provided than are required for the particular development.

Conclusion

The development of Howard County’s Senior Housing Master Plan was

an important stage in understanding and addressing the housing needs of
older adults. The county is aging rapidly and unless both the public and
private sectors are more creative and pro-active, seniors will have very, very
“The master few housing choices.
plan was The master plan was developed by a broad-based group of county
developed citizens. It, therefore, reflects concerns about preserving existing housing
and enabling people to age in place; increasing the number of new for sale
by a broad- and rental housing units for older adults; making new construction both
based group more compatible with the surrounding community and more accessible
of county and visitable for consumers; and finding more ways to make housing more
citizens.” affordable in a county with soaring housing costs.
Since the Plan’s adoption steps have been taken to change zoning
regulations, expand needed services, alter the universal design guidelines,
and tackle the challenge of affordability. While Howard County is only
beginning to bring about the changes needed, there is a firm commitment
to ensuring that as the county ages its diverse housing needs will be met.

References

Howard County Department of Planning and Zoning, (2000). Howard

County General Plan 2000.
Howard County Department of Planning and Zoning, (2002). Research
Report: 2000 Census: Age Characteristics.
Howard County Department of Planning and Zoning, (2004). Research
Report: Columbia.
Howard County Department of Planning and Zoning, (2006). Develop-
ment Monitoring System Report, Howard County Maryland.
Howard County Office on Aging, (2002). Study of Demographics and
Needs of the Seniors and Middle Age Population in Howard County.
REDA International for Howard County, Office on Aging, (2001). Status
of Seniors in Howard County and the Aging in Place Initiative.
96 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY
Zoning and Regional Planning 97
97

6
Making universal design work in
zoning and regional planning:
A Scandinavian approach

Olav Rand Bringa

Abstract

Universal design may turn out to be the most innovative and significant
development to reach the planning sphere in the past several decades. The
strategy of universal design presents a holistic approach to how to deal
with the interaction between humans and the environment. The core
of this thinking revolves around the important issue of accessibility for
people with reduced functionality based on equal opportunities and equal
rights.
The Norwegian Government is currently in the process of integrat-
ing universal design perspectives into various aspects of national planning
policy. This is a direct result of advances achieved through preliminary
policy development and pilot projects over the last years. County and
municipal plans comprise the main targets for the new initiatives, which
address a number of issues in strategic planning and zoning. The process
of integrating universal design into planning policy includes revising the
Planning Act, expanding government impact assessment regulations, de-
veloping and issuing national policy guidelines, and raising the overall
levels of professional competence.
This process brings to light new issues that need be discussed and
clarified. What is the relationship between universal design, sustainable
development, landscape development, and protection of the cultural heri-
tage? Are the universal design principles consistent with the full scope of
the definition of the concept?

Introduction

Activities in connection with the UN Convention on Disability Rights

are now moving into their crucial final phases, and it is expected that the
convention will be adopted by the General Assembly in the fall of 2006. If
this is the case, then a lack of accessibility for individuals with disabilities
will become officially recognized as an act of discrimination. This hardly
comes as a surprise; equality and full participation in society for people
98 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

with disabilities has long figured on the international political agenda. The
United States Americans with Disabilities Act non-discrimination legisla-
tion transformed these political ideas into an effective policy tool. Many
other nations have followed this example, implementing efforts to further
refine policies and instruments in an ever-growing number of spheres.
The classification of accessibility for people with disabilities as a fun-
damental human right has wide-ranging ramifications. Although it is
principally aimed at strengthening the rights of people with disabilities
as individuals, the responsibility for safeguarding these rights lies with
a wide range of public authorities and private organizations. The task of
ensuring that people with disabilities achieve equality and full participa-
tion in society is no longer a matter for the health and care services sector
alone. Most other areas of society will need to be involved as well if such
measures are to be effectively and successfully implemented.
The emergence of equality perspectives has forced us to think in new
ways about how to achieve accessibility in practice. A given accessibil-
ity problem will often have a myriad of potential solutions. The ideology
underlying universal design thinking is that solutions should, in so far as
possible, be available to all members of society. Specially adapted solutions
devised only for people with reduced functionality should be avoided. At
the same time, universal design strategy emphasizes that good solutions “We are
will depend on a variety of other aspects as well. Accessibility must be
currently in
combined with requirements relating to safety, sustainability, aesthetics,
and financial viability. Although many people with reduced functionality
the process
will still require special aids and solutions tailored to their specific needs, of integrat-
the principle of universal design provides a constructive basis for integrat- ing univer-
ing accessibility thinking into ordinary societal processes. If we are to sal design
solve the challenges facing us we must think beyond the design of indi-
perspectives
vidual products, buildings, and means of transport. We must see things in
a bigger perspective, and work to establish universal design principles as a
into national
dynamic component of county and municipal planning procedures. This policy in
takes us into subject fields and aspects of government administration that Norway.”
are new in the context of accessibility. The legislation, methodology, and
administrative entities for community planning are already in place, but
universal design is a new tool that needs to be incorporated into each of
these areas. We are currently in the process of integrating universal design
perspectives into national planning policy in Norway. I would like to give
you an idea of how we have chosen to approach this, but first let me give
you some useful background on Norway and the Norwegian planning
system.
Zoning and Regional Planning 99

Norway, Denmark, and Sweden Together Comprise the Area of North-

ern Europe Known as Scandinavia.

The countries of Scandinavia have much in common. Their histories are

intertwined, and their languages are mutually intelligible. All three are
constitutional monarchies, have similar social and administrative struc-
tures, and are typical welfare states with mixed economies. All three also
have similar planning legislation and planning administration systems.
There are, of course, many differences as well, not least in terms of their
geography.
The renowned French Impressionist Claude Monet, who visited
Norway in 1895, wrote in a letter to a friend: “Norway is a country far less
awful than I had expected.”

Figure 6.1. Map of Norway with county borders (Source: Norwegian

Map Authority, Ministry of The Environment).

His concerns were not unjustified; the southern tip of Norway lies at
the same latitude as Fort McMurray in Canada. The Northern Cape, at
the opposite end of the country, is as far north as the northernmost por-
tion of Baffin Island. The name “Norway”—path to the North—is fitting
indeed. Yet despite its location, the country has a surprisingly moderate
climate. This is thanks to the Gulf Stream, which carries warm currents
from the Gulf of Mexico northward, thus tempering the waters along our
jagged coast. That being said, there is generally no part of Norway that is
without snow at some time during the winter.
Mainland Norway, not including Svalbard, covers a total area of
324,000 km2, or nearly three times the size of Ohio. Of this, 1.4 percent
has been developed as cities and towns and 3.2 percent is cultivated as
100 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

agricultural land. The rest is forest, mountains and plateaus, and lakes and
glaciers. Twenty percent of Norway’s land area is located at or above 900
meters above sea level. This poses a special set of challenges in the context
of accessibility in land-use planning. Very few developable areas outside
of agricultural land have a low degree of incline, and there are stringent
restrictions limiting the use of agricultural land for purposes other than
farming.

Figure 6.2. Rural landscape in Western Norway

City and town areas, some of which are up to 1,000 years old, have
long ago expanded beyond their original flatlands, moving up the val-
leys and mountainsides. With just 4.6 million inhabitants, Norway is one
of Europe’s most sparsely populated countries. Population density is 15
people per km2. By comparison, Ohio has a population density of 97
people per km2. Close to 80 percent of the Norwegian population lives
in urban and town areas, which means that there is constant pressure to
develop new land areas? This applies in particular to Oslo, which is the
country’s capital and communications hub, as well as its administrative
and financial center. Oslo is home to the Royal Family, the national as-
sembly, the government administration, and a host of important national
institutions.

The Planning System

One of many important factors in land-use policy is the protection of

land areas. The management of land areas must comply with national and
international policies relating to conservation of the landscape and envi-
 Zoning and Regional Planning 101

Figure 6.3. The capitol Oslo in winter

ronment, protection of threatened species, and preservation of cultural

monuments. At the same time, a proper framework must be established
for energy production, communications, and industrial activity, among
other things. The government lays down principles for regional and local
planning activity through government reports (white papers) and national
policy guidelines.
The Planning and Building Act is a key tool in the planning and
assessment of various considerations in land-use allocations. The Act en-
compasses activities relating to planning as well as building, but since
our focus here is on planning I will, for the sake of simplicity, refer to it
as the Planning Act. The Planning Act is administered by the Ministry of
“decision
the Environment, the national planning authority, and is applicable at all
making must government administrative levels in Norway. Norway is divided into 19
be democrat- counties, consisting of a total of 431 municipalities. The largest of these is
ic and decen- Oslo, with 550,000 inhabitants, while the smallest has only 212.
tralized” This may at first sound somewhat rigid and overly centralized, as the
various municipalities will obviously have very different capabilities with
regard to dealing with planning tasks. Some of you may be tempted to
invoke the words of the Canadian-born American economist John Ken-
neth Galbraith, who said: “You will find that the State is the kind of
organization which, though it does big things badly, does small things
badly, too.” However, the underlying principle of the Planning Act is
that decision making must be democratic and decentralized. The pub-
licly elected bodies at the various administrative levels make all planning
decisions within a framework laid down by the relevant superior author-
ity. Planning processes are transparent. The Planning Act ensures that
proceedings are public and open to participation from individuals and
102 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

organizations. This gives special interest groups, such as one for persons
with disabilities, every opportunity to take part in municipal planning
processes. Of course, transparency is no guarantee against bad decisions,
but it does increase the chances that the decisions taken will be based on
consideration of the greatest number of factors possible. In the event of
conflicting considerations or questions regarding violations of the rules
set out in the legislation, the final decision-making authority lies with the
Ministry of the Environment. The ministry is also the agency responsible
for implementing any adjustments to planning policy or planning legisla-
tion deemed necessary by the government. Major policy shifts and legisla-
tive amendments must be submitted to the Norwegian national assembly,
the Storting, for approval. As I have indicated, in Norway we are presently
in the process of incorporating universal design strategy and accessibility
perspectives into planning policy across the board.
These efforts are first and foremost directed toward planning at the
county and municipal levels. Each county administration is responsible
for drawing up a county master development plan with a 10-12 year per-
spective. The same applies for the municipal master development plans.
These plans are to be subjected to political review at least every four years,
with subsequent revision when warranted. Action programs for plan im-
plementation and follow-up are to be devised in connection with the an-
nual administrative budgets. The master development plans for counties
and municipalities are to consist of two parts: a community part that
coordinates the physical, economic, social, esthetic, and cultural develop-
ment of the county or municipality; and a land-use part that establishes
the use of land area and natural resources in the relevant area. The land-
use part of a county master plan lays down guiding principles for the
municipalities. The land-use part of a municipal master plan is a legally
binding document. Before use of land areas commences, municipalities
are also required to prepare zoning plans that specify in more detail ex-
actly how each area is to be utilized.
Community planning systems are organized in different ways in dif-
ferent countries. In democratic countries, planning systems constitute a
powerful instrument for developing regions and local communities and
utilizing resources and land to the benefit of society and the population
in the short and long terms. Of course, the planning process is never free
of conflict; on the contrary, conflict is at the very heart of the planning
sector, which is also dominated by political agendas and ideologies. If ac-
cessibility is to be given proper attention systematically, and in the right
contexts, then the universal design strategy must become an integral part
of prevailing community and land-use planning processes.
Zoning and Regional Planning 103

Where Does Universal Design Come into Play in Regional Planning?

The Norwegian government has issued a circular identifying topics that

should be incorporated into county and municipal plans, and has also
designated a clear national policy in this sphere. County and municipal
administrations are expected to integrate national policy into their plan-
ning processes and translate it into good, cohesive solutions at the regional
and local levels. The government circular provides a starting point for as-
sessing both the main approaches relating to the planning process and the
role of universal design strategy.
The list of relevant topics, somewhat abbreviated, is as follows:

1. The regional planning system

• Agenda 21. Follow-up of the Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development
• Considerations relating to security and emergency preparedness
• International cooperation

2. Sustainable development and resource management

• Planning for utilization and conservation
• Biological diversity
• Watercourses
• Resources available to agriculture, forestry, and fisheries
• Daily life and local communities
• Development policy and transport
• Energy production and consumption
• Waste management

3. Quality of life and welfare

• Children and youth policy
• Living conditions and housing construction
• Health promotion and preventative efforts
• Hospitals
• Mental health care
• Rehabilitation, work, and activity
• Care of older adults
• Measures for substance abusers

4. Culture, education, and research

• Cultural, sports, and recreational activities
• Education
104 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

• Life-long learning
• Research and studies

5. Industrial sector and working life

• Planning for industrial development
• Information and communications technology
• Innovation and restructuring
• Agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and reindeer husbandry
• Regional development programs

Traditionally speaking, accessibility for individuals with reduced

functionality would be included under the social policy component of the
plan. Point 3, Quality of life and welfare, is the natural candidate on the
list. This is where the plans for institutions, housing, and rehabilitation
are rooted. This is also the where employment measures and activities for
special groups are found. Although this component provides an impor-
tant backdrop for accessibility thinking, it will not adequately reflect the
realities of society, national targets, or international directives on its own.
People with disabilities live everywhere, work everywhere, and want to go
where everybody else goes. National policy is primarily directed at full
participation and equality, and international directives such as those from
the UN are moving in the same direction. It follows, then, that all the top-
ics on the list should be reviewed with an eye to equality and accessibility
perspectives. The focus thus becomes one in which the goal for all areas of
society is to function well for all inhabitants, and universal design presents
itself as a relevant strategy to apply in devising concrete measures.
Before we look more closely at some of the central universal design
approaches in land-use planning, I would like to touch on a few examples
in the field of planning where the strategy is also clearly relevant, and
where management and guidelines could be incorporated into municipal
planning activity.
Waste management planning involves finding waste deposit sites, es-
tablishing facilities for recycling and energy production, organizing waste
collection, and determining figuring out logistics. Consumers play an
important role here. They should put their trash in places where it can
be collected. A home waste-sorting program should allow all consumers,
including people who are blind or have low vision, to sort their waste
efficiently into easily differentiated trash bins. If there is a home waste
sorting program, then there is a need for easily differentiated trash bins if
all consumers, including those who are blind or have low vision, are to be
able to sort their waste efficiently. Municipal guidelines stipulating the use
Zoning and Regional Planning 105

of different colors and clear marking of trash bins can provide an efficient
means of dealing with this issue.
Urban environments also often provide larger-scale waste receptacles
into which the public can deposit trash and waste products. Such recep-
tacles take up a lot of space and their design tends to clash with their sur-
roundings. Just as problematic is the fact that they are difficult for many
people to use. The opening for waste deposit is placed high up on the
receptacles and may be difficult to locate, and the covers are heavy.

