Rhythm

A combination of individual note values

Not to be confused with the pulse or beat that often underlies it

Meter
Grouping of beats within a measure
Duple: 2/8, 2/4, 2/2, etc.
Triple: 3/8, ¾, 3/2, etc.
Quadruple: 4/8, 4/4, 4/2, etc.
Simple: each beat is divided into 2 notes
Compound: each beat is divided into 3 notes (6/4. 9/8. Etc.)

Tempo
The speed at which the music is played
Adagio, Largo, Lento, Andante, Allegretto, Allegro, Vivace, etc.

Melody
Motive: a brief melodic figure, 3-5 notes long
Phrase: a longer segment of a melody, 2-4 measures long
Theme/Subject: a complete melodic idea, 4-8 measures long

Harmony
Consonance: notes that “sound good” together
Dissonance: notes that “clash” with one another
Diatonic: harmonies in which all the notes belong to the key/mode (i.e. there are no accidentals)
Chromatic: harmonies that contain notes outside of the key/mode (i.e. there are accidentals not in
the key signature)

Dynamics
The relative volume of music
pianissimo, piano, mezzo piano, mezzo forte, forte, fortissimo

Texture
Monophonic: 1 single melodic line (in unison or octaves)
Homophonic: 1 melody and accompaniment that moves with the melody (i.e. chordal)
Polyphonic: 2 or more lines that move independently from another
Imitation: 2 or more independent lines based on the same melodic material (i.e. canon, round,
figure, etc.)
Counterpoint: technical name for the use of polyphony

Timbre/tone color
The quality of musical sounds
i.e. bright, dark, warm, cool, round, brassy, reedy, etc.
A factor of instrumentation
Form
The arrangement of musical material, usually a combination of similar and contrasting sections
Strophic: 1 melody that repeats with a new text
Binary: AB
Ternary: ABC, ABA’
Sonata: Exposition – Development – Recapitulation
Rondo: ABACA… (theme, contrasting section, theme, etc.)
Theme and variations
Other types of forms too, be aware of what form is and what we will be talking about in class
(things will be clearer when we talk further about musical variables)

Kinds of Listening
Passive: Music is the accompaniment to some other activity (i.e. background music)
“Sensuous”: Enjoying music for its pure sound and the effect it has on us
“Expressive”: Translating music into a story or narrative
“Sheerly Musical”: Analyzing how the music is constructed
Critical: Enjoying music’s sensual and expressive qualities but asking “what creates this effect?”;
connecting aesthetic and analytic qualities

What to listen for

Instrumentation (including timbre & texture)
Text (if any)
Rhythm, meter, tempo
Melody (including motive, phrase, theme/subject)
Harmony
Form

Participatory vs. Presentational

Participatory Performance: there is no distinction between performers & audience; everyone
participates in music-making
Presentational Performance: performers and audience are distinct; audience does not participate
in music-making

Values
Participatory Presentational
 Social Involvement: everyone should  Musical object: the musical
contribute performance (the focus is on what
 Inclusion: tasks of varying difficulty comes out of the music making)
(core [something needed for the music  Accuracy: performers rehearse to
to work i.e. rhythm and melody] & prepare for performance (we rehearse
elaboration [other percussive to prepare for a performance)
instrument or harmony line])  Product (musical work) over process
 Process (making music) over product (making music)
(musical work)
Musical Features
Participatory Presentational
 Open forms  Closed forms
 Repetition (no definite point of  Contrast/Variation
beginning or end)  Rhythm/meters can change
 Rhythmic/metrical consistency  Transparent textures
 Dense textures (lots of things going  All parts can be difficult
on)  Fixed work with multiple
 Group alternates with virtuosic soloist interpretations
 No single, fixed work

Music & the Social Frame

Participatory Presentational
 Open forms reflect needs of social  Closed forms reflect focus on
event musical work
 Repetition helps new participants  Contrast/variation keeps audience’s
learn music interest
 Rhythmic/metrical consistency  Rhythm/meters can change keeping
facilitates dancing, learning audience interest
 Dense textures hide mistakes,  Transparent textures help the
encouraging participation audience follow the music
 Group alternates with soloist showing  All parts can be difficult because
sociable character ensemble rehearses

Medieval Period
Ca. 450-1450
Between Classical Antiquity and the Renaissance (i.e. Middle Ages/Dark Ages)
After the fall of Rome before the Renaissance
Rise and spread of Christianity (very important for music)
Development of modern European languages
Hundred Years War
Crusades
Black Plague

The Church
At the center of society
Rulers were legitimized by the church (“divine right”)
Day was organized around church services
Cities and towns split up into dioceses (a district under the pastoral care of a bishop in the
Christian Church.)
Schools and universities run by church
No real concept of sacred and secular

The Church and Music

Everything was sung (to carry in large space)
Trained musicians
Copied and preserved manuscripts

