Phytoremediation
in Latin phyto meaning 'plant', and remedium, meaning 'restoring balance'
the technologies that use living plants to clean up soil, air, and water
contaminated with hazardous contaminants.
It is defined as "the use of green plants and the associated
microorganisms, along with proper soil amendments and agronomic
techniques to either contain, remove or render toxic environmental
contaminants harmless
the ability of plants to concentrate elements and compounds from the
environment and to detoxify various compounds.
cost-effective plant-based approach
The remediation effect is quite different. Toxic heavy metals cannot be
degraded, but organic pollutants can be and are generally the major
targets for phytoremediation.
Several field trials confirmed the feasibility of using plants
for environmental cleanup.
Plant roots take contaminants from the ground into the "body" of the
plant. The plant root zone is referred to as the rhizosphere, this is where
the action occurs.
This soil supports large populations of diverse microorganisms. This is
due to chemicals exuded by plant roots which provide carbon and energy
for microbial growth. This combination of plants and microorganisms
appears to increase the biodegradation of compounds.
hyperaccumulators
The concentrating effect results from the ability of certain plants
called hyperaccumulators to bioaccumulate chemicals.
A plant is said to be a hyperaccumulator if it can concentrate the
pollutants in a minimum percentage which varies according to the
pollutant involved (for example: more than 1000 mg/kg of dry weight for
nickel, copper, cobalt, chromium or lead; or more than 10,000 mg/kg for
zinc or manganese).
This capacity for accumulation is due to hypertolerance, or
phytotolerance: the result of adaptative evolution from the plants to
hostile environments through many generations.
A number of interactions may be affected by metal hyperaccumulation,
including protection, interferences with neighbour plants of different
species, mutualism (including mycorrhizae, pollen and seed dispersal),
commensalism, and biofilm.
Application
applied to polluted soil or static water environment.
phytoremediation has been used successfully include the restoration of
abandoned metal mine workings, and sites where polychlorinated
biphenyls have been dumped during manufacture and mitigation of
ongoing coal mine discharges reducing the impact of contaminants in
soils, water, or air. Contaminants such as metals, pesticides, solvents,
explosives and crude oil and its derivatives, have been mitigated in
phytoremediation projects worldwide.
Many plants such as mustard plants, alpine pennycress, hemp,
and pigweed have proven to be successful at hyperaccumulating
contaminants at toxic waste sites
Not all plants are able to accumulate heavy metals or organics pollutants
due to differences in the physiology of the plant
Even cultivars within the same species have varying abilities to
accumulate pollutants.
This technology has been increasingly investigated and has been
employed at sites with soils contaminated with lead, uranium, and
arsenic.
Advantages:
in principle, plants that engage in phytoremediation of toxic elements
could be harvested, thus removing these elements from the polluted site.
the advantage that environmental concerns may be treated in situ,
the cost of the phytoremediation is lower than that of traditional processes
both in situ and ex situ
the plants can be easily monitored
the possibility of the recovery and re-use of valuable metals (by
companies specializing in "phyto mining")
it is potentially the least harmful method because it uses naturally
occurring organisms and preserves the environment in a more natural state.
it preserves the topsoil, maintaining the fertility of the soil
Increase soil health, yield, and plant phytochemicals
the use of plants also reduces erosion and metal leaching in the soil
Limitations:
phytoremediation simply relocates toxic heavy metals, it does not remove
them from the locale
one major disadvantage of phytoremediation is that it requires a long-
term commitment
phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and depth occupied by the
roots.
slow growth and low biomass require a long-term commitment
with plant-based systems of remediation, it is not possible to completely
prevent the leaching of contaminants into the groundwater (without the
complete removal of the contaminated ground, which in itself does not
resolve the problem of contamination)
the survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of the contaminated
land and the general condition of the soil.
bio-accumulation of contaminants, especially metals, into the plants
which then pass into the food chain, from primary level consumers upwards
or requires the safe disposal of the affected plant material.
when taking up heavy metals, sometimes the metal is bound to the soil
organic matter, which makes it unavailable for the plant to extract
Processes
Phytoextraction
Phytoextraction (or phytoaccumulation or phytosequestration) exploits
the ability of plants or algae to remove contaminants from soil or water
into harvestable plant biomass. The roots take up substances from the soil
or water and concentrate it above ground in the plant biomass
phytoextraction is used for heavy metals or other inorganics
At the time of disposal, contaminants are typically concentrated in the
much smaller volume of the plant matter than in the initially
contaminated soil or sediment. After harvest, a lower level of the
contaminant will remain in the soil, so the growth/harvest cycle must
usually be repeated through several crops to achieve a significant cleanup
Afte the process, the soil is remediated.