Figure 6.4. Waste receptacle with main container on the ground

By placing receptacles in a shaft in the ground it is possible to locate

the deposit openings at a more practical height. Such receptacles are better
adapted to the urban environment and are more hygienic. They are also
more easily equipped with electronic systems that can automatically trans-
mit a signal to the transport center when they are full and need emptying.
This is a typical example of a universal design alternative that already ex-
ists—ready to be utilized by municipal planners issuing guidelines.
Information and communications technology (ICT) has become a
critical factor in society, not least in the context of democratic participa-
tion. Public information such as plans and political decisions need to be
made available to the entire population. ICT can be an effective means
of conveying information if its potential is properly utilized. Tools such
as artificial voices reading aloud the text of digital documents and the ap-
plication of Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) standards can be incorpo-
rated into municipal communication strategies, thereby increasing public
accessibility to important information.
Cultural monuments are part of a people’s common heritage, and
106 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Figure 6.5. Waste receptacles with main containers in shafts

need to be managed in a sound fashion. They need to be safeguarded

for future generations, and should also be used to provide insight and
experience to us today. These are complicated issues. As one expert in the
government cultural heritage administration put it when he was trying to
explain the overall lack of accessibility to cultural monuments for people
with disabilities: “We don’t believe that it is people with disabilities who
pose a threat to cultural monuments; we believe that all people pose a
threat to them.” Nonetheless, it is necessary to work toward solutions that
combine utilization and protection—utilization that includes people from
all segments of society. Far to the north in Finnmark county, along the
Alta Fjord bordering on the Barents Sea, is one of Northern Europe’s larg-
est fields of rock drawings. The area has been named a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, and it encompasses 5,000 petroglyphs ranging in age from
2,000 to 6,200 years old. Wear and tear from the many visitors was so
great that the authorities considered closing off the field to safeguard it for
the future. Instead, the situation was resolved by building wooden bridges
across the entire area. Here, new thinking not only protected the site as
an important cultural monument, it also helped to add a new dimension
to it by making it possible for persons with disabilities to experience this
spectacular rock art.
While it must be admitted that this winning solution was more a
result of coincidence than conscious analysis, it is our hope that similar
success stories will come to represent the norm, not the exception. If we
are to achieve this, then access to cultural monuments must be based on
universal design principles. One good place to establish this as a necessary
strategy is the community planning part of the municipal master plans.
Zoning and Regional Planning 107

Figure 6.6. Wooden bridge across the fields of rock drawings in Alta

I could go on and on providing additional illustrations of important

spheres of society in which there is a need to analyze and incorporate
considerations relating to people with disabilities into long-term, overall,
and strategic plans. In Norway, these considerations are integrated into
the community planning parts of the county and municipal master plans,
which lay down guiding principles for the various sectors and determine
the desired course of community development. Nor is this the only realm
in which guidelines involving the application of universal design strategy
are issued to the various sectors. There are a number of government regu-
lations and political decisions that specify this, such as in ICT, protec-
tion of cultural monuments, education, building construction, and more.
The integration of universal design thinking in planning processes and in
plans themselves lends weight to the policy and enhances coordination
and consistency. Moreover, it ensures that such thinking becomes a neces-
sary part of the political and administrative framework.
In political circles there has been very little disagreement on this de-
velopment. The political parties from left to right support the policy ac-
tively. The political orientation of the cabinet has changed several times
over the last few years, and each change of government has resulted in
more emphasis on universal design policy.
108 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Universal Design in Land-Use Policy

The purpose of land-use policy is to determine how land area is to be used

through due democratic process. Municipal planning activities culminate
in a plan that is legally binding. In practice, this entails a map of a mu-
nicipality in which various colors are employed to indicate specific types
of use. Other legally binding provisions may be issued regarding special
considerations to be taken into account. These may involve requirements
relating to the order of development activities, infrastructure, size and
design of buildings and facilities, outdoor areas, and so on. Provisions may
also be issued regarding the designation of a more detailed plan that stipu-
lates other quality requirements. The capacity to make such decisions is
laid down in the Planning Act, and it is here that we discern the contours
of a legal instrument that can be utilized to deal with areas of importance
in terms of accessibility for persons with reduced functionality. This ap-
plies to buildings, outdoor areas, and road systems.
The land-use categories used in the municipal master plan are:

1. Built-up areas
2. Agricultural, natural, and outdoor recreational areas
3. Areas for resource extraction
4. Closed areas (e.g., areas for military training, security zones
around fixed cultural monuments, and natural areas)
5. Use and protection of watercourses and sea areas
6. Important links in the communications system

Categories 1, 2, and 6 are the most relevant in our context here. These
will have a direct impact on accessibility for persons with reduced func-
tionality
Built-up areas, natural and outdoor recreation areas, and important
links in the communications system are further divided into sub-catego-
ries that correspond to the following colors on the planning maps: Hous-
ing (yellow); industry, offices, and private businesses (blue); public activi-
ties (red); outdoor recreation areas and parks (green); water (light blue);
and roads (grey).
Maps depicting land use by color are used in most countries. We often
see them on the walls of the planning agencies. They make great decora-
tions, but their primary purpose is to document municipal development.
There is a saying that goes: “If you don’t have a plan for yourself, you’ll be
part of someone else’s”. This applies in land-use planning like everywhere
else. There are many interests at stake, some of which will validate the
 Zoning and Regional Planning 109

“The fun-
damental Figure 6.7. Part of planning map
factors for
achieving principles of universal design, while others will diverge from them.
universal The fundamental factors for achieving universal design at this level of
planning are walking distances, levels of incline, and landmark orienta-
design at
tion. Short distances are particularly important in residential areas. Long
this level of distances to grocery stores, post offices, and public services pose obstacles
planning are to daily life for many people, and these problems increase as people age.
walking dis- Both urban structure and location of residential areas are important in
tances, level this regard. It may be that the main structure for development of a city or
town is based on a rough division into zones. This would entail a housing
of incline,
district in one area, a business district in another, and, say, outdoor rec-
and land- reational areas in a third. This quickly evolves into a development struc-
mark orien- ture without nuclei that offer a variety of services, which increases the
tation.” distance between areas of daily activity and diminishes accessibility. If at
all possible, it is advantageous to position new development in existing
nuclei, towns, and city areas. This will strengthen the business base in
the existing centers and will, at the same time, promote enhancement of
available services. Cities in many Western countries have been affected
by population reduction, poor traffic accessibility, and business moving
away. A number of countries have implemented active policies to alter
these developments. Norway introduced a ban on the establishment of
shopping malls outside of established urban centers to counteract these
developments, while other countries have employed different instruments.
Such policies have also been aimed at reducing dependency on private au-
tomobiles, thus decreasing resource consumption. Existing urban centers
normally offer good collective transport coverage, with a choice of bus and
subway instead of car.
Why, however, should we give such emphasis to the needs of per-
110 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

sons with reduced functionality if other important societal considerations

also point in the direction of concentrated development? There are sev-
eral reasons. The needs of persons with reduced functionality represent
an important social issue that must be considered as on a par with other
issues. Universal design must be present as a basis for assessment whether
it stands on its own or is viewed in conjunction with other social issues.
Not least, it must be present in planning processes because it will be nec-
essary to include dimensions in plans that are not incorporated in other
societal considerations. This applies, among other things, to mandatory
requirements that buildings, facilities, and prepared outdoor recreational
areas used by the public at large must be designed on the basis of universal
design principles. As we have seen, this may be formulated as a decision
pursuant to the Norwegian Planning Act and manifested directly in the
quality of the design details. These details may be given more substance
in the more comprehensive zoning plan, where the height of curbstones,
incline of pedestrian walkways, and guiding features for people who are
blind and vision-impaired are specified. This is also the place to specify
the quality of housing in a planning area and stipulate any requirements
that extend beyond the provisions of Norwegian building regulations. It
may be stipulated, for instance, that all or part of the housing stock to
be built in a given area must be accessible to and usable by persons with
disabilities.
Most municipalities need to expand beyond the land available in ex-
isting cities and urban centers. Moreover, not all people wish to live in
urban areas. Many prefer to live outside cities, which entails that new land
area must be readied for housing, services, and employment.
New development areas should be chosen to provide the highest de-
gree of accessibility possible. This implies that these areas, too, should be
planned as urban centers with nuclei that can serve the local environment.
In choosing between various development alternatives, it is crucial to se-
lect those that provide the best foundation for universal design solutions.
It is important to avoid areas with steep or hilly terrain that will make
road and pedestrian access difficult and inhibit accessibility to housing
and other buildings. In Norway, topographical conditions are extremely
varied, to put it mildly. Most of our available flatlands are either protected
farmland or are located high on mountain plateaus, so our choices of ter-
rain for building housing are hardly optimal. The problems are particu-
larly noticeable in Western Norway, which is known for its deep valleys
and impressive fjords. Surveys conducted among residents of some of the
mountainside residential areas clearly indicate the ramifications of build-
ing along the steep inclines, away from the local urban centers. Many of
Zoning and Regional Planning 111

the residents state that they will not be able to live in these homes when
they grow older. This is regrettable because it implies less choice for the
individual. Herein lies a clear message to the public authorities. Home-
based care is a key component of the Norwegian care service, and un-
necessarily complicated housing conditions leads to greater demands on
resources. Often, however, there are several alternative development areas
available and the terrain can be utilized in different ways. The challenge
lies in making these areas function optimally through deliberate place-
ment of roads and housing lots. It is possible to make housing adequately
accessible even in steep or hilly terrain.

Figure 6.8. Residential area near the city of Drammen in Eastern

Norway

The Implementation of Universal Design Strategy In Norwegian

National Planning Policy

Elements of a planning policy including universal design principles

were introduced in Norway in 1999 in circular T-5/99 Accessibility for all.
For the most part, the planning guidelines discussed here come from this
circular. This has provided a body of experience that now forms the basis
for revising national planning policy. The main conclusion is that acces-
sibility in the form of universal design can be integrated into regional and
local planning. Despite this, the circular has not been granted the desired
weight implied in national objectives. Efforts are underway to launch a
variety of instruments to rectify this.
The Planning Act is being revised, and a political decision has al-
ready been taken to include the principle of universal design in the objects
112 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

clause. Universal design strategy will thus be made an objective on a par

with sustainability and protection of cultural monuments. At the same
time, the new act will probably strengthen the participation of interest
groups for disabled persons in planning processes, as well as the applica-
tion of planning provisions to achieve design for all.
National policy guidelines for universal design in planning will be is-
sued during 2006, and they will stress many of the same factors described
in the 1999 circular. National policy guidelines carry greater political au-
thority than a government circular.
Other aspects of the legislation have already been activated. To safe-
guard the quality and framework for decision-making in planning activi-
ties, accessibility for individuals with reduced functionality has now been
incorporated into the government impact assessment regulations to the
Planning Act. County master plans, the land-use part of the municipal
master plans, and municipal master plans that specify areas for physical
development must always be assessed in the context of accessibility for
persons with reduced functionality. Zoning plans must always be subject
to environmental impact assessment in relation to accessibility criteria if,
for instance, such plans involve office and public buildings for general use
that exceed 5,000 m2. The same goes for roads, railway lines, and public
tram and underground lines for the carriage of persons, as well as in the
context of relevant plans for the development of towns and urban centers.
It is assumed that an impact assessment will only be necessary if the effects
of a plan will be significant.
The most important procedural change that the amended regulations
will entail is to make the planning program a compulsory instrument
for promoting early-stage user participation in and clarification of key
considerations affecting the planning efforts. Efforts to develop the plan-
ning program will comprise an arena in which important limits can be
defined, thus making it possible to adapt planning activities to needs. In
political discussions the planning program will provide a basis on which
to define a political framework, thereby establishing essential conditions
for the planning activities. The regulations clearly stipulate that impact on
accessibility is one of the topics to be assessed.

The Next Steps

In the course of the next year, Norway will have an improved legal frame-
work for integrating universal design into the planning of community and
land-use master plans. It will be necessary to provide information on this
Zoning and Regional Planning 113

to local planning authorities and private planning companies alike. The

implementation of new directives also implies a need to enhance compe-
tence. However, we are aware that we will also face new and even more
demanding challenges.
Norwegian legislation will employ the concept of universal design
based on a definition that closely resembles the definition used by the
Center for Universal Design at the University of North Carolina. This def-
inition is fitting, but the accompanying principles and guidelines do not
provide good associations with the qualities we are seeking in land-use
planning. Moreover, the concept of universal design is somewhat difficult
to use in a legal context. It requires something virtually without limits,
which is therefore difficult to achieve. We are looking at both of these
problems, and we are certain that we will find solutions. The question is
whether these are issues that should be discussed at the international level.
The concept of universal design with principles and guidelines is gaining
in international status, and it would be wise to ensure that potential ad-
justments are coordinated.
The more we contemplate universal design, the clearer it becomes
that this is both an independent ideology and a societal component that
meshes with other essential societal considerations. Sustainable develop-
ment is a chief objective, but it is not fully isolated from universal design.
Universal design is an important instrument in achieving social sustain-
ability in that it creates a framework for human rights, equity, and democ-
ratization. At the same time, it is an instrument for economic sustainabil-
ity because it allows more people to function independently in society, to
pursue education, and to take part in the workforce. These are issues that
need to be examined more closely.
Landscape development and design stresses the importance of pre-
serving and developing the natural and built landscape. In the context of
the built landscape, this means developing a visual identity and esthetic
form. It means developing cities and towns in which people know where
they are. We need more knowledge about what this implies for the ability
of the orientation-impaired to find their way about. This is a field that is
rooted in the visual world. Our landscapes consist of sounds and smells,
as well as other input. Don’t we all lose out on something when these ele-
ments are not included in the assessment of how to design landscapes?
There are a number of interesting academic and political development
trends emerging in this field, and the planning authorities in Norway will
be following these very closely. There is much that indicates that universal
design is the most innovative and significant element to reach the plan-
ning sphere in the past several decades.
114 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY
Universal Design In Brazil 115
115

7
Research and Teaching Of Accessibility
and Universal Design In Brazil:
Hindrances and Challenges In a
Developing Country
Cristiane Rose Duarte and Regina Cohen

Abstract

This paper deals with accessibility and universal design in Brazil. Most
Brazilian cities have physical barriers that restrict movement of people.
Although eliminating these barriers can increase opportunities for every
citizen, we must also eliminate attitudinal barriers, which because of their
invisibility may be harder to fix. Until recently, Brazil has lacked informa-
tion and awareness about the importance of these issues to urban planning
and public policies. Architects, engineers, urban planners, professionals,
technicians and the public share responsibility. Facing the challenge of im-
proving access to urban space, the architects Regina Cohen and Cristiane
Duarte (authors of this paper) created the Núcleo Pro-acesso (Accessibil-
ity Research Bureau, ARB) in 1999, linking it to a line of research in the
Post-graduate Studies Program in Architecture (PROARQ) in the Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ). Through targeting design profes-
sionals, ARB research – coordinated by these professors – has produced
reports aimed at creating more accessible spaces for everyone. This paper
discusses our educational experiences, research projects, and the Brazil-
ian reality. The undergraduate curriculum tries to stimulate knowledge,
through dynamic methods covering theory, simulation and intense design
activity to motivate students to consider human diversity, accessibility,
and the “Other” as key design concerns. The Post-graduate curriculum
adds evaluation techniques and analyses for accessibility and universal de-
sign. The results have spread through the city. The ‘new minds’ shaped by
our program target the effective change in a developing country, such as
Brazil. Huge challenges require daring action, such as ours.