Medieval Music
Melodies are mostly stepwise within relatively narrow range (octave give or take)
Modal rather than tonal
“Perfect consonances”: unison, octave, fifth, fourth; all other intervals are dissonant (final
cadence will usually either be octave or unison)
Tempus perfectus: “perfect time” – triple meter (3 is a perfect number in the Church)
Rhythms tend to be simple
Focused on text

Mass
Main religious service in Catholic faith; commemorates Last Supper, death, and resurrection of
Jesus Christ
Mass Proper: parts of the mass that change according to the church calendar
Mass Ordinary: parts of the mass that remain the same in every service

Office
8 prayer services based on hours of the day
- Matins (midnight)
- Lauds (sunrise)
- Prime (6 am)
- Terce (9 am)
- Sext (noon)
- Nones (3pm)
- Vespers (sunset)
- Compline (9 pm)

Gregorian Chant
Also called Plainsong, Plainchant
Repertoire of melodies sung during religious services
Latin text
First notated in 9th century (but likely older)
Prominent until 12th century
Monophonic: sung in unison (or octaves)
Notated without rhythm

Monophonic Textures
Syllabic: 1 note per syllable
Neumatic: 2-5 notes per syllable
Melismatic: 6+ notes per syllable
Music in the Mass
Proper Ordinary
Introit Kyrie
Gradual Gloria
Alleluia Credo
Sequence* (a type of chant) Sanctus
Offertory Agnus Dei

Kyrie
Part of Mass Ordinary
Text in 3 parts: Kyrie eleison; Christe eleison; Kyrie eleison
Antiphonal: “call and response” between 2 halves of the choir
Form: No fixed musical form, but usually reflects 3 sections of text
Texture: melismatic

Alleluia
Part of Mass Proper
Sung after reading of Epistle, before Gospel
Responsorial (soloist & choir)
Form: ABA (respond, verse, respond)
Texture: melismatic and syllabic

Hildegard von Bingen

1098-1179
Nun, abbess, visionary, prophesier, artist, composer, poet (“Renaissance Woman”)
Composed numerous liturgical dramas, chants, hymns, etc.

Hymn
Part of Office
Monophonic
Strophic
Syllabic (usually)
Text: 4-7-line rhyming stanzas

Hildegard: Ave Generosa

7 irregular stanzas of 1-5 lines
Form: stroph-isch; each stanza follows similar melodic shape
Texture: monophonic; syllabic, neumatic, and melismatic

Glamming up Chant
Liturgical texts had to be read/sung
Embellishment or innovation by:
Adding new text to pre-existing chant (tropes)
Adding new music to pre-existing texts (tropes, sequences, organum)
All ways of embellishing chant or adding something new into the service/music
Organum
Adding 1 or more voices to existing chant melody (polyphony!)
Chant is usually the slow notes on the bottom
12th-13th centuries
Associated with Notre Dame cathedral and its composers Leonin and Perotin
Voices are independent
Sustained-note: upper voice sings many notes for each note of chant
Discant style: voices move together

Leonin: Alleluia, Dies santificatus

Organum duplum: for 2 voices
Form: ABA (same as Alleluia chant: response, chant, response)
Texture: polyphonic; sustained-note and discant style; melismatic and syllabic

Perotin: Viderunt omnes

Organum quadruplum: for 4 voices
Form: ABA’ (same as gradual chant) but we don’t hear it
Texture: polyphonic; mostly sustained-note/melismatic
Repitition of rhythmic and melodic patterns (rhythmic modes)

Secular Medieval Music

Not part of religious service
Vernacular (i.e. not Latin) and Latin
Poetic texts
On non-religious topics but include references to religion

Historical Background
No countries in the modern sense
Empires and kingdoms made up of local duchies and principalities, which were autonomous
Princes, dukes, bishops, etc. showed off by cultivating art, music, literature, etc.

Troubadours and Trouvéres

Poet-musicians from France
Troubadours: from Southern France, spoke Occitan
Trouvéres: from Northern France, spoke Old French
Name comes from “trobar” / “trover”: to compose a song
Came from noble and common families
Gigged at castles and courts throughout France

Troubadour/Trouvéres Poetry
In Old French/Occitan
Strophic, often with refrain
Fin’ amors/fine amour: “refined love” of a commoner for a nobleperson (usually married)
Highly idealized; language borders on religious devotion
Troubadour/Trouvére Song
From 12th Century
Monophonic song
Strophic
Syllabic
Narrow range
Step-wise melody
Melody in AAB Bar Form

Guiraut de Borneill
ca. 1140-1200
“Maestre del troubadours”
Born to common family
Traveled to every court in Southern France and Northern Spain
77 poems but only 4 melodies survive

Reis Glorios: Text

Alba: “dawn song”
4 strophes of 5 lines
With refrain
References to:
- Religion
- Jealous husband

Reis glorios: Music

Mostly syllabic
Mostly step-wise melody
Narrow range
Strophic form
AAB melody

Motet
From 13th century
Polyphonic vocal work for 2 or more voices
From the French word “mot”: word
Each part has its own text; texts comment on one another
Often based on chant (like organum)