Two ways for phytoextraction:
Natural and assisted
Natural: where plants naturally take up contaminants from the soil –
unassisted
Assisted: use of chelating agents, microbes and plant hormones to
mobilize and accelerate contaminant uptake. ➔ Uptake of
contaminants also accelerated by use of hyperaccumulators e.g Thlaspi
caerulescens
Phytoextraction Advantages:
Cost is fairly inexpensive compared to conventional methods.
Contaminant permanently removed from soil.
Amount of waste material that must be disposed of is decreased up to
95%
In some cases, contaminant can be recycled.
Limitations:
Metal bioavailability within the rhizosphere.
Rate of metal uptake by roots.
Proportion of metal “fixed” within the roots.
Cellular tolerance to toxic metals.
Examples of plants that are known to accumulate the following contaminants:
Arsenic, using the sunflower (Helianthus annuus), or the Chinese Brake
fern (Pteris vittata).
Cadmium, using willow (Salix viminalis): In 1999, one research
experiment performed by Maria Greger and Tommy Landberg suggested
willow has a significant potential as a phytoextractor of cadmium (Cd), zinc
(Zn), and copper (Cu), as willow has some specific characteristics like high
transport capacity of heavy metals from root to shoot and huge amount of
biomass production; can be used also for production of bio energy in the
biomass energy power plant.
Cadmium and zinc, using alpine pennycress (Thlaspi caerulescens), a
hyperaccumulator of these metals at levels that would be toxic to many
plants. Specifically,pennycress leaves accumulate up to 380 mg/kg Cd. On
the other hand, the presence of copper seems to impair its growth
Lead, using Indian mustard (Brassica juncea), ragweed (Ambrosia
artemisiifolia), hemp dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), or poplar trees,
which sequester lead in their biomass.
Salt-tolerant (moderately halophytic) barley and/or sugar beets are
commonly used for the extraction of sodium chloride (common salt) to
reclaim fields that were previously flooded by sea water.
Caesium-137 and strontium-90 were removed from a pond
using sunflowers after the Chernobyl accident.
Mercury, selenium and organic pollutants such as polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) have been removed from soils by transgenic
plants containing genes for bacterial enzymes
Phytostabilization
Phytostabilization reduces the
mobility of substances in the
environment
It focuses on the long term stabilization and
containment of the pollutant.
The plant immobilizes the pollutants by binding them to soil particles
making them less available for plant or human uptake.
Unlike phytoextraction, phytostabilization focuses mainly on
sequestering pollutants in soil near the roots but not in plant tissues.
Pollutants become less bioavailable, resulting in reduced exposure.
The plants can also excrete a substance that produces a chemical
reaction, converting the heavy metal pollutant into a less toxic form.
Stabilization results in reduced erosion, runoff, leaching, in addition to
reducing the bioavailability of the contaminant.
An example application of phytostabilization is using a vegetative cap to
stabilize and contain mine tailings.
Phytostabilization Advantages:
No disposal of hazardous material / biomass is required
Very effective when rapid immobilization is needed to preserve ground
and surface waters
Disadvantages:
Contaminant remain in soil
Application of extensive fertilisation / soil amendments
Mandatory monitoring required
Phytodegradation
Also called phytotransformation uses plants or microorganisms to
degrade organic pollutants in the soil or within the body of the plant.
The organic compounds are broken down by enzymes that the plant roots
secrete and these molecules are then taken up by the plant and released
through transpiration.
This process works best with organic contaminants like
herbicides, trichloroethylene, and methyl tert-butyl ether.
Phytotransformation results in the chemical modification of
environmental substances as a direct result of plant metabolism, often
resulting in their inactivation, degradation (phytodegradation), or
immobilization (phytostabilization).
In the case of organic pollutants, such as pesticides, explosives, solvents,
industrial chemicals, and other xenobiotic substances, certain plants,
such as Cannas, render these substances non-toxic by their metabolism.
Remediate some organic contaminants, such as chlorinated solvents,
herbicides, and munitions
In other cases, microorganisms living in association with plant roots may
metabolize these substances in soil or water.
the term phytotransformation represents a change in chemical structure
without complete breakdown of the compound.
The term "Green Liver" is used to describe phytotransformation,
as plants behave analogously to the human liver when dealing with
these xenobiotic compounds (foreign compound/pollutant). After uptake
of the xenobiotics, plant enzymes increase the polarity of the xenobiotics
by adding functional groups such as hydroxyl groups (-OH). This is
known as Phase I metabolism,
In the second stage of phytotransformation, known as Phase II
metabolism,
plant biomolecules such as glucose and amino acids are added to the
polarized xenobiotic to further increase the polarity (known as
conjugation). This is again similar to the processes occurring in the
human liver where glucuronidation (addition of glucose molecules by the
UGT class of enzymes
Phase I and II reactions serve to increase the polarity and reduce the
toxicity of the compounds, although many exceptions to the rule are
seen. The increased polarity also allows for easy transport of the
xenobiotic along aqueous channels.