Introduction: Disabled People, Accessibility and Universal Design in

Brazil

The results of the 2000 Census in Brazil (Brazilian Institute of Geography

and Statistics, IBGE, 2000) show that almost 24. 5 million people (14.5%
percent of the population) have some kind of disability. These people have
116 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

at least some difficulty related to seeing, hearing, moving around, or men-

tally understanding the world. Most of these people do not receive sup-
port from urban spaces but are blocked from freely moving around. The
existence of such barriers arise for many reasons. We still lack adequate
information and awareness about assess as a civil rights for every citizen.
The Federal Government of Brazil recently approved Edict n. 5.296
which regulates the implementation of architectural and urban accessibil-
ity to all means of transportation, public spaces, technical assistance, cul-
tural heritage, information and communication. This Edict affirms that
the various documents of our urban legislation have to follow every stan-
dard and precept of accessibility to be approved (EDICT N. 5.296/2004
– Republican Presidency).
In Brazil, the deficiency usually relates to social and economical mat-
ters as well as the difficulty of moving on physical spaces in the city. Nev-
ertheless, the recent Constitution of Brazil (1989) is one of the most ad- In Brazil, the
vanced documents in the world, in guaranteeing civil rights and national deficiency usu-
protective laws acquired by intensive efforts towards its accomplishment.
However, these great accomplishments are seldom followed.
ally relates to
Awhile ago, the Brazilian Federation emphasized urban planning for social and eco-
those people considered “pattern” – the average ordinary people – Brazil nomical mat-
started watching a permanence of special treatment offered to People with ters as well as
Mobility Difficulty (PMD). Lots of beneficent, charity and philanthropic the difficulty
institutions appeared, but we would hardly ever see a global project to-
wards the equalizing of opportunities for all. This attitude has enabled
of moving on
some social deviations such as the exploitation of deficiency as a tool for physical spaces
butting in, still a common scene in our cities. in the city.
Some quick changes have occurred, but for the size of the country,
these represent small changes. Little by little, changes have taken place,
starting to create a new urban reality, eliminating inequalities in the ful-
fillment of accessibility.
It was only in 1994 that the first greatest International Seminar on
Accessibility, in Rio de Janeiro, effectively started spreading the discussion
of the theme, and a new version of the Brazilian Accessibility Technical
Rules, last edited in 1989, was published. 2003 saw the creation of the
Ministry of Cities and the Program “Accessible Brazil” in the Chancery of
Transportation and Urban Mobility, aiming at enhancing with practical
tools in accessibility and universal design. In 2004, the new version of the
Technical Rules and the association of two federal laws became the most
comprehensive document regarding accessibility.
In 2004 Adaptive Environments, a North American institution based
in Boston, organized one of the biggest Conference on Accessibility and
 Universal Design In Brazil 117

Universal Design, the event Designing for the 21st Century, which stimu-
lated the discussion of this theme in our urban national scenario. The
atmosphere enraptured Brazilian planners, who received lots of relevant
information for use in every sector of architecture and urban planning.
We know that accessing places in a city presupposes an effort in urban
design to reach everybody’s spatial needs. With the aid of these confer-
ences, Brazilian researchers found solid arguments to justify their plans,
now strengthened by other countries in the world which gave priority to
the inclusion of PMD in their own cities. Because of this starting point,
the concept of Universal Design started being associated with some urban
interventions. Yet, the sense of legality and technical rules cannot sustain
themselves alone. We believe that undergraduate courses can represent
one way to put ideas into action. Such courses can play a crucial role in
creating new ways of thinking, and conferences serve as a place to spread
those new ideas.
We invest in Thus, our Research Group titled Nucleo Pro-acesso has sought the
architecture improvement of academic skills in accessibility and universal design in the
students in our faculty of architecture through a specific discipline created for undergrad-
university but uate students. Our projects and work have influenced other universities.
This paper aims to expand the discussion of teaching approach. We
there is still a long invest in architecture students in our university but there is still a long
way to go. way to go. As Brazilian architects, professors and researchers at UFRJ
we decided to count on young students, open to new ideas and potential
generators of opinion, as they can make the seeds of sustainability grow,
searching for the promotion of quality of life, assuring future generations
to reach the balance between society and environment and promoting the
social-spatial integration of the differences.
Before discussing these questions, this chapter first discuss the inclu-
sion of people with disability in undergraduate courses and the access
to university physical spaces in one of the biggest federal institutions in
Brazil: UFRJ.

Disabled People in Brazilian Universities

People with disabilities in Brazil have long been excluded from academic
life. Until the beginning of the 80’s there were many reasons that have
kept them apart. The Philosophy of Special Education had been gener-
ally associated with segregation. The International Year of Disabled People
declared by United Nations in 1981 led to some transformations in acces-
sibility for Brazilian PMD in the undergraduate courses. Individual and
118 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

collective efforts produced some changes in the curricula of universities.

However, students still had problems moving in spaces. In 1999, Decree
n. 1679 of the Ministry of Education established requirements for access
of people with disability in academic institutions.
In, 2001, the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), with the
aid of Nucleo Pro-acesso and the University of Rio (UNIRIO) organized
the First Forum for Special Education and Universal Design. Five years
after Decree n. 1679, most Brazilian universities still lack basic accessibil-
ity.
Yet, some innovative attitudes toward spatial inclusion have occurred,
though still insufficient to fulfill the gap of accessibility. For example,
the National University of Brasilia (UnB) has implemented a program for
supporting PMD and eliminating architectural barriers; the University of
São Paulo (USP) started intervention proposals in their campy and a mas-
ter plan for the implementation of accessible policies; and the University
of Campinas (UNICAMP) inaugurated informational accessible spaces
and a Didactic Lab with equipment for people who are blind, attending
the internal and external community.
In Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), with the work of its
institutional Computering Bureau, Professor Antonio Borges developed
a free software titled DOSVOX which works through a voice synthesizer
to allow people with visual disability to access digital information. Borges
has recently developed MOTRIX which allows people with motor dif-
ficulties to work with electronic devices.
At UFRJ, the authors of this paper started the operation of a Research
Group on Accessibility and Universal Design, (Accessibility Research Bu-
reau, ARB) linked to the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, which
now represents a well-known group of research in this theme in Brazil and
in the academic community. We also teach and have developed a specific
discipline.

Núcleo Pro-Acesso (Pro-Acess Research Group)

Taking into consideration the present social situation in Brazil and the
lack of accessibility in universities and faculties of architecture, in 1999 we
created a Research, Teaching and Design Bureau Group on Accessibility
and Universal Design – Nucleo Pro-acesso – in UFRJ (Accessibility Re-
search Bureau, ARB), linking itself to a field of research in the Post-grad
Studies Program in Architecture (PROARQ).
Through a specific approach in architecture and urban design, our
group has produced strategies for the creation of accessible spaces for all,
Universal Design In Brazil 119

and we have an effective actualization in many different sectors through

the work of architects coordinated by us. This group has been a pioneer
experience in Rio de Janeiro and the country. As educators we emphasize
the necessity of amplifying the didactic activities for a critical reflection,
making students analyze, understand the construction of models and de-
cide what to adapt.
Based on our didactic approach, we will discuss the ways we brought
into future architects’ awareness to construct PMD identities and re-shape
their world-view. To better situate our didactic experience in Brazil we
should comment on some success in assuring the rights for people with
any kind of disability. However, the Architecture and Urbanism course at
UFRJ had a gap.
Our activities towards accessibility began with the first research in
the circuit of post-grad courses considered “open” sectors in the develop-
ment of quality of life ideas. The activities in the Bureau have diversified,
gathering from the elaboration of readjustment plans to historical build-
ings to the representation of the university in permanent commissions of
accessibility, as well as developing teaching, research and extension activi-
ties.
Nevertheless, we thought it most important to sensitize students at
the School of Architecture at UFRJ to this matter, as they will become
the planners of tomorrow cities. We involve them in developing plans and
projects, closely followed by students in the post-grad courses. ARB had
the following objectives and proposals:
• Promote the reflection over the quality of life of the built
space for all;
• Sensitize undergraduate and post-grad students for the
architectural and environmental implications of design
studios headed for social groups with special necessities;
• Produce and gather special material in this theme;
• Support architecture plans for active participation of users
with disabilities in the city spaces;
• Promote seminars and meetings for discussions over accessibility
and universal design;
• Establish exchanges with national and international entities for
specific public policies;
• Spread the results of research and studies developed by
ARB or other institutions;
• Advise local community in topics related to accessibility
and universal design;
• Demonstrate that inclusion and exemplary design are
120 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

compatible.
ARB has acted on diverse academic activities, and has counseled on
the elimination of accessible barriers in both public and private institu-
tions (e.g. universities, banks, shopping centers); offering courses for pro-
fessors, technicians and urban planners; guiding Final Studio Projects in
undergraduate and post-grad courses related to accessibility.
Products of ARB have received recognition in the international scien-
tific community, institutional and financial support, and awards. Consid-
er some of what ARB has accomplished, and what challenges lay ahead.

Research Activities

Since its creation, ARB has worked to improve scientific methods and
knowledge about accessibility and universal design. We conducted the
first relevant and widest conceptual, physical and iconographic survey in
Brazil. The dissemination of those results gained national attention and
use by other universities, institutions and city, state and federal govern-
ment bodies.

Conceptual Bases
Our research focuses on users’ environmental experience and social sus-
tainability. To accomplish these aims, we based our research on seven
concepts:
• Environmental experience
• Social sustainability
• Access and accessibility
• Universal design
• Accessible route
• Spatial exclusion
• Disadvantage

Environmental Experience. This analysis centers on the multiple forms

of perception one may have towards urban spaces, and to attributes that
act on different kinds of affective experience in spaces. Space experience
structures every person’s identification standards with environment. For
Tuan (1983, p. 10) “experiencing is learning, understanding; it means it
is possible to act on space and create from it.” We have verified that the
impossibility of experiencing spaces in the same way as every day users is
a barrier itself; and this experiential barrier is in many cases larger than
other physical hindrances in urban spaces. Evaluative responses to places
allow people to become identified with spaces and this occurs through
Universal Design In Brazil 121

space experience. We have been working on this spatial notion of afford-

ing different ways of apprehension and possibilities for PMD to identify
themselves with the places they act on.

Social Sustainability. This analysis deals with the possibility of access

as an essential parameter of the quality of life of citizens. We consider
Social Sustainability as an improvement on the quality of life of popula-
tions and promoter of Social Inclusion. We understand the importance
of sponsoring the participation of spatially excluded groups in the use
of public elements of cities. If self-sustainable development presupposes
an integration of economic and social development with environment, as
many theoreticians advocate, then studies on sustainability should include
the search for spatial inclusion strategies. It can produce benign organisms
and generate accessible cities to all human diversity.

Access and Accessibility. Lynch (1990) expressed the concept of Access

as one of the elements to achieve ‘the good form of the city’; Françoise
Choay and Pierre Merlin (1988) gives a wider and more holistic view of
Accessibility in her ‘Dictionary of Urbanism’ as do the works of Mettetal-
Dulard (1994) and Guimarães (1991). The concept of Accessibility brings
the idea of ‘everybody’s possibility to access’. In this way, we include
people with any kind of difficulty that may occur throughout life: older
adults; people with reduced mobility; people with low vision; people with
neurological, sensorial or physical disability; people who are obese; people
of short stature; children; women who are pregnant, and so forth.
Accessibility, according to Brazilian Technical Rules presupposes
the “possibility and condition to safely and autonomously use buildings,
spaces and urban equipment” (NBR 9050, ABNT, 2004). Thus, acces-
sibility to built spaces is more than measures for people with any kind of
disability, which means enlarging spatial exclusion and separating those
people; instead, it should encompass social-technical standards to support
every potential user (Duarte and Cohen, 2004).

Universal Design. The concept of Universal Design, according to

Preiser and Ostroff (2001), was first used by Ron Mace in 1985, and the
term has become part of the literature. After some environmental design
professionals and planners changed their points of view, many of them
adopted the concept of Accessibility and terminologies such as “Inclusive
Architecture” and “Inclusive Design.” These terminologies have evolved
into the broader concept and philosophy of “Universal Design.” It brings
the idea of products, spaces, furniture and equipment designed for a larger
122 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

number of users and represents a positive view towards Accessibility. It

goes beyond architectural objects to physical, cultural, social or other ex-
clusions. Thus, for Accessibility and Universal Design requires more than
simply eliminating urban barriers. We must think of inclusive space as
that which allows people to fully experience spaces.

Accessible Route. “Accessible Route” consists of a barrier-free route

from origin to destination. It involves a continuity and comprises accessi-
bility measurements. Thus, for example, the existence of ramps or a public
counter with appropriate height does not insure accessibility if a narrow
door blocks the route. “Accessible Routes” are essential to the assessment
and classification of spaces as Inclusive Spaces.

Spatial Exclusion. The concept of “Spatial Exclusion” developed by

Duarte and Cohen (1995) considers space as an actor that deals with users
in the sense of excluding or including them in spatial interfaces. Spatial
Exclusion occurs whenever spaces segregate actions or objects to lower
importance in society. This becomes the materialization of social exclu-
sion. Inaccessible spaces then act as silencing apartheids that consequently
generate the segregation of People with Mobility Difficulty (PMD). As far
as PMD are kept apart from places in the city, because of they cannot ex-
periencing spaces, they face concrete and evident differences from others.
For some people this situation may lead them to feel like part of a minority
group, which may contribute to social exclusion and segregation. Thus,
even if society speaks of “social inclusion,” spatial exclusion may refute the
words. Spatial exclusion becomes social exclusion.
Many kinds of barriers may disrupt access and social contacts. The
ability of developing affect to places depends on the level of receptiveness
those places offer people. An example relates to older adults and the dif-
ficulty and related exhaustion they find sometimes in getting from a point
to another. Feeling tired interfere with their enjoyment of places, and can
further exacerbate their social and spatial exclusion and segregation. Some
persons with visual disability may fear some urban equipment lacking
signalization and that fear may lead them to avoid places, thus socially
excluding them.

Disadvantage. We teach our students to dialectally explore disability.

If we understand that every person should have the opportunity of expe-
riencing the same places, then the concept of disability does not embrace
whatever we want. Thus, we chose to use the concept “Disadvantage.”
Disadvantage results from an incompatibility between the individual’s
Universal Design In Brazil 123

physical and intellectual characteristics and environmental conditions;

something that places one in an unfavorable condition or circumstance.
For instance: if people live in a hilly place and want to get downtown
faster, they live in an unfavorable condition compared to those who live
midtown. Hence, we must see disability as a contextual situation rather
than an unsolvable problem. This concept helps us understand that space
itself is disabled. Many limitations of PMD result from deficiencies of
spaces rather than a lack of ability the potential user.

Research Developed by Núcleo Pro-Acesso (Accessibility Research Bureau,

ARB)

Taking into consideration the knowledge acquired in many years of re-

search, we have started to advise dissertations and thesis in the Post grad
Studies Program at Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) (and oth-
er universities) gathering a larger group in the discussion of planning ‘for
all.’ From these accomplishments and with the beginning of a search for
the implementation of diagnoses and accessibility plans, we discovered the
need for a specific methodology to investigate different spaces. Consider
now some of the studies and methodological resources we have developed
to assess places:
• Accessibility to Academic Spaces of Teaching and Research
• Accessibility to Public Spaces
• Accessibility to Schools
• Other Research and Post-grad thesis
Although the studies identified an enormous number of barriers (too
many to describe here), this chapter highlights some common difficulties
discovered in the research projects. It shows a summary of findings along
with photographs illustrating each of them.
With the results, we could develop audit charts to check the com-
plete accessibility of an urban or architectural space and to allow plans to
eliminate the barriers found. The absence of an accessible route suggest
a fragmented awareness which leaves these spaces unusable by Person
with Mobility Difficulty (PMD). Some of the adaptations done take into
consideration parts of the building (such as a bathroom or a classroom), a
sidewalk or the transport, but plans and designs lack a global accessibility
project and universal design.