Cantus firmus
Slow-moving melody in lowest voice (tenor) that serves as basis for composition
Can be taken from chant or a secular song

Isorhythm
A repeating melodic and rhythmic pattern in tenor or cantus firmus
Made up of:
- Talea: repeating rhythmic pattern
- Color: repeating melodic pattern
Rhythmic and melodic pattern do not have to coincide

Roman de Fauvel
Allegorical story of a donkey who obtains a powerful position in the French court and corrupts
the king
Dates from the early 14th century
Contains poetry, artwork, and music

In nova fert/ Garrit gallus

Attributed to Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361)
Example of Ars Nova (“New Art”) motet
Uses triple and duple meter
3 voices (Triplum, Motetus, Tenor)
Tenor is taken from chant

Garrit gallus/ In nova fert: Text

Interaction between Triplum and Motetus texts
Chickens: the French people (pun on Gallus/Gauls)
Lion: the king
Fox: Fauvel
Religious references (Jacob, Pharaoh, Michael, etc.)

In nova fert/ Garrit gallus: Music

3 independent voices
VERY polyphonic
Isorhythmic tenor
Perfect consonances at important cadences

Medieval Genres
Monophonic Polyphonic
Chant Organum
Troubadour/Trouvére Motet

Chant Troubadour Song

Text: Latin Text: French/Occitan
Texture: syllabic, neumatic, and melismatic Texture: mostly syllabic
Melody: mostly stepwise, somewhat narrow Melody: more stepwise, narrower range
range Form: Strophic with AAB melody
Form: ABA, stroph-isch, through-composed

Organum Motet
Text: Latin; single-text Text: Latin, vernacular; multiple texts
Texture: sustained note or discant style Texture: polyphonic, very independent voices
 Tenor: slow-moving; usually no noticeable Tenor: slow-moving, often with repetition
repetition (isorhythm)
Harmony: mostly perfect consonances Form: more dissonant with perfect
consonances at cadences

Renaissance Period
Ca. 1350-1600
Between Medieval and Baroque eras
Literally “rebirth” – refers to rediscovery of Classical Antiquity
Humanism
Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Figures: Da Vinci, Shakespeare, Copernicus, Luther, (All the ninja turtles)

Politics/Society
Economic prosperity after plague, war
Foundation of republics (Venice, Florence)
Rise of merchant class
Nobles became patrons of arts to show wealth and power
Political changes happen (Holy Roman Empire becomes larger)

Humanism
Focus on humanity and human-centered knowledge
Understanding through experience (we can create knowledge)
Influenced by Greek/Roman philosophy
Does NOT replace religious authority
Human experience becomes part of religion
Birth of Venus (Botticelli) goddess of love depicting birth, breathing life into her. Connection to
ancient world. Venus is depicted in a human way (looks like a human).
School of Athens (Rafael 1509-1511) located in Vatican. Allegorical painting depicting
philosophy (shows lots of real philosophers) has depth and perspective.

Reformation
Effort to reform/change Catholic church that resulted in division and founding of new Christian
faiths (new religions concerned about Faith in God)
- Anglican church (Church of England)
- Protestant church (Lutherans)
- Calvinists
Resulted in Counter-Reformation: Catholic church’s reaffirmation of power

Renaissance Music
Melodies have more skips, wider ranges, but still simple
Polyphonic textures
- Homophony
- Imitation
3rds and 6ths become consonant
Mostly consonant with controlled dissonance
Rhythms are more distinct/individual
Form determined by imitation, cantus firmus
Duple meter becomes more common

Sacred Genres
Polyphonic Mass
- Tenor/Cantus-Firmus Mass
Motet (different than Medieval motet)

Polyphonic Mass
Setting of Mass Ordinary
4 or more voices
Cantus-firmus/Tenor Mass: based on pre-existing chant or song melody

William Byrd
Ca. 1530-1623
Trained and employed by Queens of England
Catholic
Recusant (refused to convert) wasn’t a big problem because his compositions were so great
Composed sacred music for Catholics (masses, motets), Anglicans (anthems, services), and
secular music (songs, madrigals, etc.)

Byrd: Mass for Four Voices, Agnus Dei

1592-1593 (During Elizabeth’s reign)
Instrumentation: 4 voices entering alto, soprano, tenor, bass
Texture: Imitative
Form: through-composed; each new line of text gets new motive/point of imitation (melody that
is imitated and where it is imitated)
Harmony: very consonant, frequent 3rds/6ths

Cristóbal de Morales
Ca. 1500-1553
Born and educated in Spain (Madrid)
Worked in papal chapel in Vatican, for emperor, Medicis
Composed masses, motets (coming from catholic country, working in catholic country, so:
composed exclusively catholic pieces)

Morales: Missa l’homme armé, Kyrie

Ca. 1540
Cantus firmus taken from medieval song L’homme armé
Instrumentation: 5 voices
Texture: imitative polyphony based on CF melody; frequent counterpoint
Form: ABA’ based on cantus firmus
Harmony: consonant with controlled dissonance, 3rds, 6ths
Rhythms: more diversity/complexity
Motet
Polyphonic vocal setting of sacred Latin text
Only 1 text in 1 language
Not based on cantus firmus - Form usually determined by text

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina

Ca. 1525-1594
Born and trained in Italy
Worked in St. Peter’s in the Vatican
“Saved” polyphony from liturgical reforms
Composed masses, motets, madrigals, etc.