In the final stage of phytotransformation (Phase III metabolism), a
sequestration of the xenobiotic occurs within the plant. The xenobiotics
polymerize in a lignin-like manner and develop a complex structure that
is sequestered in the plant. This ensures that the xenobiotic is safely
stored, and does not affect the functioning of the plant.
preliminary studies have shown that these plants can be toxic to small
animals (such as snails), and, hence, plants involved in
phytotransformation may need to be maintained in a closed enclosure.
Phytotransformation Advantage:
Both economically and environmentally friendly
Disadvantages:
Requires more than one growing season to be efficient
Soil must be less than 3 ft in depth and groundwater within 10 ft of the
surface
Contaminants may still re- enter the food chain through animals or insects
that eat plant material
Phytostimulation
Phytostimulation (or rhizodegradation) is the enhancement of soil
microbial activity for the degradation of organic contaminants, typically
by organisms that associate with roots.
This process occurs within the rhizosphere, which is the layer of soil that
surrounds the roots.
Plants release carbohydrates and acids that stimulate microorganism
activity which results in the biodegradation of the organic contaminants.
This means that the microorganisms are able to digest and break down
the toxic substances into harmless form
Phytostimulation has been shown to be effective in degrading petroleum
hydrocarbons, PCBs, and PAHs.
Phytostimulation can also involve aquatic plants supporting active
populations of microbial degraders, as in the stimulation
of atrazine degradation by hornwort.
. Phytostimulation Advantages:
in situ practice resulting in no disturbance
No removal of contaminated materials
Complete mineralisation of the contaminant can occur
Low installation and maintenance cost
Disadvantages:
Development of extensive root zone required- takes time
Root depth limited due to physical structure of soil
Organic matter from plant may be used as a C source instead of
contaminant -> decrease amount of contaminant biodegradation
Phytovolatilization
Phytovolatilization is the removal of substances from soil or water with
release into the air, sometimes as a result of phytotransformation to more
volatile and/or less polluting substances.
In this process, contaminants are taken up by the plant and through
transpiration, evaporate into the atmosphere.
This is the most studied form of phytovolatilization, where volatilization
occurs at the stem and leaves of the plant, however indirect
phytovolatilization occurs when contaminants are volatilized from the
root zone.
Selenium (Se) and Mercury (Hg) are often removed from soil through
phytovolatilization.
Poplar trees are one of the most successful plants for removing VOCs
through this process due to its high transpiration rate.
Phytovolatilization Advantage:
The contaminant, mercuric ion, may be transformed into a less toxic substance
(i.e., elemental Hg).
Disadvantage:
The mercury released into the atmosphere is likely to be recycled by
precipitation and then re-deposited back into lakes and oceans, repeating the
production of methyl-mercury by anaerobic bacteria.
Rhizofiltration
Rhizofiltration is a process that filters water through a mass of roots to
remove toxic substances or excess nutrients.
The pollutants remain absorbed in or adsorbed to the roots.
This process is often used to clean up contaminated groundwater through
planting directly in the contaminated site or through removing the
contaminated water and providing it to these plants in an off-site
location.
In either case though, typically plants are first grown in a greenhouse
under precise conditions.
Rhizofiltration Advantages:
Ability to use both terrestrial and aquatic plants for either in situ and ex
situ applications.
Contaminants do not have to be translocated into shoots.
Disadvantages:
Constant need to adjust pH.
Plants may first need to be grown in greenhouse / nursery.
There is periodic harvesting and plant disposal.
Tank design should be well engineered.
Biological hydraulic containment
Biological hydraulic containment occurs when some plants, like
poplars, draw water upwards through the soil into the roots and
out through the plant,
which decreases the movement of soluble contaminants
downwards, deeper into the site and into the groundwater.
Phytodesalination
Phytodesalination uses halophytes (plants adapted to saline soil) to
extract salt from the soil to improve its fertility
Role of genetics
Breeding programs and genetic engineering are powerful methods for
enhancing natural phytoremediation capabilities, or for introducing new
capabilities into plants.
Genes for phytoremediation may originate from a micro-organism or
may be transferred from one plant to another variety better adapted to the
environmental conditions at the cleanup site.
For example, genes encoding a nitroreductase from a bacterium were
inserted into tobacco and showed faster removal of TNT and enhanced
resistance to the toxic effects of TNT.
Some natural, biodegradable compounds, such as
exogenous polyamines, allow the plants to tolerate concentrations of
pollutants 500 times higher than untreated plants, and to absorb more
pollutants.