Accessibility to Academic Spaces of Teaching and Research. One research

project developed with the support of the State Government of Rio de
Janeiro – FAPERJ, aimed at assessing the accessibility of PMD to univer-
124 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

sities in Rio de Janeiro. We hoped to benefit the quality of academic life of

those people in every teaching and research spaces. We focused on some
spaces of UFRJ.

Figure 7.1. School of Physical Figure 7.2. School of Literature

Education with many accessibility – bad pavement – UFRJ.
barriers – UFRJ.

Our field research findings contributed to the perception and better

evaluation of the situation found in UFRJ related to accessible spaces.
They have also demonstrated the influence of physical environment in the
construction of a specific social identity for PMD which are differentiated
by the level of access each analyzed space offers.
Two years after finishing the research of all barriers found in UFRJ,
our Accessibility Research Bureau (ARB) began with the support of the
Rectory, a Strategic Plan to gradually eliminate them. This initiative influ-
enced other universities in the country to follow suit.

Accessibility to Public Spaces. This project sought to create strategies

for the improvement of access to built spaces, contributing to a change in
Architecture and Urbanism posture - as fundamental for the construction
of identities. Our survey on Accessibility in Public Spaces focused on the
interaction of requirements given by differences. To analyze the structure
of public spaces we selected three places with the following characteris-
tics:

• Public buildings open to a diversified group of the population;

• Buildings showing symbolic values according to many citizens;
• Buildings located in areas of easy and successful study of the
surroundings, public transportation, parking areas and cross
ways–taking into consideration access ways and contemplation
areas.
• Absence of bureaucratic hindrances for our researchers.
Universal Design In Brazil 125

Based on that, we selected the following buildings for our field-re-

search: (a) the Municipal Council of Assemblymen of Rio de Janeiro; (b)
the School of Applications of UFRJ (CApUFRJ); and (c) the Ministry of
Education building.
We identified the accessibility barriers found by PMD in the routes
and everyday activities in these public buildings and their surroundings.
Considering from the interior to the nearer points of access to transport
and the sidewalks of each place, we concluded that each public building
we analyzed required help for people to walk around.

Figure 7.3. Route of great flow of Figure 7.4. Ministry of Education

people on the sidewalks fully building: Inappropriate pavement
supplied with garbage cans, ice- for people on wheelchairs.
cream carts and street vendors in
front of the Municipal Council of
Assemblymen of RJ.

Note that the barriers found should not only be taken as local or only
in some parts of the building. The research led us to see the importance
of proposing a strong and effective global planning towards buildings and
surroundings to accomplish the concept of “Accessible Route.”

Accessibility to Schools. The State Government of Rio de Janeiro spon-

sored this research project. It searched for strategies to include children
with disabilities in public educational spaces (what we call, in Brazil,
“fundamental schools”). The choice of educational places arose from our
conviction that architecture must make spaces with free access to all edu-
cational sectors.
The research verified the importance of a truly inclusive architecture
for the implementation of the social function of public schools. Through-
out our analysis we developed a methodology for the assessment of educa-
tional spaces and analysis indicators that will be offered to all educational
sectors in the State Government to improve future plans of schools.
126 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

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Figure 7.5. Map – Accessibility to the School of Applications of UFRJ

(CApUFRJ) – Surroundings

Figure 7.6.a (left). Bad sidewalks with exposed tree roots in front of
CapUFRJ building.
Figure 7.6.b (center). Parking blockers all around the bus stop used
by kids of CapUFRJ.
Figure 7.6.c (right). Narrow sidewalks width of 45 cm in some sec-
tions.

With the findings we could develop tools for assessing accessibility.

ARB has begun to work with architects to put ideas, theories and research
into practice and to transform the discourse into the reality of public,
academic and educational spaces accessible for all.
Universal Design In Brazil 127

Figure 7.7a (left). Unevenness classroom doors and the existence of

objects stuck to walls without any information on the floor.
Figure 7.7b (center). Labs with fixed tables blocking wheelchairs.
Figure 7.7c (right). A ramp ending at a step.

Other Research and Post-grad thesis. Our first research and the opera-
tional life of ARB has stimulated the interest from institutional groups
linked to UFRJ as well as students in the undergraduate and post-grad
courses. Now our Research Group works to attract interested researchers
in developing works aiming at accessibility issues. Some of these works
include:
• “Environmental Accessibility: From legal disposals to the inclu-
sion of PMD” (Fernandino, 2006). This dissertation analyses
some buildings constructed under the regency of Brazilian ac-
cessibility laws and verifies that these laws/rules are not enough
to create spaces completely agreeable.
• “City, Body and Disability: Possible routes and speeches in ur-
ban experience” (Cohen, 2006). This thesis outlined the use and
appropriation of spaces according to the locomotion People with
Mobility Difficulty (PMD) perform. Our aim was to develop an
interdisciplinary approach of the perception in movement and to
take into consideration the inter-sensorial dimension of the urban
experience. For our investigation we have adopted the “method of
annotated routes” by Jean-Paul Thibaud, for whom local charac-
teristics are analyzed, mostly, in terms of physical barriers to per-
ception. The author understands ‘perceiving’ as an embodiment of
sensorial elements affected by the type of perceptive mobilization.
The analysis of the urban perception in movement of PMD was
conducted in four Brazilian cities: Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Juiz
de Fora and Brasília. The data from this analysis revealed the ex-
isting paradox between the perceived, experienced and imagined
cities for people. The lack of identification PMD have with the
128 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

analyzed places has also demonstrated that they cannot improve

their sense of belonging and appropriation of the city and their
urban experience.
• “Socio-spatial Inclusion of Children with Special Needs through
Rides in Public Plazas” (Carvalho, 2005). This dissertation ex-
plored some ergonomics parameters for children between 5 and
12 years-old relating to the parameters with some difficulties gen-
erated by physical disability. The dissertation found that: play has
the function of integrating children with cognitive disabilities; it
allows the conquest of spatiality, enabling children with cogni-
tive disabilities know their bodies better and develop notions of
balance witch increase their self-esteem and emotional stability;
and in public plazas it allows socio-cultural exchanges between
families. This study opened ways for establishing guidelines for
the project of “Children’ Rides.” The guidelines include:
• Safety: handrail, bars, alert pavements, resistant materials,
protection of the plays with signalization.
• Accessibility: eliminate barriers, drops, compatible width
for wheelchairs, and care with circulation.
• Motors and Intellectuals Stimulus: climb, hang, run, dig,
hide, feel different textures, live physical sensations, win de-
fiance, respect the other, share, memory games. (See Rides
for Children with Cognitive Disabilities).
• “Architecture beyond Vision: A consideration over the experience
in built environments from the perception of congenital blind
people” (Paula, 2003). This dissertation started from the ques-
tion “what is a good architecture for a person who is blind?” It
answered this question by establishing, based on perceptual and
cognitive processes, several properties desirable for architectural
spaces. The research hypothesized that architecture has ignored
different characteristics for a ordinary users in the surrounding
environment. With the analysis of environmental perceptions of
people who are blind, the research also showed that the experi-
ence of the architectural space can become richer, more intense
and connected to all of the senses, and that vision can deceive
people leaving them with an ambiguous understanding of the en-
vironment. The dissertation showed that through an intentional
plan, one can emphasize other senses, giving people a richer en-
vironmental experience of a space. The conclusions of this work
confirmed Merleau-Ponty (1989) once said: “space is not object of
vision but of thinking”.
Universal Design In Brazil 129

We should mention some academic research developed by ARB it-

self: “Accessibility, Identity and Quotidian Life of Citizens with Mobility
Difficulty: case-study of Rio-Cidade” (Cohen, 1999) which engaged in
analysis of urban interventions promoted by selected urbanists in Rio de
Janeiro during the administration of 1999 Municipal Government. This
master dissertation on urbanism raised questions related to barriers of ac-
cessibility found in the city of Rio de Janeiro. Cohen made hypothesis

16Don't
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2
49They
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37a ttend
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my
of life
necessities

Figure 7.8. Graphic showing one of the results of Research in Rio de

Janeiro.

Figure 7.9a, b. Ramps in the main axe of the district of Ipanema

– Rio-City Project

tested through questionnaires sent to 300 users with some mobility dif-
ficulty. The field research concentrated in the main axes of the districts
130 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

remodeled by the “Rio-City Project”. The analysis of the answers allowed

an evaluation of this urban intervention, the context in which the project
was discussed, and the technical solutions.
In general, Cohen found that the Program satisfied most of PMD (52
percent), who reported that everyday life became better (49%). However,
some of them (16 percent) indicated some dissatisfaction with the degree
to which it met their necessities.

Tools for Assessing Accessibility

Besides theoretical research and analysis proposed for supporting the im-
provement of accessibility and universal design, ARB developed and re-
fined some analysis tools. These tools include:
• Analysis and Description of Routes Chart (Cohen and Duarte,
2006)
• Accessibility Assessment Chart (based on Guimarães and Fer-
nandinho, 2001)
• Video Registration and Field Notes of Routes (Cohen, 2006)
• Analysis and Description of Route Chart

We have developed, through exhaustive attempts, an efficient tool

for surveying routes. In the ‘Description of Routes Chart’ we select some
simple routes which are further described for the best verification of ac
cessible routes. The routes are numbered so as to be followed in schematic
maps (building plans). This instrument is useful for highlighting the real
situation of some tracks and specific routes usually made by everyday peo-
ple. Sometimes we find places of easy access but not relevant if analyzed
though the concept of “Accessible Route.” The next section explains some
important spatial elements of an accessible route which is characterized
for its holistic approach, no barriers in the route, and a specific chart for
each barrier in a building or the urban space.

Accessibility Assessment Chart. Based on the criteria established for the

Accessibility Assessment Chart (Guimarães e Fernandino, 2001) our Re-
search Group has adapted this tool for the necessities of the research. We
have applied these charts to our surveys in schools, academic institutions,
tourist places and some others.
The assessment charts indicate, in the first column, the number of the
registered item in order to ease its identification in future references; the
second column refers to the specific legislation of the analyzed topic (rules,
laws or recommendations); the fourth column describes the “dimension”
Universal Design In Brazil 131

of the barrier (E=demands elimination – access is not possible; R= recom-

mendations – only with help access is possible; P=access is possible); the
fifth column presents an objective question about the accessibility of the
item (yes / no) in the following columns; the sixth column has space for a
photographic reference to illustrates the space or the element selected; and
the last column allows observers to write their personal considerations.

Figure 7.10. An example of Descriptive Routes Chart. It is usual to

apply seven charts of this kind in a single building, describing, at
least, three selected routes.

Video Registration and Field Notes of Routes. Based on the ethnomé-

todologie (Thibaud, 2001), we tried to improve tools for collecting fun-
damental data about the barriers found, what they represent in the PMD
quality of life and to get a better understanding of accessibility matters
in their everyday activities. The filming of routes developed through the
analyzed spaces allowed us to study the apprehension, cognition, and be-
havior in relation to the environment. We worked on the strengthening
techniques that deal with ethnographic data collection (films and pho-
tographs). Filming has proved to be an efficient tool for capturing the
richness of individual and collective experience of humans in space as it
preserves the original phenomena which sometimes is difficult to observe
and explore naturalistically. For this application we used digital video-
cameras and a paper notebook for field notes and sketches, which comple-
ment the observation of users. The paper notebook lets observers register
132 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

graphic notations, relevant data and small schemes of the environment

that caught their attention during observation period, composing what
Cosnier (2001) qualifies as “descriptive study of site.”

Figure 7.11. Demonstrative chart. In this example, for a better under-

standing, some assessment items were ignored (The original has up to
46 elements).

Outreach Activities

In Núcleo Pro-acesso (Accessibility Research Bureau, ARB) we had the

opportunity of working on many outreach ore service-learning projects.
This chapter presents two of them:

• Accessibility Guide-book;
• Games for All
Universal Design In Brazil 133

Accessibility Guide-Book

Our proposal towards a specific methodology for the making of an Ac-

cessibility Guide-book, under development by ARB - PROARQ/UFRJ,
aimed to offer some indispensable information on good quality of acces-
sibility to the city and to include Rio de Janeiro in the context of world
tourist accessible cities. This proposal came from our efforts on research
and cataloguing since 1999 and aims to widen the information about ac-
cessibility matters. To analyze and estimate inclusive spaces in the city,
we based the methodology on the comprehension of the difficult inter-
faces between accessibility specificities in many cities, and we relied on
the assistance of well-trained faculty, researchers and students at UFRJ.
The methodological steps of our work include cataloguing, analyzing and
making the Guide-book, giving special attention to physical, historical
and artistic/cultural heritage of the city, in the attempt of stimulating the
participation of PMD in the cultural production of places.
To guide their assessment of accessible places in the city, and to en-
able the making of similar Guide-book in many cities, we gave profession-
als an extensive course of lectures.
The steps for the making of the Accessibility Guide-book include:
• Recruitment of the team and job splitting;
• Theoretical-conceptual equalizing on the matter of accessibility
and on the technical aspects;
• Selection of the items to research and detail;
• Contact with institutions that work with PMD to complement
the selected research items;
• Contact with institutions of culture, leisure, tourism and services
to complement the list;
• Scanning and planning field research logbook;
• Field research – research of the barriers found in the space and
the level of accessibility of that place;
• Analysis
• Data collection
• Final layout.
Moreover, the assessment of accessibility conditions of some places
and tourist attractions will be done through a pre-established check-list,
guided by a previous survey with items on specific issues related to the city
of Rio de Janeiro to complement the information supplied by the Guide-
book. Now underway, this phase derives from the concept of Accessible
Route that guides the classification of inclusive tourist spots.
Other phases of the Guide-book refer to compiling collected field-
134 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

data and transcription into text and symbol format; elaborating maps and
plans; preparation of a list of photographs to include; photographing; se-
lection of photographs, maps, plans and drawings to include; revising the
whole texts; transcription into Braille; visual programming, formatting
and final art; photolites; and preparation of useful data for future versions
in English and Spanish, as well as into CD-ROM version.