Palestrina: Sicut cervus

Text: Psalm 42:1
Sicut cervus desiderat ad fontes aquarum, ita desiderat anima mea ad te, Deus.
Published in 1584
Instrumentation: 4 voices, entering tenor, alto, soprano, bass
Texture: imitative polyphony
Form: through-composed (no repetition); each sentence gets new melody/point of imitation
Harmony: mostly consonant with controlled dissonance, 3rds and 6ths

Secular Music
In the vernacular (Italian, English)
On secular topics
Performed for enjoyment/entertainment
Madrigal
Lute Song

Madrigal: Text
Vernacular (Italian or English)
Rhymed poetic text
Lines of 5 or 7 syllables
Topic: romantic love
Frequently features innuendo

Madrigal: Music
Ca. 1530-1600
Italy, Franco-Flemish lands, England
Polyphonic vocal work for 4+ voices
Includes homophony and imitative polyphony
Through-composed; form determined by text
Word Painting: musical representation of image from text
Chromaticism for expressive effect

Madrigal: Performance
Sung at social gatherings
Initially performed by amateurs for their own entertainment/enjoyment
Later, patrons hired professionals to sing madrigals at court
2,000+ collections printed 1530-1600 (any one collection might contain 15-20 madrigals)

Jacques Arcadelt
Ca. 1507-1568
Franco-Flemish
Worked in Italy and France
Knew Michelangelo
Mostly known for his madrigals, but also composed masses, motets

Il bianco e docle cigno

Published in 1539
4 voices
Mostly homophonic: imitative polyphony at end
Through-composed
Word painting
- Chromaticism on piangendo (“crying”)
- Imitative entries on Di mille mort’ (“a thousand deaths”)
Madrigal

Carlo Gesualdo
1566-1613
Prince of Venosa, Naples
Married his cousin, then murdered her and her lover (hell yeah)
Lived in Ferrara, home of Este court
Known for his expressive madrigals

Moro, lasso, al mio duolo

Published in 1611
5 voices
Alternates homophony and imitative polyphony
Word painting
- Heavy chromaticism on (“I die, alas, in my suffering”; “O sorrowful fate”; “Alas gives
me death”)
- Running 16th notes on “life”
Through-composed with last line repeated
Madrigal

Lute Song
Ca. 1550-1650
England (really only exists here)
Song for solo song and lute
Strophic text and music
Similar to madrigal in textual content (romantic love) and musical expression (word painting)
John Dowland
1563-1626
Worked in England, France, Denmark
Influenced by popular and dance music
Composed lute songs, madrigals, and consort music

Come Again
Published in 1597 originally for 4 voices and lute
This version: voice and lute
Homophony (melody and accompaniment)
Strophic with repeated refrain
Word painting
- Quickened rhythm/harmonic rhythm leading up to “die”

Baroque Era
Ca 1600-1750
Between Renaissance and Classical eras
“Barocco”: Portuguese for “misshapen pearl”
Spectacle, grandeur, drama
Rise of absolute monarchs
Scientific revolution

Affections
Emotions or states of the soul caused by the “humors”
Admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy, sorrow (there are more)
People believed experiencing the affections would balance body, mind, and soul
Affections are ideal emotions; NOT personal feelings
Art/music depict anger, love, sadness, fear in general; not in the particular (symbolic)

Baroque Music
Predominantly Homophonic: melody and accompaniment
Ornamentation: embellishing a melody with added notes/figures
Melodic “spinning out” of one motive/idea
Basso continuo: bass line with harmonic implications
- Must be realized or “filled out” by performer
Harmony as a structuring device
- More complex harmonies and modulations
Instrumental music gains importance

Opera
From ca. 1600+
Play set to music
Libretto: text of the opera; usually rhymed verse
Inspired by Greek tragedy
On mythical, historical topics that reflect power/benevolence of absolute rulers
Castrati: males castrated before puberty to preserve their treble voices

Baroque Opera
Divided into 3-5 acts; each act made up of individual scenes
Made up of
- Sinfonia(s): instrumental movement introducing each act
- Recitatives: sung dialogues that move the plot forward
- Arias: solo songs that express characters’ emotions
- Choruses
- Ritornellos: a short instrumental refrain or interlude in a vocal work.

Recitative
Sung dialogue that delivers exposition to move the plot forward; between arias, choruses, etc.
Metrically very free; speech-like rhythms
Not very melodic; but expressive
Harmonically driven; can be chromatic
Reduced instrumentation for continuo instruments (harpsichord, theorbo, cello, etc.)

