Volcanoes are Earth's geologic architects.
They've created more
than 80 percent of our planet's surface, laying the foundation that
has allowed life to thrive. Their explosive force crafts mountains
as well as craters. Lava rivers spread into bleak landscapes. But as
time ticks by, the elements break down these volcanic rocks,
liberating nutrients from their stony prisons and
creating remarkably fertile soils that have allowed civilizations to
flourish.
There are volcanoes on every continent, even Antarctica.
Some 1,500 volcanoes are still considered potentially
active around the world today; 161 of those—over 10 percent—sit
within the boundaries of the United States.
But each volcano is different. Some burst to life in explosive
eruptions, like the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, and others
burp rivers of lava in what's known as an effusive eruption, like
the 2018 activity of Hawaii's Kilauea volcano. These differences
are all thanks to the chemistry driving the molten activity.
Effusive eruptions are more common when the magma is less
viscous, or runny, which allows gas to escape and the magma to
flow down the volcano's slopes. Explosive eruptions, however,
happen when viscous molten rock traps the gasses, building
pressure until it violently breaks free.
How do volcanoes form?
The majority of volcanoes in the world form along the boundaries
of Earth's tectonic plates—massive expanses of our planet's
lithosphere that continually shift, bumping into one another.
When tectonic plates collide, one often plunges deep below the
other in what's known as a subduction zone.
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As the descending landmass sinks deep into the Earth,
temperatures and pressures climb, releasing water from the rocks.
The water slightly reduces the melting point of the overlying rock,
forming magma that can work its way to the surface—the spark of
life to reawaken a slumbering volcano.
Not all volcanoes are related to subduction, however. Another way
volcanoes can form is what's known as hotspot volcanism. In this
situation, a zone of magmatic activity—or a hotspot—in the
middle of a tectonic plate can push up through the crust to form a
volcano. Although the hotspot itself is thought to be largely
stationary, the tectonic plates continue their slow march, building
a line of volcanoes or islands on the surface. This mechanism is
thought to be behind the Hawaii volcanic chain.
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FOLLOW A LAVA RIVER’S MESMERIZING PATH OF
DESTRUCTION
Located in Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park, Kīlauea is one of the most
active volcanoes in the world. Watch magma carve a path of
destruction in Kīlauea’s otherworldly landscape in this mesmerizing
short film by Tyler Hulett.
Where are all these volcanoes?
Some 75 percent of the world's active volcanoes are
positioned around the ring of fire, a 25,000-mile long, horseshoe-
shaped zone that stretches from the southern tip of South
America across the West Coast of North America, through the
Bering Sea to Japan, and on to New Zealand.
This region is where the edges of the Pacific and Nazca plates butt
up against an array of other tectonic plates. Importantly, however,
the volcanoes of the ring aren't geologically connected. In other
words, a volcanic eruption in Indonesia is not related to one in
Alaska, and it could not stir the infamous Yellowstone
supervolcano.
What are some of the dangers from a volcano?
Volcanic eruptions pose many dangers aside from lava flows. It's
important to heed local authorities' advice during active eruptions
and evacuate regions when necessary.
One particular danger is pyroclastic flows, avalanches of hot
rocks, ash, and toxic gas that race down slopes at speeds as high
as 450 miles an hour. Such an event was responsible for wiping
out the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum after Mount
Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79.
Similarly, volcanic mudflows called lahars can be very destructive.
These fast-flowing waves of mud and debris can race down a
volcano's flanks, burying entire towns.
Ash is another volcanic danger. Unlike the soft, fluffy bits of
charred wood left after a campfire, volcanic ash is made of sharp
fragments of rocks and volcanic glass each less than two
millimeters across. The ash forms as the gasses within rising
magma expand, shattering the cooling rocks as they burst from
the volcano's mouth. It's not only dangerous to inhale, it's heavy
and builds up quickly. Volcanic ash can collapse weak structures,
cause power outages, and is a challenge to shovel away post-
eruption.
Can we predict volcanic eruptions?
Volcanoes give some warning of pending eruption, making it vital
for scientists to closely monitor any volcanoes near large
population centers. Warning signs include small earthquakes,
swelling or bulging of the volcano's sides, and increased emission
of gasses from its vents. None of those signs necessarily mean an
eruption is imminent, but they can help scientists evaluate the
state of the volcano when magma is building.
However, it's impossible to say exactly when, or even if, any given
volcano will erupt. Volcanoes don't run on a timetable like a train.
This means it's impossible for one to be “overdue” for eruption—
no matter what news headlines say.
Play Video
SEE A SPECTACULAR LAVA "WATERFALL" POUR INTO
T H E O C E A N WATCH: A spectacular "firehose" of lava poured into the
ocean in January, 2017 at Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park. Video
courtesy Warren Fintz
What is the largest eruption in history?
The deadliest eruption in recorded history was the 1815 explosion
of Mount Tabora in Indonesia. The blast was one of the most
powerful ever documented and created a caldera—essentially a
crater—4 miles across and more than 3,600 feet deep. A
superheated plume of hot ash and gas shot 28 miles into the sky,
producing numerous pyroclastic flows when it collapsed.
The eruption and its immediate dangers killed around 10,000
people. But that wasn't its only impact. The volcanic ash and gas
injected into the atmosphere obscured the sun and increased the
reflectivity of Earth, cooling its surface and causing what's known
as the year without a summer. Starvation and disease during this
time killed some 82,000 more people, and the gloomy conditions
are often credited as the inspiration for gothic horror tales, such
as Mary Shelley's Frankenstein.
Although there have been several big eruptions in recorded
history, volcanic eruptions today are no more frequent than there
were a decade or even a century ago. At least a dozen volcanoes
erupt on any given day. As monitoring capacity for—and interest
in—volcanic eruptions increases, coverage of the activity more
frequently appears in the news and on social media. As Erik
Klemetti, associate professor of geosciences at Denison
University, writes in The Washington Post: “The world is not
more volcanically active, we’re just more volcanically aware.”