Figure 7.12. Photoshop handling of a desired situation (still impos-

sible to come true): a PMD enjoying the wonderful scenery of the
‘Sugar Loaf’/RJ. photo-making: Cristiane Duarte (Source: Núcleo
Pro-acesso)

Figure 7.13. Elders has difficulty in going downstairs Museu da

República, in Rio de Janeiro (Source: Núcleo Pro-acesso)

The information displayed on the Guide-book, with the aid of good

layout, aims at easing the use of it by older people or people who have
reduced mobility with hands. This approach supports the premise of cre-
ating a clear, updated guidebook easy for anyone to use.
In this way, we came to the mock-up of a 4.2” x 8.27” format which
allows the easy handling by people with motor disabilities and by people
who wish (and need) to hold the guide-book in one hand and have a
magnifying glass in the other. We concluded that these dimensions would
benefit both size and illustrations lay out.
Universal Design In Brazil 135

Figure 7.14a (left). Experimental guide-book: The cover unfolds and

shows an internal detachable flap where one may find the main cap-
tions with the adopted symbols (Source: Núcleo Pro-acesso)
Figure 7.14b (right). Samples of informational pages classified by ac-
cessibility levels (Source: Núcleo Pro-acesso)

Figure 7.15 a and b. Samples of pages giving information about Ca-

tete (zoning area) and access to Museu da República (copyright Nú-
cleo Pro-acesso)

Besides illustrations and photographs, the use of maps will be con-

stant in order to indicate the accessible and partially-accessible routes in
the surroundings of the listed attractions. This will add extra relevance to
information offered in the texts that refer to each attraction, tourist spot
or service.
The Guide-book will come with a CD ROM sample, followed by a
DOSVOX software for computer downloading.
136 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Rides for Children with Cognitive Disabilities

The study and elaboration of accessible rides prototypes for Chil-

dren with Cognitive Disabilities (CCD) was another out-
reach project developed out of several such projects we pro-
duced with the partnership of the Environment Municipal
Office and the City Hall Department of Parks and Gardens in Rio de Ja-
neiro. Unfortunately, due to political constraints, we could not complete
this project as we had intended, but we did gather much information and
developed drawings and sketches for testing these rides.
Children (CCD) differ in their ability to develop the physical, mental
and sensorial aptitudes but the difference dwells in each area separately.
They have the same dream of making part of areas of plazas and parks
in the city, playing with the other kids and feeling as if they are one of
them. In the experiences comprehending CCD, we observe they usually
have no prejudice against other children and naturally behave with differ-
ences. Then, we realized that the encouragement to socialize with various
children’s groups in public areas of the city can reduce the level of preju-
dice and culturally/socially including CCD in the process of socialization
– usually common for those with no restrictions and/or limitations.
This project arose from the following three principles:
• Children’s games work as integration elements among children;
• Rides allow the conquer of spatiality and make children with cogni-
tive disabilities understand their bodies and gain notions of balance
and harmony, which enhances their self-esteem and emotional in-
tegrity;
• Rides in public plazas allow children to socially interact with
their families.
The beneficiaries of this project are not only children with some phys-
ical, mental or sensorial disability and their families, but also society. We
outline the importance of users’ participation and interaction in the plan-
ning of design guidelines. As a general rule, the dwelling of differences
enables the enrichment of social interactions and generates new ways for
experiencing citizenship.
Our methodology consisted of, first, contacting people or national
and international institutions that have already developed analogous
works; then, settling out parameters for each area of disability, according
to statements of children with those special needs. With the data we have
collecting during these years we believe we can reach our purpose of 1)
building a prototype ride that is to be used by every single child, and 2)
conducting a pilot project of a totally accessible plaza, which takes into
Universal Design In Brazil 137

consideration the different necessities, wishes and aptitudes developed by

Figure 17. Samples of accessible rides prototypes for Children with

Special Needs (CCD).

children according to the principles of diversity widely spread, but rather

contemplated by society.
The project “children’s rides for those with special needs” may be con-
sidered pioneer in this thematic area, stimulating the diffusion and adop-
tion of similar rules in other areas of the city of Rio de Janeiro and some
other places in Brazil, showing that “it is possible to shelter differences
when playing.”

Didactic Experience: The Teaching of Accessibility and Universal De-

sign in the Undergraduate Course of Architecture

Our teaching experiences in the undergraduate course of Architecture and

Urbanism started with workshops and technical advice to the develop-
ment of academic works in disciplines of design. We realized that these
activities were not efficient for the students to understand the real dimen-
sion of the social, cultural and behavioral factors related to the design for
people with disabilities.
The students still considered accessibility as a mere question of tech-
nical dimensioning to respond for “another rule that inhibits freedom
in design,” as if it were a guidebook for construction. Thus, four years
ago, we considered it necessary to institute a specific discipline “Inclusive
Methods and Techniques for Design” related to Accessibility and Uni-
versal Design in the scope of the curriculum of Architecture course at
UFRJ. The course lasts one-semester with one class four-hours long every
week. In order to avoid students’ lack of motivation to finish the studies,
138 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

maintain the necessary enthusiasm, and achieve a productive teaching-

learning process we formulated a dynamic method which includes theory
and design practice.
The following illustrates what usually happens in the fourth week of
the class: during a regular class, the student is invited to make a draft of a
students’ refectory in half an hour. As they had been introduced to some
concepts of accessibility in the previous classes they usually make their
plans based on parameters that respond to the difficulties of PMD’s loco-
motion. After that, students “try out” the physical and emotional aspects
of disability in the space they have drawn. This exercise has turned into an
enriching experience because, in spite of its apparent simplicity and ease,
it succeeds in awakening students’ minds to the many mistakes in design
that create insurmountable obstacles for people; and it allows students to
consolidate questions studied in the first module.
The students wear a bandage over the eyes, as if they were blind. At
this moment, after some stumbles and falls, they get aware of “another”
reality. Getting back to classroom they listen to some invited lecturers
which testify of their visual difficulties and disabilities. That is when stu-
dents are invited to reorganize their plans making use of high relief glue
so as to discuss it with the blind lecturers.
Based on the “surprise factor” and linking students’ experiences to
the teaching of architectural design, we could reach our objectives, which
include: sensitizing architecture students to the architectural and environ-
mental implications of designing for human diversity; searching for a hu-
manistic view of the profession; supporting plans for city spaces that aim
at the participation of users with mobility difficulty; and demonstrating
that socio-spatial inclusion can be compatible with exemplary design.
The distribution of this didactic content during the semester follows a
methodological sequence that has four modules, discussed next:
• Theoretical module
• Experience module or spatial experience
• Conferences module
• Design module

Theoretical module

The student is introduced to the concepts of Accessibility and Universal

Design. In the same module, notions of spatial segregation and stigma
are discussed and it is suggested a reflection over the importance of built
spaces as agents that congregate differences.
Universal Design In Brazil 139

Experience module or spatial experience

Some exercises are organized to make students experience physical, per-

ceptive and emotional aspects of people with mobility difficulty. Students
wear bandages over their eyes, use wheelchairs or canes and get surprised
with the great difficulty they have in getting through or around architec-
tural barriers they previously did not notice.
Based on the difficulties of the implementation of exercises that in-
clude the use of wheelchairs in some countries of the world and even in
Brazil, we decided to propose a previous discussion so as to extract from
our students the most crowded and the favorite places in our campus.
Groups of two or three students select a list of tasks they usually perform
in those spaces. Each group received a wheelchair, a bandage for the eyes,
an ear lid, and a cane. The exercise begins with an activity such as visiting
the library, attending class at the amphitheater, or having lunch at the
dining-hall of the university.
After the discussions and reports of their experiences, students un-
derstood that each deficiency observed in the exercise requires a specific
architectural response. They also see the necessity of complementing one
response with others, once they recognize poorly-informed architects cre-
ating designs that address one kind of disability while excluding other
kinds.

Figures 7.18a, b, c, d. Samples of the workshop with students. Spatial

experience module: Students move on wheelchairs, wear bandages
over the eyes or over the ears. They feel different because of architec-
tural barriers.
140 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

The experience awakens students to the psycho-social matters that

inevitably follow the confrontation with the lack of accessibility. The stu-
dents express feelings of frustration, shame, fear, insecurity, lack of inde-
pendence and autonomy. For examples students reported feeling:
• Powerless when unable to go to specific academic spaces;
• Shame when asking for help when it’s necessary;
• Confusion on getting lost in open and ample spaces because of
visual disability;
• Tiredness generated by walking on ill-paved surfaces;
• Constant fear of falling down;
• Frustration of being on wheelchairs and not seeing objects
placed on higher shelves;
• Fear of not hearing fire alarms and sensation of exclusion when
not listening to what people talk;
• Indignation with some reactions–attitudes of pity–and sensation
of being pointed as different.

Figures 7.19a, b. The workshop in the School of Architecture and

Urbanism – UFRJ.

Conferences module

We invite some lecturers, especially those with different kinds of mobility

problems, to talk to students,. They make evident that spatial exclusion
exists and explain their necessities in terms of architectural design, also
giving personal suggestions on the accomplishment of students’ plans and
talk about architectural barriers that lead them to spatial segregation.
Universal Design In Brazil 141

Figure 7.20. Lecturer who is blind Figure 7.21. Person who is blind
speaks to students about the diffi- testing the spaces in the archi-
culties from inaccessible architecture. tectural plan.

Design module

At the end of the semester the module of design is intensified in relation to

the theoretical taught and experience exercises. That is the time when we
ask for the development of an architectural program to be followed in in-
dividual plans. First, the students produce a short biography for imaginary
clients and are stimulated to choose clients with disability. The ‘budget’

Figure 7.22 a, b. Design Module – working with architecture and urban

projects in the classroom.

for this exercise is considered to be unlimited. Then, they must develop an

architectural program to shape the form of the project. To improve skills
for this exercise, we invite people with mobility difficulties to visit the
classrooms and informally chat with the students. We believe that stu-
dents should be well trained from the start to see their clients as a partner
in the design process.
Finally, they make a collective exhibition of projects, to spread the
experiences to other students and professors. We noticed the discipline
142 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

offered a multiplying power that has surpassed our expectations. Many

students enrolled at the discipline have also elected accessible plans, re-
habilitation centers and residences for older adults as their final design
studios.
The teaching methodology we practice has shown some deeply en-
couraging results in the sense of creating, with our students, a compre-
hension over the architect’s social function as a partly responsible for the
elimination of differences and for the quality of life of every citizen.
For this experience we received, in 2002, an international award given
by the European Association for Architecture Teaching – the EAAE Prize
Competition, an extra special honor, as we were the only non-European
laureate institution. This encouraged us to continue our methodologies
for teaching inclusive design and keep up with the updated tendencies in
architecture.
This international acknowledgement recognized us as being on a dif-
ferent level of excellence compared to other research groups in Brazil. It
also noted that only through hard work could we construct a qualitative
teaching method in the field of accessibility and universal design.

Results and Conclusions

Our work has found that the Brazilian planning situation lacks a wider
view for the implementation of accessibility and universal design. Most
spaces in Brazilian cities cannot be used, experienced and inhabited by
every citizen. We have verified, with the analyzed data and proposed con-
cepts, the host of barriers still found in places where PMD develop their
quotidian activities. Besides them, we still have social barriers and exclu-
sion of these people from society. Changes in Brazil come slow.
Our country has some of the most advanced legislation and techni-
cal rules to guarantee accessibility for PMD; and some universities and
schools have adopted new paradigms for the inclusion of every person in
their spaces. The acceptance of our Research Group represents one of our
most effective achievements.
The improvement, consolidation and outspreading of Núcleo Pro-
acesso (Accessibility Research Bureau, ARB) has incited this process. Our
work focuses on new perspectives that, somehow, may be transformed
into real sources of diffusion of a new materialized culture. We aim to do
it through academic activities we have been developing, practicing and
seeding throughout Brazil. An important evaluations regards the evidence
of the necessity of this approach in faculties of architecture all around the
Universal Design In Brazil 143

world. Our teaching methodology at UFRJ demonstrates these changes.

Some students have incorporated solutions for spatial inclusion in their
professional lives. In Post-grad studies it is also greater the interest for re-
search, dissertations and doctorate thesis related to accessibility, universal
design, perception and environmental experience of PMD.
We have also stimulated the accomplishment of interdisciplinary re-
search. For example, the National Seminar Accessibilidade no Cotidiano
(Accessibility in Quotidian Life) held in 2004 in Rio de Janeiro showed
the state-of-art of the research in accessibility in Brazil and produced a list
of goals for the improvement of its implementation. Keeping up with our
activities, we plan to support extensive courses for design professionals
– from the second semester of 2006, on – contributing to the construction
of a new vision in spatial planning. Although we still have a long way to
do facing the extensive challenges in Brazil, the changes derived from the
activities we have developed leads us to believe that we will continue to
make progress and are on the right way.

Final Considerations

Among the events that surrounded the passage to 21st century we have
witnessed many great scientific, technological and cultural improvements
which represent – direct or indirectly – the results of academic inventive-
ness and competence, one of the foundations of cultural diffusion and
opinion-making in Brazil. Universities should also create informed citi-
zens, as well as qualified professionals. They should rethink their missions
to respond to the needs of their time, and pursue alternatives based on
equality, liberty and fellowship, all of which are evidence of modern so-
cieties.
We expect a great social impact of our work to be an agent of spread-
ing information on accessible facilities for people with disabilities and to
allow the whole urban population to dwell with human diversity in the
spaces, be it a building or the city. Yo avoid spatial exclusion we ought to
design for all following the requirements of Universal Design.
Once people considered it enough to install a ramp for persons who
use wheelchairs, to enable them to get into a building, albeit through a
separate entry, and enough to provide special elevators for those who use
wheelchairs, as well as separate restrooms. Now, it is common to have a
comfortable single restroom for any kind of person. Thinking of Universal
Design now, is the work and goal for all architects, designing spaces that
may create pleasant experiences for everyone with or without a disability
144 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

in our public and private places in our cities.

We believe that research in the field can provide fundamental tools
in the generation of new action directions that aim at a profitable and
comfortable improvement for every human being. Starting to eliminate
barriers, foreseeing new facilities and finding solutions for built environ-
ment can enable us to integrate PMD into society. Instead, if these actions
are neglected, public spaces will represent the crystallization of disability
itself.
This research also complements a line of investigation turned to the
inclusion of the theme into Architecture and Urbanism courses. The con-
creteness of the acts that have been developed by ARB has a leading ob-
jective of building new minds in the planners of future cities. We expect
these future architects and urban designers to work for the elimination of
physical barriers and many others such as social, cultural, political and
bureaucratic. The dwelling of diversity in the bottom of spaces and minds
constitutes, itself, into a real tool for the improvement of everyone’s qual-
ity of life.
The understanding of environment merges into the consciousness
that it shall not be made difficult – not even impossible – to lead and
to circulate around city spaces, neither block the imageability of places
to all Society. In this context, we believe that inclusive spaces are those
capable to provide PMD with the sense of safety, workability and freedom
in his mobility in order to guide his actions and settle a balanced relation
between him and the outside world. Thinking like that, as planners and
architects, we hope this paper and the tools we created can help profes-
sionals in Brazil and in other countries going ahead in this process to
socially design integrated places with a deeper social impact in our cities,
once the ability of living with diversity is important to every single person
in society.

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Zoning and Regional Planning 147
147

8
Universal Design Guidelines to
Accommodate Wheelchair Occupants
in the Thai Context

Antika Sawadsri

Abstract

Universal design has been widely adopted by a number of environmental

design researchers. This theory has been developed in developed coun-
tries however; it has been taken up in developing countries such as Thai-
land where researchers have been exploring the guidelines around space
standard, form, and function. What this Thai researcher has neglected to
consider is whether these guidelines fit the distinct socio-cultural context.
Additionally, one needs to include the effective research method in for
studying such theory in different socio-cultural contexts. This research
considered how western universal design guidelines on space, form, and
function fit in with the distinct socio-cultural context of a developing
country, Thailand. The present study found a distinctive issues in applying
western universal design guidelines to the Thai context. This chapter sug-
gests that implications of residential modification according to universal
design concepts need to be carefully considered on distinctive socio-cul-
tural factors, including the nature of behavior of people with disabilities
and the research method in built-environment discipline.

