CE-312 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SEISMOLOGY
DISCONTINUITIES
FOLDS AND FAULTS
ENGR. YASIR IRFAN BADRASHI
LINK TO THE PREVIOUS LECTURE
• Sedimentary rocks
• Formation
• Discontinuities
• How to define those discontinuities
ANOTHER LOOK AT THE ROCK CYCLE
ROCK DEFORMATION
• Stress
• Force applied to an area
• Pressure
• Differential stress – magnitude of stress is greater in one direction
• Rock Strength
• Rock’s resistance to deformation (stress)
ROCK DEFORMATION
• Strain
• A rock’s response to stress
• Deformation resulting in change of shape or position
• Elastic deformation
• Deformation is reversible, after stress is removed, materials return to original
shape, i.e. A rubber band
• Plastic deformation
• Deformation is permanent
• Rock flow in response to stress
• Need high pressures and temperatures, generally deep in earth’s interior.
ROCK DEFORMATION
• Brittle deformation
• Deformation is permanent
• Rock break (fracture) or lose cohesion
• Generally low temperature and low pressure, common in shallow crust
TYPES OF STRESS
• Tensional (Extension) Stress
• Compressional Stress
• Shear Stress
TENSION OR EXTENSIONAL STRESS
• Stress move away from each other
(pull apart)
• Rock lengthens
• Common in divergent boundaries,
but not sole locale
• Ductile deformation – stretching and
thinning of rock
• Brittle deformation – fracturing and
faulting
COMPRESSIONAL STRESS
• Stress presses (squeezes) rock
together
• Rock shortens
• Common at convergent boundaries
• Ductile deformation – shortening and
thickening of rock – rock folds
• Brittle deformation – fracturing and
faulting
SHEAR STRESS
• Stress creates a lateral shift in
the rock
• Rock slides past other rock
• Common at transform
boundaries
• Results in faults
FOLDS
• Ductile deformation
• Compressional stress
• Horizontal rocks are
deformed
FOLD TERMINOLOGY
• Limb – the sides of the fold
• Axial plane (hinge plane) –
imaginary plane that divides the
fold into two equal parts, marks
location of maximum curvature
• Fold axis (hinge line) – the line
formed by the intersection of the
hinge plane and a bedding plane
SYNCLINE
• A fold with the youngest beds in the middle
• Generally trough shaped, with limbs dipping
toward the center
SYNCLINE
ANTICLINE
• A fold with the oldest beds
in the middle
• Generally arched shaped,
with limbs dipping away
the center
MONOCLINE
• Folds with only one limb
• Often Associated with faults
FOLD SYMMETRY
• Symmetrical fold – limbs of the fold dip • Asymmetrical fold – limbs of the fold dip
at the same angle at different angles
OVERTURNED FOLD
• Fold where one limb has been
tilted beyond vertical
Syncline
Anticline
FAULTS
• A results of brittle deformation
• Fractures in the Earth's crust where displacement has occurred
FAULT TERMINOLOGY
• Hanging wall – block that lies below the
fault plane
• Footwall – block that lies above the
fault plane
CLASSES OF FAULTS
• Dip-Slip
• Movement is primarily vertical
• Strike Slip
• Movement is along strike
• Oblique-Slip
– Movement is both vertical and
along strike
DIP-SLIP FAULT – NORMAL FAULT
• Extensional Stress
• Hanging wall moves down
with respect to footwall
FOOTWALL HANGINGWALL
NORMAL FAULT
• Horst – raised block of material bounded by two normal faults
• Graben – trough (valley) bounded by two normal faults
DIP-SLIP FAULT – REVERSE FAULT
• Compressional Stress
• Hanging wall moves up with respect to
footwall
DIP-SLIP FAULT – THRUST FAULT
• Compressional Stress
• Low-angle reverse fault (fault plane < 45 o)
• Displacement can be 100’s km (~60 miles)
• Typically associated with folds
Left-lateral strike-slip faults:
movement of opposite plate is
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT to the left
• Shear Stress
• No vertical movement
• Movement parallel to fault plane
Right-lateral strike-slip faults: movement of
opposite plate is to the right
ASSIGNMENT
• A brief note on mantel convection.
• What is the significance of folds and faults?