Aria
Solo song conveying a character’s emotions
Melodic
Regular meter; dance-like rhythms
More diatonic than recitative
Fuller instrumentation: continuo, strings, etc.
Form: Strophic or da capo

Strophic Aria
Ritornello + Aria
Ritornello: a repeated instrumental theme
1 melody for multiple verses of text
Each verse begins with ritornello

Da capo (from the heaven) Aria

“From the head”
ABA’ form
A= 1 thematic unit expressing a single emotion; includes ritornellos at beginning, middle, end
B= section contrasting in theme, affect
A’= repetition of first section with melodic ornamentation
Da capo repeats text and music (main differentiation from strophic)

L’Orfeo
By Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643)
First performed in 1607 for Duke of Mantua
Tells story of Orpheus and Eurydice

Aria: Vi ricorda, o boschi ombrosi Act II

Basso continuo, strings
Starts with Ritornello
Strophic form
Regular meter; dance-like rhythm
Diatonic
Happy mood/affect
- Brisk tempo, dotted rhythms, major harmonies, etc.

Recitative: Tu se’ morta (Orfeo’s Lament) Act II

Basso continuo
Metrically free; speech-like rhythms
Chromatic
Changing rhythms, tempo, character, etc.
Sad mood
- Slower tempo, chromaticism, minor harmonies, etc.

Giulio Cesare (Julius Caesar)

By Georg Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
First performed in London, 1724
Tells story of Julius Caesar and Roman Civil War

Act I, Scene III: “La reggia Tolomeo… Empio, dirò tu sei”

Recitative
- Metrically free
- Chromatic harmonies
- Changing tempo, harmonies, mood, etc.
Aria
- Basso continuo, violin obbligato (line that has to be there)
- Regular meter
- Clear melody
- Da capo (ABA’)
- Ritornellos at beginning and end
What kind of affect does this music have and why?
ANGER
- Quick tempo
- Minor key (lots of minor harmonies)
- Fast coloratura (lots of embellishment)
- Occasional leaps
Baroque Sacred Music
Vocal music with religious text
Chorus: soprano, alto, tenor, bass
Optional vocal soloists
Orchestra: basso continuo and strings
Multi-movement works
New genres
- Oratorio
- Cantata

Oratorio
From ca. 1600- (doesn’t really go away)
Names come from “oratory” – building where oratorios were performed (not performed in
church or during church service)
Dramatic work on a religious topic set to music
Un-staged opera on a sacred topic
Popular entertainment during Lent (when operas were not performed)
Not specific to any one Christian faith (Lutherans have “Passions”)

Oratorio: Text
Libretto inspired by Bible but in rhymed verse
Usually in vernacular (Italian, English, German, etc.)
Soloists portray specific characters or narrate events
Depicts story: usually lives of religious figures
Could also be understood allegorically, with religious figures representing absolute rulers

Oratorio: Music
Made up of “Parts” rather than “Acts”
Musical forms similar to opera
- Sinfonias
- Arias
- Recitatives
- Choruses
Chorus has larger role than in opera
- Narrates events
- Portrays crowds

Georg Frideric Handel

1685-1759
Born in Germany but lived in Italy and England
Trained as organist
Worked for English nobility, various English theatres
Composed operas, oratorios, cantatas, coronation music, instrumental works
Messiah
Premiered in Dublin in 1742
English libretto based on King James Bible, Book of Common Prayer (supplemental text for
Anglicans)
3 Parts
- I: Birth/Life of Jesus
- II: Death and Resurrection
- III: Second Coming

Messiah: Music
Chorus, 4 soloists, orchestra (including winds and brass)
Features
- Sinfonia
- Pastoral instrumental movement
- Arias (and duets)
- Recitatives
- Choruses
Accessible style: homophonic, melodic, restrained counterpoint
Often through-composed or writes out repetition or writes out sort of da capo

“And the glory of the Lord”

Part I, Nr. 3
3 large sections introduced with ritornellos
- Each pair of lines has its own motive
- Both texts have motives combined in 3rd section
Homophonic with occasional imitation

“Hallelujah”
End of Part II: celebrates resurrection of Christ
Alternates homophony, monophony, polyphony, imitation
Each section of text ad its own music
Combines motives from different sections in counterpoint

Chorale Cantata
Ca. 1700-1750
Lutheran, German
Multi-movement work for chorus, soloists, and orchestra based on chorale melody/text
Chorale: strophic religious song
Combines poetic, chorale, and Biblical texts
Other texts relate to/comment on chorale text
Part of religious service (gets integrated with the sermon on occasion)
Chorale Cantata: Music
Made up of
- Choruses
- Recitatives, arias (da capo or abbreviated da capo), duets (for soloists)
Chorale melody presented as cantus firmus in 1st movement
Chorale sung homophonically in final movement
Arias, recitatives, duets in between chorale movements