This chapter seeks to understand whether the way that Thai people with
disabilities live at home differs from the way people in the west do and
how that may affect Universal Design guidelines.
Environmental design for people with disabilities in Thailand has
focused on design solutions for physical impairment. It deals more with
how to overcome the limitations of physical impairment than on how to
modify the physical environment to serve people with different abilities.
Design for people with disabilities has focused on eliminating physi-
cal barriers, resulting in solutions that have transformed living spaces into
nursing homes. This type of solution does not answer co-residents’ views
or needs for accessible homes. Dobkin and Peterson’s (1999) example of
the critical attitude of non-disabled family members highlights the ten-
sion, in which the daughter whose aging mother has a physical impair-
148 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

ment questioned this issue when she confronted with unpleasant home
modification “’Why couldn’t she try harder?’ I wondered. ‘Did she want
me to change my home to a nursing facility?’” Therefore, designs that aim
to create accessible homes need to consider whether changes are accept-
able to both people with the disabilities and their co-residents.
The universal design concept used in this study as it underpins Thai
legislation on disabilities and accessibility aims to create accessible places,
especially in homes. However, implementation requires careful consider-
ation of the distinct human size and shape, as well as the socio-cultural as-
pect, of both people with disabilities and their co-residents. On all counts,
these differ from western models.
This study explored two questions:
1) To what extent can Thailand implement the universal design con-
cept in the distinct Thai cultural context?
2) What behavior, spatial needs, and optimal spatial size and shape
should the design have to accommodate Thai people with disabilities?

Why the Universal Design Concept?

“Universal design is the design of products and environments to be usable

by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adapta-
tion or specialized design” (Mace, 1999).

This brief idea gives the impetus for this study, focusing on the new
paradigm of built environmental design that questions the importance
of built environment itself as the crucial factor that supports or impedes
users (Steinfield and Danford, 1999). Previously, architectural design for
barrier-free environments and accessible places for people with disabili-
ties concentrated on legal, economic, and social forces, mostly based on
the needs of the person with a disability. Design advocates attempted to
renovate existing buildings by providing accessible features; for example,
providing at least one toilet with wider space, grab bars on all sides, and
special features to assist an older adult or person with a disability in each
restroom. However, these alternative and new fittings may have overlooked
aesthetics and not fit into the entire building. Fears of market declines as-
sociated with such modifications have led to the avoidance of installing
too much assistive technology. Instead, the market has turned to design
that focuses on meeting the needs of a broader range of abilities where less
special technology or modification is needed.
Zoning and Regional Planning 149

This concept is not a design style, but an orientation to any design

process that starts with a responsibility to the experience of the users.
Universal design emphasizes accessibility and seeks to accommodate
a wide range of people. Unlike in the West, in the Thai socio-cultural
context people commonly live in the extended rather than nuclear family.
A Thai family may have family members from a grandmother to a new
born baby, with a range of sizes, shapes, and abilities. To what extent do
Universal design guidelines meet the needs of the full family?

Method

This study had the following three stages, each using different methods:
1) A Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE) of the fit of the domestic
environment with the behavior of people with disabilities;
2) An experiment to evaluate the optimal spatial size and shape of
people with disabilities; and
3) Structured, closed-end questionnaires to determine the level of
satisfaction among co-residents for housing modification in ac-
cordance with existing Universal Design guidelines.

The POE assessed the area and user satisfaction to identify the need
for spatial modification. It focused on the characteristics of spatial size
and shape that affected the living behaviors of persons with a disability.
It used in-depth interviews, open-ended questions, and photographs of
existing housing conditions to examine the problems, difficulties, barriers,
and spatial needs encountered by the subjects in their daily domestic lives.
The analysis showed the type of spatial behavior that affects the spatial
sizes and needs.
The experiment on optimal spatial size and shape adopted Lantrip’s
(1999) Body Motion Envelope (BME) to measure movements in living ar-
eas of people with a disability. It used anthropometric measurements and
biomechanical methods to assess the needed spatial size for a human body
performing tasks. It examined different human body sizes and shapes to
ameliorate the fit between the human body and space in the built environ-
ment. For example, body size impacts the width of entrance doors as well
as the height of counter tops. Biomechanical measurement determines the
power-use level needed to control equipment, such as the range of reach
needed to open a door, the level of energy used while accessing a ramp by
wheelchair, and so on (Steinfield, 1999).
Following the work of Sanford and Megrew (1999), this research
150 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

created mock-up environments to investigate the actual spatial needs of

people with disabilities. One must measure both objective and subjective
points of view. This meant that experiments with mock-up spaces involved
video recording the movements of people doing tasks from above, ob-
serving constraints, and using questionnaires to find their perceptions of
safety and difficulty while performing tasks. The questionnaire, adapted
from Lantrip’s (1999) Enviro-FIM (Environment Functional Indepen-
dence Measurement) used a five-point Likert scales to define the users’
comfort levels (i.e., from very easy to very difficult; or from very danger-
ous to very safe). This stage also obtained measures of the area that people
with disabilities occupied and needed to perform their activities. The
BME method assessed characteristics from the video recording and traced
the area around human bodies when moving while they did activities such
as shifting from wheelchair to furniture, washing hands in a basin, and
moving objects between two opposite sides of furniture. The BME encom-
passes an area that provides enough space to finish an activity. Figure 8.1
shows an example of the BME measurement. It shows the envelope drawn
around the occupied space of each person with a disability’s body while
performing a given task.

Figure 8.1. The contour of envelope around the space in the BME
experiment, a volunteer shifting himself from his wheelchair to a bed
(Source: experiment, December, 2002).

A final stage used quantitative measures to supplement and extend

the qualitative analysis. The questionnaires explored in depth the atti-
tude toward home modification of co-residents who live with people with
disabilities. The questions used semantic differential scales, with choices
referring to the satisfactory level of acceptance of the proposed home
modification guidelines derived from the experiment. Figure 8.2 shows
Zoning and Regional Planning 151

the sequence of the BME method. After the first two phases described in
Figure 8.1, Figures 8.2 (top right and bottom left) show the optimal space
required by a person who uses a wheelchair, and Figures 8.2 (bottom left
and bottom right) show the optimal kitchen space proposed to co-resi-
dents to ask for their acceptance of home modification. Respondents in-
dicated their acceptance (from completely reject to completely accept) of
the modification.

Figure 8.2. Four-stage sequence of the BME method (Source: experi-

ment, December, 2002).

Participants

This study selected people with disabilities who have mobility impairments
and use wheelchairs to live their daily lives. They make up forty-seven per-
152 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

cent of the population with disabilities in Thailand (National Statistics

Office, 2001, Report of Disabled Persons Survey, Thailand). Thirty-one
households in Bangkok and surrounding areas took part in both the field
survey and the opened-end questionnaires.
A second group included wheelchair users who were willing to volun-
teer for an experiment investigating the optimal spatial characteristics in
residential areas. This experiment had three groups of activities: circulat-
ing wheelchairs around living spaces, shifting from wheelchairs to other
pieces of furniture, and doing daily activities while sitting in wheelchairs.
The investigator studied the optimal spatial sizes and shapes for fifteen
different tasks found in existing households in the field survey.
To analyze attitudes toward the acceptance of housing modifications,
a final sample group involved co-residents living with wheelchair users.
The investigator distributed closed-end questionnaires to 563 people, and
44.8 percent (252 people) responded.

Environmental-behavior of Thai People with Disabilities in Domestic

Spaces

The field observation (n = 31) found that 54.8 percent of the people with
disabilities lived in extended families and 61.0 percent lived in detached
houses, with 84 percent of these households having arranged sleeping ar-
eas on the ground floor for the disabled member. The POE revealed that
residents had modified significant areas, particularly for ramps at entranc-
es, and widening interior circulation routes. The field survey found that
most households faced financial problems and problems due to limitations
of existing home plans. Furthermore, contractors designed and built 90
percent of the houses in the study, not architects. This suggests that ho-
meowners need special knowledge. These issues, therefore, have resulted
in struggles for home modification. Figure 8.3 shows a practical solution
in the existing conditions, an easy-made ramp at the entrance door (left)
and a widened interior circulation route (right) for a wheelchair user.
Most (90 percent) of the thirty-one households said that they pre-
ferred to adapt the available features or furniture in their homes to assist
them in completing daily activities. For example, a relocation of a metal
chair from the garden to the bathroom because it works well in a wet area
and is more stable than a plastic chair in Figure 8.4.
Non-structured interviews revealed that residents, and in particular
wheelchair users, preferred to adapt their existing furniture and use assis-
tive equipment rather than paying for a specially designed piece of furni-
Zoning and Regional Planning 153

Figure 8.3. Existing home modification of residential areas of wheel-

chair users (left: ramp; right: widened circulation) (Source field sur-
vey, Bangkok, Thailand, September 2002).

Figure 8.4. A shower chair, reused from the garden chair (Source:
field survey, Bangkok, Thailand, September 2002).

ture which may cost extra money. New features that fully designed for
the disabled seemed like a stigma to them. Furthermore, they wished to
maintain the traditional appearance of their homes.
The characteristics of spatial size and shape, affected by spatial be-
havior, emerged in three different sets: the interior route the wheelchair
users followed around their living spaces, the space required by wheelchair
users to shift from their wheelchairs to furniture, and the clearance spaces
around furniture needed to perform daily activities in wheelchairs.
154 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Factors that Impact Home

Type of Spatial Behavior Physical Barriers Modification
Circulating wheelchair - Steps over two - Limitations of housing
centimetres configurations
- Direct route - Width of interior - Financial difficulties
routes less than 80
centimetres
- Turning point areas - Limited space at - Degree and time of
corners around furniture impairments
- Clearance for turning back - Steepness of - Skill in using wheelchairs
ramps/slopes
- Approach to furniture

Shifting from wheelchair to - Clearance around - Limitations of housing

furniture (e.g., to bathing furniture configurations
chair, bed, toilet, or car (in a
garage)
- Height differences - Financial difficulties
between wheelchairs
and furniture (e.g.,
wheelchair and seating,
wheelchair and
mattress)
- Degree and time of
impairments
- Skill in using wheelchairs

Doing activities while - Clearance and height - Reaching ranges of

sitting in wheelchair of furniture tops wheelchair users
- Moving objects on tables - Distance between - Financial difficulties
pieces of furniture

- Using wash basins, sinks, or - Width of cabinet doors - Types and configurations of
stoves the houses that affect interior
furniture layout
- Opening cabinet doors
- Transferring objects
between pieces of furniture

Table 8.1. The existing physical barriers and factors of home modifi-
cation according to the set of spatial behavior found in this study
Zoning and Regional Planning 155

When asked what characteristic of environmental behavior would

most affect the spatial configuration and spatial needs in residential areas,
respondents mentioned three sets of things: 1) activities about shifting
the person with a disability from wheelchair to furniture, such as a toilet,
bathing chair, bed, or car; 2) characteristics of the circulation route con-
necting each area, such as width, clearance around a door, turning point,
and, most importantly, steepness of ramp and slope; and 3) spatial be-
havior with regard to daily activities while sitting in a wheelchair, such as
moving an object between two positions of furniture and reaching range
while doing an activity on top of a table, on cabinets in a kitchen, sink,
and wash basin. Table 8.1 shows the detail of each characteristic, describes
the relationship between the spatial behavior of wheelchair users, and the
physical barriers in residential areas, all of which affect home modification
from the factors that were uncovered in this study.
The in-depth interviews also revealed the importance of considering
less typical factors that affect the necessity of home modification. These
include the level and time of impairment, an individual’s skill in using a
wheelchair, the physical barriers that resulted from housing configuration
(i.e., the house layout that affects the arrangement of the furniture), the
income rate of each household, the status of the wheelchair user in the
family, and the need of housing adaptation of the person with a disability
him or herself.
Although the issue of the status of the wheelchair user was unexpect-
ed, it revealed that in cases in which the wheelchair user owned the house,
the house experienced considerable modification. For instance, there were
thirteen cases from the thirty-one households where the homeowner was
a person with a disability. These residents renovated and modified their
homes in many areas (e.g., ramps at main entrances, lifts, no steps in in-
terior routes, and adapted heights of furniture, such as the level of toilets
(see Figure 8.5).
The example of the status of a wheelchair user discussed above was
one of several hidden dimensions. The solution of accessibility, therefore,
cannot solely consider the physical aspect. In addition, an individual needs
play a significant factor in the extent of residential modification.

Discussion

This investigation found a distinctive result that differs from western uni-
versal design guidelines. The closed-end questions about factors affecting
home modification decisions showed that many respondents consider
156 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Figure 8.5. Existing housing adaptation where the wheelchair users

are homeowners (Source: from field survey, Bangkok, Thailand, Sep-
tember 2002).

housing modification that should meet the need of a family member with
a disability even if it may lessen the aesthetic of their house. Few expressed
concern about aesthetic aspect. This contrasts with the western view, in
which the appearances of residential spaces as well as their accessibility
is important, as well as the need to ameliorate and fit the environment
(Mace, 1999) or to do it invisibly.
This study also found that the human sizes and shapes of wheelchair
users differ from those suggested by the western universal design guide-
lines. For example, an experiment testing the steepness of ramps found
that wheelchair users in Thailand prefer the ramp at 1:8 rather than the
recommended 1:12 because 1:8 is shorter and requires less energy.
The data also revealed that the reported intimacy between a co-resi-
dent without a disability with a wheelchair user and a wheelchair user
oneself played a significant role in the level of acceptance of housing
modification. For example, a co-resident who married to a person with a
disability felt that a modification was more necessary than did a cousin.
The restriction of home plans also significantly influenced the approval of
home modifications. Co-residents who lived in the detached houses ac-
cepted ramp modifications, whereas co-residents who lived in townhouses
found it is more difficult to do so.
Zoning and Regional Planning 157

Conclusion

The findings suggest that people without disabilities who involved with
disability in the Thai context take the need of people with disabilities
into account as a priority concern as important as the expense of housing
modification. These issues differ from the western context, which consid-
ers that the built environment should serve all people while also consider-
ing aesthetics.
Furthermore, the findings suggest that design must consider hidden
socio-cultural dimensions. For example, the in-depth interviews found
that many people did not modify their areas because they expected to
recover and they wanted to keep their houses looking “normal.” Addi-
tionally, some residents viewed their homes as a heritage to pass from one
generation to another, so they did not want to change them.
The findings also suggest the importance of the extended family in
the Thai context. Unlike the nuclear family pattern in the West, in Thai-
land people with disabilities do not live independently, but with their ex-
tended family.
This chapter suggests that the application of residential modification
according to western universal design concepts needs careful consider-
ation for the distinctive nature of people with disabilities in terms of so-
cial psychology, familial background, the extent of disabilities, and the
specific needs required by each of the individual residents. Further work
should consider a broader group of people with disabilities. In conclusion,
considerably more research will be needed to determine the socio-cultural
study accordingly with the physical environment design guidelines.