Chorale: “Wachet auf”

By Philipp Nicolai
Published in 1599
Based on parable of 10 virgins
In bar form (AAB) [is strophic]

J.S. Bach: “Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme”

First performed in 1731
Chorus, orchestra, soprano, tenor, bass soloists
Consists of
- Chorale fantasia: Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme”
- Recitative for solo tenor

I “Wachet auf…”
1st chorale verse
Chorus, orchestra
Chorale melody sung in soprano
Chorus in imitative polyphony
Orchestra dotted-rhythm accompaniment
Orchestral ritornellos at beginning, between phrases
Da capo to orchestral introduction

IV “Zion hört die Wächter singen”

2nd chorale verse
Tenor solo, violin obbligato, basso continuo
Instrumental ritornellos at beginning, between phrases

VII “Gloria sei dir gesungen”

Final chorale verse
Chorale melody in soprano
Orchestra and chorus in homophonic accompaniment

Medieval and Renaissance (Instruments)

Hurdy-Gurdy
Shawm
Lute
Viol
Virginal (early keyboard)
Sackbut (like an early trombone)

Baroque (Instruments)
Violin, Viola, Cello
Guitar
Harpsichord
Organ
Oboe (made of wood)
Flute (made of wood)
Slide Trumpet (brass) [no valves]

Baroque Instrumental Genres

Chamber music
- Sonatas (violin and basso continuo)
Solo instruments
- Suite (keyboard, violin, cello)
- Prelude (keyboard)
- Fugue (keyboard)
- Toccata (keyboard)
Orchestral
- Sinfonia/overture
- Concerto
- Suites (for orchestra)

Baroque Instrumental Music

Melodic “spinning out” of motive
Ornamental, embellished melodies (some become even more embellished)
Driving rhythms (energetic pulse, even in slower music “steady rhythm”)
Chromatic harmonies
Basso continuo

Concerto
3-movement work for solo instrument(s) and orchestra
Fast – Slow – Fast
1st movement: ritornello form, full orchestra
2nd movement: lyrical melody, through-composed, soloist(s) and basso continuo
3rd movement: ritornello form, full orchestra

Ritornello Form
Alternation of Ritornellos and Episodes, Tutti and soloist(s)
Ritornellos: statement of theme for full orchestra
Episodes: passages of soloist(s) and basso continuo
Contrast of
- Texture (orchestra vs. soloists)
 - Thematic material (ritornello theme vs. other material)
- Harmony (diatonic vs modulating)
Required to have 1 episode and a returning ritornello

Antonio Vivaldi
1678-1741
Worked in Venice, Mantua, and Vienna
Conservatorio dell’Ospedale della Pietà
Wrote concertos, sonatas, operas, sacred music (masses, motets, oratorios)

Concerto in B-flat major, Op. 4, no.1

Published in 1716 as part of op.4
Nicknamed La stravaganza (“The Extravagance”)
Set of 12 concerti
Solo violin, strings, basso continuo
Dedicated to venetian nobleman who was an amateur violin student of Vivaldi’s

I. Allegro
Full orchestra: violin solo, strings, basso continuo
Melodic “spinning out” of motive
Driving rhythms
Virtuosic solo passages
Alternation of full ensemble and soloists
Ritornello form: R, E1, R, E2, R, E3-R-E4-R-E5-R, E6, R, E7, R

II. Largo e cantabile

Reduced orchestration: violin solo, string soloists, basso continuo
Focus on solo violin melody; other parts are accompaniment
Through-composed

III. Allegro
Full orchestra and violin solo
Virtuosic solo passage
Short ritornello form: R, E1, R

Prelude
Brief composition played before a longer work
Through-composed
Improvised/improvisational
More about figuration/texture than distinct theme/melody
Fugue
Work structured by strict imitative counterpoint in 2+ voices
Subject: fugue theme
Countersubject: a new melody plated during the subject
Exposition: section that features fugue subject in all voices; more diatonic
Episode: section of free material played between subject entries; modulates
Contrast of texture, harmony, thematic material

J.S. Bach
1685-1750
Worked at St. Thomas in Leipzig
Composed sacred music, concertos, suites, sonatas, fugues, other instrumental works
Contrapuntal, chromatic musical style

Well-Tempered Clavier
Composed in 1722
Collection of 24 preludes and fugues in all major/minor keys
Written to celebrate new turning system that allowed playing in all 24 keys

BWV 847: Prelude

Continuous 16th-note configuration
Repeated motive, but no real melody
Change in tempo, texture
Chromatic harmony

BWV 847: Fugue

3 voices
Exposition: subject presented in
1. Middle voice
2. Highest voice
3. Lowest voice
S, E1, S, E2, S, E3, S, E4, S, E5, S
2 counter-subjects
Episodes based on material from subject, countersubjects

Classical Period
Ca. 1750-1800
Style period only in music
Neoclassical/Classicist in art/architecture
Age of Reason or Enlightenment in philosophy
Revolution and Democracy
Values simplicity, restraint, balance, symmetry
Classical Antiquity as model

Enlightenment
Philosophical movement focusing on reason, progress, and individual freedoms/rights
Authority comes from reason based on experience
Available to everyone, regardless of class
Challenge to the authority of church and absolute monarchs
Related to Scientific Revolution
Informed literature, art, music, etc.