References

Dobkin, I. L., & Peterson, M. J. (1999) Gracious Space: Universal Interi-

ors by Design. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lantrip, B. (1999). Measuring Constraints to Inhabitant Activities. In E.
Steinfeld, & S. Danforth (Eds.), Enabling Environments: Measuring
the Impact of Everyday Environment on. Disability and Rehabilitation
(pp. 139-164). Berlin, Germany: Springer
Mace, R. L. (1990). Definition of Accessible, Adaptable and Universal
design, [Online] Available: [Link]
Mace, R. L. (1999). Universal design in Housing, [Online] Available:
http: //[Link]/universal.
National Statistics Office (2001) Report of Disabled Persons Survey of
Thailand [Online] Available: [Link]
profile/thailand/thailand_stat.html
158 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Steinfeld, E. (1994). The Concept of Universal design. New York. Center

for Inclusive Design & Environmental Access State University of
New York at Buffalo.
Steinfeld, E., & Danforth, S. (Eds.). (1999). Enabling Environments:
Measuring the Impact of Everyday Environment [Link] and Reha-
bilitation. Berlin, Germany: Springer
United Nation and United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
(Habitat). (1981). Designing with Care, Sweden. Swedish Interna-
tional Development Authority (SIDA).
Universal Design in the Institutional Setting 159

9
Universal Design in the Institutional
Setting: Weaving a Philosophy into
Campus Planning

L. Scott Lissner

Introduction

An effective campus master plan serves an institution’s strategic and aca-

demic plans, mapping them onto the campus so that the environment
supports and expresses the university’s mission (Abramson & Burnap,
2006; Walleri, Becker & Lynn, 2002). The importance of effective plan-
ning and the processes that support it increase during periods of rapid
growth. In 2002, construction on U.S. college and university campuses
reached a 31-year high, and current industry analysis predicts even higher
levels by 2009, when new construction should peak at 34.5 million square
feet (Kennedy & Boothroyd, 2006). Levels of construction at The Ohio
State University reflect the national building boom. Since being hired in
January 2000 as the university’s Americans with Disabilities Act Coordi-
nator, the author of this chapter has actively participated in the planning
and design process.
This chapter explores how one can use the philosophy and principles
of universal design as a basis for developing an institutional approach that
bridges academic, strategic, and campus planning. Highlighting the holis-
tic nature of effective planning and design, the chapter identifies malleable
variables, key points in the process where change is possible, effective, and
likely to influence institutional policies by shifting the institutional plan-
ning philosophy. After setting the context, the chapter describes specific
elements and activities that one can use to encourage universal design over
code compliance approaches at both a building and campus scale in other
institutional settings.

Historical Context

Like many universities in the United States, The Ohio State University es-
tablished an Office for Disability Services (ODS) ([Link]
[Link]/)* during the mid-seventies to implement Section 504 of the
160 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Rehabilitation Act of 1973. By 1990, after the Americans with Disabilities

Act had passed, the number of students with disabilities expanded and the
university anticipated a wider participation by individuals with disabilities
in employment and other university activities. As had occurred elsewhere
in the country, ODS became an office focused exclusively on student ac-
cess issues (Lissner, 2005).
The Ohio State University formally allocated compliance responsibil-
ity within nine major administrative areas of the university (Facilities &
Planning, Student Affairs, Human Resources, Medical Center, and the
regional campuses). Within each of these areas, the university designated
an employee to take on this responsibility in addition to their existing du-
ties. This left ODS as the only unit charged exclusively with focusing on
disability and access, but it narrowed its mission and made the scope of its
authority to student access unclear. This compartmentalized approach to
disability policy resulted in unclear lines of authority and inconsistent ap-
proaches to access. By the late 1990s, students and faculty brought atten-
tion to the lack of coordination arising from the decentralized approach.
In January of 2000, the university hired its first full time Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) Coordinator, who reports to the Provost and is
charged with developing and coordinating policy and compliance related
to disability across the spectrum of the university’s activities and facilities
([Link]
As disability policies have evolved, a number of other critical changes
have set the stage. Between 1993 and 1995, the university developed a
comprehensive Master Plan ([Link] Between
1998 and 2000, the university developed an Academic Plan ([Link]
[Link]/academicplan/[Link]). These two plans provided direction
for the emerging campus construction boom that peaked in 2005. As the
first full time ADA Coordinator for the university, the author has been a
participatory observer in an extensive building program, a process devel-
opment, and the updating of the university’s academic and master plans.

Campus Context

The Ohio State University is a public research institution with the highest
single campus enrollments in the country, a large and diverse population,
and a correspondingly large and varied infrastructure. Currently, the uni-
versity enrolls 59,091 students overall (51,816 in Columbus) and employs
38,198 individuals in 928 buildings on 15,655 acres at locations around
Ohio ([Link] In addition to academic
Universal Design in the Institutional Setting 161

Location Acreage Buildings

Columbus Campus 1,755 471
Lima, Mansfield, Marion, & Newark 1,499 44
Campuses
Ohio Agriculture Research and 7,965 341
Development Center and the Agricultural
Technical Institute
Molly Caren Agricultural Center 2,095 19
Don Scott Airport 1,404 10
Golf Courses 295 4
Miscellaneous 644 39
TOTAL 15,655 928

Table 9.1. Overview of The Ohio State University’s Campus

buildings, research labs, agricultural facilities, and residence halls, the

university houses a major research medical center, restaurants, an airport,
a power plant, a hotel, museums, and athletic and entertainment venues
(see Table 9.1)
Given the size and age of the infrastructure at The Ohio State Uni-
versity (the average age of a building is 30 years, with 123 buildings over
50 years old), for the past 10 years the university has had roughly 50 con-
struction projects with budgets over $200,000 in progress at any point in
time. Half of the projects have had budgets over one million dollars.
The typical college with a smaller campus and slower pace of con-
struction can still learn from The Ohio State University. The rapid pace of
construction here provides opportunities for repeated observations across
the life span of multiple large scale projects within one institutional con-
text—opportunities to see the immediate impact of process changes on a
current project and, if the impact is sustained, across projects. In short,
the pace and volume of construction create the planning equivalent of the
geneticist’s fruit fly.
Before highlighting the process and exploring the malleable variables
that shift campus culture, take a moment to review the principles and phi-
losophy of universal design as I use them. For those interested in a broad
and in-depth discussion, I recommend two sources as starting points. The
Universal Design Handbook edited by Wolfgang F. E. Preiser and Elaine
Ostroff (2001) provides a comprehensive picture of universal design’s ap-
plications in architectural, industrial, and environmental design. The Au-
tumn 2006 special issue of the Journal of Postsecondary Education and
Disability (Volume 19, Number 2) explores the application of universal
design to the design of instruction and evaluation in higher education.
Louise Jones (2004) discusses the breadth of academic users and
162 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

connects the need to be inclusive (i.e. universal design) to environmen-

tally responsible design, saying that “Environmentally responsible design
addresses the interrelationships of human needs/behavior, design, and
environmental responsibility. Designers, who practice environmentally
responsible design, plan, specify, and execute interior environments that
reflect their concern for the users’ quality of life and the world’s ecol-
ogy” (Paragraph 4). This captures my sense of universal design. As a phi-
losophy, it embraces diversity and inclusion, efficiency and sustainability,
adaptability and usability, and it promotes equity.
Table 9.2 summarizes my view of the seven principles of universal
design (discussed in Chapter 1). It lists each principle, gives a general
definition, and lists two or three exemplars for each principle. This table
borrows liberally from Molly Follette Story’s (2001) Principles of Univer-
sal Design and Joan McGuire and Sally Scott’s (2006) Universal Design
for Instruction: Extending the Universal Design Paradigm to College
Instruction. If successful, the table bridges the applications of universal
design to and within the classroom, so that when it is combined with the
underlying philosophy it becomes a tool for shifting institution toward
universal design.
Universal Design in the Institutional Setting 163

Communicating the Principles of Universal Design

Built and Learning Environments

Equitable Use
Welcoming to diverse groups; provides for equivalent if not identical participation and
effort. Consider characteristics such as height, weight, strength, vision, hearing, gender
and cultural/background, experiences of all potential users.
Exemplars: entrances at grade - captioned media - accessible web design for voice output

Flexibility in Use
Adaptability of the overall spaces over time (sustainability) as well as flexibility and
control by the users in interacting with specific elements and functions.

Exemplars: typical gendered group restrooms vs. individual/family restrooms -

alternative methods of demonstrating learning - cascading style sheets in web design

Simple and Intuitive Use

Welcoming to non-native English speakers and individuals from diverse backgrounds;
provides consistent forms, locations, and cues for way finding, operation, or interaction.

Exemplars: building or directional signage that includes local area maps or floor plans -
course management system instructions that consider the range of experience with the
technology by participating students and faculty

Perceptible Information
Communicate information effectively across the spectrum of ambient conditions (light,
sound, activity) using a variety of modalities (tactile, visual, auditory, linguistic).

Exemplars: light strobe and auditory output on alarms – pictograms on signage –

volume, spacing, and size of text on PowerPoint slides

Tolerance for Error

Minimize hazards and the adverse consequences of unintended actions, variations in
pace, or vigilance; provide warnings or fail safe features.
Exemplars: changes in texture and color at elevation changes - the “undo” option in
computer software - opportunities for feedback prior to grading

Low Physical Effort

Efficient building systems; minimize user fatigue by reducing the need for sustained
physical effort, allowing for neutral or ergonomic body positioning and reasonable
operating forces.
Exemplars: Sustainable and Green building technologies – walking distances from
transportation points - maintaining low slopes on ramps and paths of travel- articulating
keyboard trays in computer labs – seating options within classrooms

Size and Space for Approach and Use

Appropriate space to for approach and reach across user heights, sizes, and relative
position; appropriately sized elements to allow manipulation across a range of hand sizes
and reach ranges.
Exemplars: mounting heights that are comfortable for children, adults, or wheelchair
riders - adequate space at computer workstations (aisles, table surface, knee clearance) -
adequate space to respond to test questions

Table 9.2. The Seven Principles of Universal Design for Built and Learn-
ing Environments
164 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Process

The Ohio State University has a formalized process to balance competing

demands. This chapter can offer only an overview of each process (out-
lined in Table 9.3 from Campus Maps to Construction Project Process
Manual). The Ohio State University Facilities, Operations, and Develop-
ment (FOD) web site ([Link] has up-to-date details.
________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
Campus Maps
[Link]
Planning and Real Estate
[Link]
Council on the Physical Environment
[Link]
Space Facilities Committee
[Link]
Design Review Board
[Link]
Master Plan
[Link]
Master Plan Update
[Link]
Capital Plan Process
[Link]
Design and Construction
[Link]
Program of Requirements
[Link]
Building Design Standards
[Link]
Construction Project Process Manual
[Link]
_________________________________________________________
Table 9.3. The Ohio State University Campus Planning Process

Two of the six subunits of the university’s Facilities, Operations, and

Development (FOD) have particular interest here. Planning and Real Es-
tate supports the master and capital planning efforts. The Design and
Construction unit implements the plan, coordinating construction and
renovation projects from design through closeout. These units get guid-
ance and recommendations from the administration and committees.
Planning and Real Estate receives input from two committees. The
Council on the Physical Environment advises both the University Senate
and FOD. Consisting of faculty, students, and staff, it is charged with tak-
ing a broad and encompassing perspective on the physical environment of
Universal Design in the Institutional Setting 165

the university as it affects the academic enterprise and quality of life for
the university community. It also proposes policies and reviews and rec-
ommends actions regarding proposed major projects. The Provost’s office
charges the Space Facilities Committee with reviewing space and capital
funds requests in the context of the university’s academic plan and mak-
ing recommendations for space and budget allocations. Its representatives
are drawn from Academic Affairs, Student Affairs, Business Affairs, the
Medical Center, and Facilities and Development.
As individual projects move into development, a project team from
Design and Construction works with the end users to develop a plan and
balance their needs and desires with the goals of the wider university com-
munity. The project team and end users receive input from a variety of
sources that can be divided into four distinct groups that are organized ac-
cording to function and expertise: the User Group, the Consultant Group,
the Technical Group, and the Support Group. Each group provides input,
guidance, and professional expertise throughout the design, construction,
and closeout phases of each project. Figure 9.1 represents the flow of com-
munications between these groups.
A communication starts with the development of a Program of Re-
quirements, which provides a narrative of the needs and expectations for a
space. The Master Plan and Building Design Standards guide the transla-
tion of this narrative into design.

Figure 9.1. Groups and Communication Flow at OSU for Con-

struction Projects (FPD refers to Physical Operations and Devel-
opment)
166 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

The Design Review Board advises, reviewing projects from the per-
spective of the university-wide context rather than in terms of program
and user needs. Using the Master Plan, policies, and design guidelines,
it determines compliance with the intent of the policies, principles, and
guidelines; and it recommends exceptions or modifications to the pro-
posed projects when appropriate. The Design Review Board functions as
an independent forum to provide insight, constructive criticism, and rec-
ommendations to the project’s design professionals.
At the close of a project, the users move into the space and the main-
tenance and operating units of FOD support the building through its life
cycle.
From this quick sketch of the process, we can identify malleable vari-
ables that should transfer to other contexts. They involve people, paper,
and presence.
Once a design is committed to paper, people are committed, and they
will treat changes made with a pencil as comparable to changes made with
a bulldozer. While indirect, the optimal point of influence is at the most
abstract stages. On the planning or campus scale, this means influencing
the committees or individuals that inform and direct the planning pro-
cess: “people”. On a building or project scale, it means influencing the de-
sign guidelines and program narrative: “paper”. It is equally important to
create critical mass among informed participants at each stage in the pro-
cess that will serve as a presence that will remind people of the principles
approach until they become part of the fabric of institutional thinking.
Effective change can come from both the top and bottom of the pro-
cess. From the bottom, one can broaden the principles of universal design
to incorporate teaching, learning, and service delivery by emphasizing the
core philosophy as well as the seven principles. This approach represents
one of the most effective ways to reach the people or committees at the
top of the process. It also provides an easy connection to academic plans
and diversity initiatives on the one hand, and sustainability and resource
management on the other.
One effective approach at The Ohio State University has involved
teaming up with our offices for disability services, faculty development,
and instructional technology to promote universal design in instruction.
This has provided an opportunity to promote the concepts of universal
design to Deans and Chairs (key representatives and drivers of current
and future design projects), including a discussion of universal design’s
origins in architecture.
At the bottom of the process, I have mirrored the history of uni-
versal design, starting first at the level of blueprint reviews and compli-
Universal Design in the Institutional Setting 167

ance with the Americans with Disabilities Act Standards for Accessible
Design and moving towards a more universal design approach. If you
browse the documents supporting the process you will find evidence of
this preserved at different stages. “The university requires stringent adher-
ence to ADA guidelines” appears in our standards for fixed furniture and
equipment, and “Incorporate integrated access and usability for individu-
als with disabilities into initial design considerations” appears as guidance
in our building design standards. The conclusion of this approach will be
the adoption of a statement generated in the City and Regional Planning
Policy Studio in the Spring of 2006.
After reviewing the university’s master plan and its supporting poli-
cies, the studio created the following statement that incorporates existing
statement and blends them with universal design principles.
“The intent of design at The Ohio State University is to enhance the
campus environment by creating sustainable structures that engage a di-
verse range of users by encouraging a variety of interactions; enhancing
learning and research; and inviting reflection.
The University views each building project as an opportunity to meet
the unique needs of the project and advance the university’s Master Plan
by demonstrating its commitment to a campus culture of inclusion nec-
essary for a rich learning environment that is essential in preparing stu-
dents to work, live, and contribute in our increasingly complex society.
This commitment should be reflected in design that values flexibility and
sustainability that enhances the quality of work, learning, and cultural
and recreational opportunities across the full spectrum of the university
community. This design philosophy is the physical manifestation of the
university’s commitment to academic excellence, environmental and fiscal
stewardship, and equity.”
Presence is the final variable mentioned. The long range goal calls
for the “presence” of universal design in the institutional culture; and the
first step is being physically present. Early on the university established
the ADA Coordinator’s Office as part of the technical group participat-
ing in blueprint reviews. It was easy to make the point that many of the
comments on universal design might be addressed up front with a role
in establishing the Program of Requirements. From there, the university
added a support role in the Design Review Board and the Feasibility Stud-
ies. These last two have particular importance because they provided early
input and high visibility.
Two particular strategies have proven effective in shifting the plan-
ning culture: classes and conferences. Each year I work with one to three
classes from a variety of disciplines (architecture, law, allied health, ger-
168 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

ontology, and disability studies) to conduct accessibility audits of campus

buildings. While this focuses on existing buildings, we can often target
those being evaluated for renovation or replacement. This provides input
and interaction, with the evaluation team raising student awareness. Ad-
ditionally, we incorporate a mock mediation session during which the stu-
dent audit teams propose fixes to a representative of the department that
occupies the building and a representative from FOD. While the Chair
does not always participate, the request initially goes to the Department
Chair or Director. In a potent but non-threatening context, this approach
educates this critical constituency.
We have also organized a number of conferences on campus that are
either sponsored by the ADA Coordinator’s Office or are held in collabo-
ration with departments such as the College of Law, City and Regional
Planning, and Occupational Therapy. A number of these have focused on
design and the built environment, bringing in outside speakers and invit-
ing both the campus and off-campus community. Inviting, encouraging,
and, in some cases, coercing members of the institutional design teams to
participate has worked in two ways. First, exposure to the content from
compliance to universal design has raised both awareness and understand-
ing. More importantly, as public events the conferences provide an op-
portunity for the university to interact on the subject with a large number
of individuals who not only benefit from, but also depend on these design
principles to function in the environment.
What do these sample strategies have in common? Broadening the
principles of universal design to include instruction made the concepts
perceptible and intuitive for the intended audience and, because it was
integrated into instructional development, it required a lower effort to ac-
quire. Working with courses to have students conduct accessibility audits
and conferences used the same principles, and because of the role-play
element it provided a safe learning environment (tolerance for error).
While the resources described above match the size of an institution
like The Ohio State University, others can use the principles of universal
design to develop comparable strategies elsewhere.

References

Abramson, P., & Burnap, E. (2006). Space Planning Guidelines for Insti-
tutions of Higher Education. Scottsdale, AZ: The Council of Educa-
tional Facility Planners, International
Jones, L. (2004). An Exemplar for Academic Buildings in the 21st
Century: A Model of Universal and Green/Sustainable Design. In
J. Sandhu (Ed.), Designing for the 21st Century III: Proceedings
Universal Design in the Institutional Setting 169

from An International Conference on Universal Design. Retrieved

December 6, 2006, from [Link]
proceedings/project_jones_louise.html
Kennedy, K., & Boothroyd, T. (2006). Education Construction Gains
Momentum. In McGraw-Hill Construction, The Outlook for Educa-
tion Buildings. NY, NY: McGraw-Hill Construction.
Lissner, L.S. (2005). Education, college and university. In G. L. Albrecht
(Ed.) Encyclopedia of Disability, Volume II (pp. 554- 556). Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
McGuire, J. M., & Scott, S. S. (2006). Universal Design for Instruction:
Extending the Universal Design Paradigm to College Instruction.
Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 19, 2, 124-135.
Preiser, W. F. E., & Ostroff, E. (Eds.). (2001). Universal Design Hand-
book. NY, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Story, M. F. (2001) Principles of Universal Design. In W. F. E. Preiser,
& E. Ostroff (Eds.), Universal Design Handbook. NY, NY: McGraw-
Hill.
Walleri, R. D., Becker, W. E., & Lynn, C. (2002). From Academic
Vision to Physical Manifestation. Sydney, Australia: University and
Institute Planners. (Retrieved Dec. 6, 2006 from [Link]
[Link]/ERICDocs/)
170 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY
Index 171
171

Index of Authors

Abramson, P., 159, 168

Beasley, K. A., 15, 28
Becker, W. E., 159, 169
Boothroyd, T., 159, 169
Brazilian Association of Technical Standards, 144
Bringa, O. R., 14, 28, 97
Bruegmann, R., 12, 28
Burnap, E., 159, 168
Byzek, J., 39, 42
Carvalho, R. S. De, 128, 144
Choay, F., 121, 145
Cohen, R., 121, 122, 127, 129, 145, 146
Concrete Change, 34, 35, 42
Cosnier, 132, 145
Danford, 148, 158
Davies, T. T., 13, 26
Dobkin, I. L., 147, 157
Duarte, C., 121, 122, 145, 146
Duncan, D., vi
Edict N. 52.96, 116, 146
Evans-Cowley, v, vii, x
Fernandino, S. F., 131, 146
Festinger, L., 23, 28
Fletcher, V., 15, 28
Frangos, A., 22, 28
Garvin, B., 19, 28
Gilroy, L., 15, 28
Goltsman, S., 15, 28
Grosjean, M., 13, 146
Guimaraes, M. P., 121,146
Hanyu, K., 24, 28
Hecht, P., 13, 29
Hemily, B., 58, 67
Hendershot, G. 34, 42
Hock, D., 15, 28
Howard County Department of
Planning and Zoning, 88, 95
Howard County Office on Aging, 71,
172 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

91, 95 27, 28, 29, 30, 121, 146, 161, 169

Hunter-Zaworski, K. M., 51, 55, 66, Raser, J., 19, 29
67 Rashtian, S., 45
Itsukushima, Y., 24, 28 REDA International for Howard County,
Jones, L., 161, 169 Office on Aging, 76, 95
Jones, M. 33, 42 Robb, G. M., 15, 29
Kang, T., 33, 42 Rutenberg, U., 58, 67
Kaye, S., 33, 42 Sanford, J., 33, 42, 149
Kendrick, D., x, 22, 28 Sawadsri, A. 147
Kennedy, K., 159, 169 Scott, S. S., 163, 169
King, R. D., 57, 67 Smith, E., 34, 39, 42
Kochera, A., 32, 42 Spegal, K., 32, 42
Kotkin, J., 10, 27, 28 Steinfeld, E., 15, 29, 34, 35, 42, 146,
Lafferty, S., 69 148, 158
Langdon, P., 18, 28 Story, M. F., 16, 22, 29, 162, 169
Lantrip, 149, 150, 157 Tappuni, R., 16, 29
LaPlante, M., 33, 42 The Economist, 13, 29
Lawlor, J., 39, 42 Thibaud, J-P, 127, 133, 145, 146
Liebig, P., 32, 42 Truesdale, S., 34, 35, 42
Lissner, S., v, vii, x, 159, 160, 169 Tuan, Y-F, 120, 146
Lynch, K., 20, 29, 121, 146 U. S. Department of Housing and
Lynn, C., 159, 169 Urban Development, 42
Mace, R. L., 121, 148, 156, 157 Ullman, D., 52, 67
Maisel, J., 31, 43 United Nations and United Nations
Manley, S., 15, 29 Centre for Human Settlements, 158
McGuire, J. M., 162, 169 US Access-Board, 53, 67
Merlin, P., 121, 145 Vescovo, F., 15, 29
Mettetal-Dulard, L., 121, 146 Vischer, J., 15, 29
Miyake, Y., 15, 29 Von Foerster, H., 14, 28, 29
Mumford, L., 24, 29 Walleri, R. D., 159, 169
Nasar, J. L., v, vii, x, 13, 29 Weiner, 58, 67
National Statistics Office, 152, 157 Wener, R., 13, 27, 29
Nelson/Nygaard, 66, 67 Weisman, L. K., 15, 30
Novell, W. D., 24, 29 World Health Organization Program
Ostroff, E., 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, for the Prevention of Blindness
30, 121, 146, 161, 169 and Deafness, 45
Paula, K C. L de, 128, 146 Zaworski, J. R., 55, 67
Peterson, M. J., 147, 157 Zipf, G. K., 23, 30
Petzinger, T., 13, 29 9/11, 22
Poerksen, B., 15, 29 Access, 16, 121, 124
Preiser, W. F. E., vi, 9, 11, 15, 16, 23, Accessible route, 122, 130-132
Index 173

Subject Index Cost, 35, 84, 148

Cultural monuments, 105-106
Dallas-Ft. Worth Airport, 21
Accessory apartments, 80
Decentralized, 101
Aesthetics, 113, 150, 156
Democratic, 101
Affordability, 69, 71, 72, 86, 92-93, 94
Design review, 166, 167
Age restricted housing, 75, 84
Digital divide, 13
Aging in place, 69, 70, 71, 75, 76-77
Disadvantage, 122-123
Aging, ix, 31, 33, 69, 71, 93
Edinburgh, Scotland, 17
Airport, 12, 18, 21
Education, v, 115, 118-120, 167-168
Albuquerque, NM, 17
Educational environments, 124-126
Americans with Disabilities Act
Effort, 23, 22
(ADA), 11, 33, 51, 53, 159
Einstein, 14
Assessment methods, 130-132
Elevators, 22
Assisted Living, 75, 80-81
Energy conservation, 12
Assistive devices, ix, 33, 47-49, 55,
Environmental experience, 120-121
105, 152
Equality, 98
Atlanta, GA, 21, 36
Evacuation, 25, 26
Audit tools, 130-132
Evaluation, 25-26
Barriers, v, 118, 122, 154
Fair Housing Act, 33
Blind, 17, 22, 45-49, 128, 138, 141
Family type, 149
Body Motion Envelope, 149-151
Ferry Service, Passenger, 60-61, 63-64
Brazil, 115-144
Filming, 132
Burnsville, MN, 19
Financial incentives, 94
Bus rapid transit, 58, 63
Flexibility in use, 18
Campus planning, 164-168
Green architecture, 12
Cell phones, 13
Growth Management, 84
Children, 136-137
Guide book, 133-136
Cincinnati, OH, 17
Guidelines, 27, 53, 66
Circulation, 155
Heritage site, 105-106
Codes, vi, 16
Home repairs, modification,
Collaboration, 168-169
renovation, 77-79, 154
Columbus, OH, 19
Home-based care, 111
Community participation, 34
Hospitals, 21
Community planning, 102-103
Housing, ix, 31-42, 69-95, 152
Community services, 80-81
Howard County, MD, 70-71
Compatibility, 86-87
Hurricane Katrina, 23
Conference, 140, 168
Impact, social, 143
Construction management, 165
Implementation, 111-112
Continuing Care Retirement
Incentives
Communities, 75
Financial, 94-95
Co-resident, 156
174 UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

Zoning, 93-94 Post-occupancy evaluation, 149, 152

Incline, 110 Public places, 104-107
Independent Living, 75 Quality of life, 104
Information technology, 13 Railroads, 62, 112
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 22 Ramp, 152, 156
Landscape design, 87, 113 Reaching range, 155
Landmark orientation, 109 Recreation areas, 108, 110
Land-use planning, 100-102 Regional planning, 103-108
Land-use policy, 108-111 Regulations, vi, 16, 85
Legibility, 20 Rehabilitation Act, 33
Legislation, 33, 41 Rides, 136-137
Light rail transit, 59-60 St. Giles Cathedral, 17-18
Low Physical Effort, 23-24 Scandinavia, 97, 99-100
Maps, 108-109 Schools, 25, 124-127
MARTA, 21 Senior housing, 75-81
Master Plan, 72-74, 159 Seniors, see Aging
Minneapolis, MN, 17 Sensory systems, 45-46
Mixed use, 18, 24, 26 Seven Principles of Universal Design,
Models, 138-141 162-163
Moderate income housing, 92-93 Equitable Use, 14-16, 163
Monet, Claude, 99 Flexibility in Use, 18-19, 163
Montreal, CA, 17 Low Physical Effort, 23-24, 163
Napierville, IL, 36 Perceptible Information, 20-21,
Navigation, see Wayfinding 163
Neighborhood, 19 Simple and Intuitive Use, 20, 163
New urbanism, 18, 39-40 Size and Shape for Approach and
Norway, 12, 98-100 Use, 22-23, 163
Nursing facility, 72, 75, 76, 80-82, 85 Tolerance for Error, 21-23, 163
Ohio State University, The, 159-168 Shopping centers, 17
Orientation, 46 Signage, 24, 47
Paradigm shift, 13-15 Simple and Intuitive Use, 20
Pedestrian life, 17 Site lines, 19
Perceptible Information, 20 Skytrain, 65-66
Performance criteria, 16, 17, 20-21, 23- Skywalk systems, 17
25, Social sustainability, 121
Pima County, AZ, 36 Spatial exclusion, 122
Planning, 100-108, 116, 142, 164 Spatial experience, 139-140
Policy, 35-6, 89-90, 93-95, 97, 98, 160 Spatial Learning, see Wayfinding
Policy, land use 100-103, 108-111 Sports arenas, 19
Policy, national 103 Sprawl, 12
Politics, 107 Streets, ix, 17, 26
Index 175

Suburbs, 18 Buses, 63
Subways, 23 Passenger ferry, 60-61, 63-64
Sustainable development, 113, 167 Passenger rail, 62-63
Tactile cues, 46, 48-49 Rubber-tire, 56-58
Taxis, 23 Steel tire, 58-59
Teaching, 137-142 Vision, 45-46
Thailand, 147-157 Visitability, 31-42
Tokyo, Japan, 24, 25 Challenges, 39-40
Tolerance for Error, 19-21 Cost, 35
Traditional Neighborhood Development, Future, 41-42
see New Urbanism Initiatives, 36-38
Traffic calming, 18 Legislation, 41
Transparency, 102 Movement, 35-38
Transportation, ix, 15, 18, 23, 112 Policy, 35-38
Facilities, 19 Principles of, 34-35
Infrastructure, 52-53 Walking range, 18, 109
Intercity, 61 Waste management, 104-105
Trip chain, 52-53 Wayfinding, 45-49
Transportation, Public, 51-67 Welfare, 104
Accommodations, 54-56 West Chester, OH, 19, 25
Buses, 63 Wheelchair users, 149-152
Modes, 54-56 World views, 14
Rail, passenger, 62, 112 Zoning, 85, 90, 93-94, 112
Vehicle types, 56-61
Types of service, 54
TWA terminal, 12, 18
UN Convention on Disability Rights, 97
Universal design
Conveniences of, 7
Cost, 35
Defined, 3, 9, 121-122
Requirements, 88-89
Seven Principles of, 14-23, 162-163
Urban scale, 13
Value of, x, 11
University campuses, 159
University facilities, 117-118
Urbana, IL, 36
Vancouver, BC, 65-67
Vanpools, 58
Vehicles
UNIVERSAL DESIGN AND VISITABILITY

From Accessability To Zoning

“I applaud the initiative and vision of Jack L. Nasar and Jennifer Evans-Cowley .
. . With the range of authors and topics (including housing, transportation, urban
form, land uses), this book is great step towards expanding planning practice to
include universal design issues.” — Dick Duncan, Director of Universal Design
Training, Universal Design Research and Engagement, North Carolina State
University

We may overlook the need for barrier-free design, until we experience an

injury, or have to negotiate an environment with a stroller, or with some-
one who uses a wheel-chair or has vision loss. Millions of people experi-
ence barriers to movement every day. The growing aging population has
made it more important that places are designed to work for all abilities
and across the lifespan. Universal design goes beyond minimum access
codes and standards, to design environments that are comfortably usable
by people from childhood into their oldest years. It can improve livability
for everyone. We hope this book advances your interest and understand-
ing of this exciting and ever-widening movement.

Citizens, planners, members of chambers of commerce, students and

professionals in the fields of environmental design and planning will find
this book a valuable guide for thinking beyond basic access to make our
communities more inclusive and agreeable for everyone.

ISBN 978-1-4276-1895-5 paperback