Revolution and Democracy

American Revolution (1776)
French Revolution (1789)
Experiments in self-government (only possible because of Enlightenment)
Values equality, liberty, brotherhood

Classical Music (Music Composed in the Classical Era)

Homophonic: melody and accompaniment
Transparent textures
No basso continuo
Song-like melodies (melodies are much less ornamented)
Balanced phrases
Contrasting charater
More diatonic harmonies
Tonal music (modal system goes away) [Major vs Minor]
Varied rhythms
Formal clarity

Classical Opera
Opera seria: serious/tragic opera popular in Baroque era
Opera buffa: comic opera; more modern
Recitative + da capo aria structure gives way to more varied forms
- Overture
- Arias (in various forms)
- Ensembles (duets, trios, quartets, etc.)
- Scenes made up of contrasting sections
When the dramatic situation changes, the music changes

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

1756-1791
Child prodigy
Lived and worked in Salzburg, Vienna
Composed in every major classical genre (operas, symphonies, chamber music, sonatas,
concertos, sacred music, etc.)

Mozart’s Operas
Depict everyday people (rather than heroes and mythological characters)
Social commentary: portray aristocracy as stupid/immoral and servants as witty/virtuous
Comedies of errors
Often involve mistaken identities/disguises
Happy end: resolved by recognition of fault and forgiveness
Women have power/agency

Don Giovanni
Premiered in 1787 in Prague
Based on figure of Don Juan: Spanish libertine (womanizer)
Italian libretto by Lorenzo da Ponte
Combines aspects of opera seria and opera buffa

Opera seria vs. Opera buffa

Opera Seria Opera Buffa
Don Giovanni Leporello
Donna Anna Zerlina
Don Ottavio Masetto
Donna Elvira
Commendatore

Don Giovanni: Act I, Scene I

Consists of contrasting sections
- Aria (Leporello)
- Trio (Donna Anna, Don, Giovanni, Leporello)
- Trio (Commendatore, Don Giovanni, Leporello)
- Recitative (Don Giovanni, Leporello
Song-like melodies with balanced phrases
Change of tempo, key, character, etc.

Duettino: “Là ci darem la mano”

Sextet: “Sola in buio loco”

Multiple contrasting sections
- Recitative (Leporello, Donna Elvira)
- Solo sections (D.E., L, D.O., D.A.)
- Duet-Quartet-Sextet (D.A., L + Z, M + D.O., D.E.)
- Solo (Leporello)
- Quintet (D.A., D.E., Z, D.O., M)
- Sextet (D.A., D.E., Z, D.O., M, L)
- Introduces each character and their music
- Layers characters and texts

Chamber Music
Instrumental music with 1 instrument to a part
Played in home or “chamber” as form of entertainment
Initially for skilled amateurs
Genres
- Sonata
 - String Quartet
- Trio, Quintet, Sextet (all the way through nonet [9]) as long as it is one per instrument

Sonata
From ca. 1770-
Instrumental work for keyboard (and solo instrument)
3 movements
- 1. Fast: sonata form
- 2. Slower: binary form, through-composed
- 3. Fast: rondo, sonata form, etc.

Sonata Form
Exposition
- Presents 2 contrasting themes
Development
- Develops themes
Recapitulation
- Restates themes

Exposition
Theme 1 in 1st key
Transition modulates to 2nd key
Theme 2 in 2nd key
Closing material in 2nd key (optional)
Harmonically stable (except for transition) [tend to be more diatonic]

Development
Develops themes
Modulates through several keys
Harmonically unstable

Recapitulation
Theme 1 in 1st key
Transition
Theme 2 in 1st key
Closing material (in 1st key)
Coda (optional)
Harmonically stable

Mozart: Piano Sonata #13 in B-flat Major (K. 333): I. Allegro*

Exposition Development Recapitulation
Theme 1 Develops themes Theme 1
Transition Modulates Transition
Theme 2 Theme 2
Closing Material Closing materials
K. 333: II. Andante cantabile
Slower tempo
Focus on lyrical melody
Binary form: 2 large sections (often repeated)

K. 333: III. Allegretto grazioso*

Rondo: alternates recurring theme and contrasting episodes
Quick tempo
Catchy melody

String Quartet
From ca. 1750-
For 2 violins, viola, cello
4 movements
- 1. Fast: sonata form
- 2. Moderate: minuet and trio
- 3. Slower: binary, through-composed, etc.
- 4. Fast: rondo, sonata form, etc.
Emphasis on interaction between instruments

Franz Joseph Haydn

1732-1809
Born, trained, worked in Austria
Worked for Esterházy family
“Father of string quartet, symphony”
Also wrote sonatas, trios, concertos, masses, operas

Haydn: String Quartet in B minor (Op. 33, no. 1)

Composed in 1781
1st of set of 6 string quartets
Dedicated to Grande Duke Paul of Russia
Good examples of Haydn’s wit, sociable character of chamber music

Op. 33/1: I. Allegro moderato*

Sonata form
Monothematic: only 1 theme (in both keys)
Witty
- What key is it in?
- False recapitulation
Op. 33/1: II. Scherzando allegro*
Minuet and trio
Form: Minuet – Trio – Minuet
Minuet: aristocratic dance in triple meter
Trio: contrasts in key, texture, character
Op. 33/1: III. Andante
Slower tempo
Focus on melody
Sonata form

Op. 33/1: IV. Finale: Presto

Fast, energetic
Sonata form
Short compared to 1st movement

Public Concerts
Musical performances in (secular) public venues open to anyone (who could afford tickets)
First became popular in 18th century
Programs focused on variety (of genre, ensemble, etc.)
Sought to appeal to emerging middle class

Classical Concerto
From ca. 1760-1800
Three movements
- I. Fast: sonata form
- II. Slower: binary, ternary form, etc.
- III. Fast: rondo, sonata form
I. Double exposition form
- Exposition played by orchestra without modulation
- Exposition repeated by soloist, orchestra with modulation
- Development and recapitulation as usual

Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-Georges

1745-1799
Violinist, composer, fencer
Born in Caribbean, educated and worked in Paris
Composed violin concertos, symphonies, operas, chamber music

Joseph Bologne: Vilin Concerto #9 in G major (Op. 8, no. 2)

Published ca. 1777
Part of set of 2 violin concertos

Bologne: I. Allegro*
Sonata form with double exposition
Exposition I
- Theme 1 (key 1)
- Transition (no modulation)
- Theme 2 (key 1)
Exposition II
- Theme 1 (key 1)
- Transition (modulation)
 - Theme 2 (key 2)
-
Bologne: II. Largo
Ternary form (ABA)
Slow tempo
Focus on melody

Bologne: III. Rondeau

Rondo form
Quick tempo
Alternation of orchestra/soloist

Symphony
From ca. 1760-(1800?)
Developed from Sinfonia/Overture
Orchestral work in 4 movements
- I. Fast: sonata form
- II. Slower: binary, ternary form, etc.
- III. Moderate: minuet and trio
- IV. Fast: rondo, sonata form

Ludwig van Beethoven

1770-1827
Spans Classical and Romantic periods
Born in Germany, moved to Vienna
Freelance composer
Composed symphonies, concertos, chamber music, sonatas, choral works, etc.

Beethoven: Symphony #5 in C (op. 67)

Composed 1804-1808
Pushes boundaries of Classical symphony
Movements are longer, more complex
Motivic development: using an initial motive to generate all (or most) thematic material
Movements related motivically

Op. 67: I. Allegro con brio

Sonata form
Exposition (C minor -> E-flat major)
Extended development section
Recapitulation (C minor -> C major)
Length coda: like a 2nd development section (-> C minor)

Op. 67: II. Andante con moto

Theme and variations: present theme and then develop, varies it
Double the and variations: 2 themes are varied
2nd theme recalls opening rhythmic motive
Op. 67: III. Scherzo: Allegro
Scherzo replaces Minuet
From: Scherzo – Trio – Scherzo
2nd Scherzo theme recalls opening motive
Trio in contrasting key, texture
Scherzo repeat is written out, re-orchestrated
End of Scherzo goes directly into Finale

Op. 67: IV. Allegro

Sonata form
Exposition (C manor -> G major)
2nd theme recalls rhythmic motive
Lengthy development
Scherzo theme reappears at “end” of development
Recapitulation (C major)
Extended coda brings back themes
Expansive; equal in weight to 1st movement

The 19th Century

Era of political, social, technological change
French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars, Revolutions of 1848
Nationalism (this is what the conflicts are about)
Industrial Revolution
Expansion of the middle class
Liberalism/Capitalism, Socialism/Marxism (Adam Smith “The Invisible Hand”)

Romanticism
Aesthetic movement that emphasizes subjective feeling, the individual, transcendence,
irrationality.
Reaction to Enlightenment’s focus on reason.
Begins literary movement (1790-1840)
Themes: Nature, Supernatural, Artist outside society
Privileged music as the most ephemeral of the arts
Subjectivity: seeing the world from a personal perspective; requires interpretation

Musical Romanticism
Ca. 1800-1900(?)
Folk-like melodies
Expansive lines
Chromatic harmonies
Mixture of major/minor modes
Unusual modulations
Metric ambiguity
Pushing boundaries of form, genre, instrumentation
Lied
Ca. 1800-1900
Song for solo voice and piano accompaniment
Setting of strophic German poem
Musical form: strophic, modified strophic, through-composed
Text expression: how music reflects the mood or character (rather than specific images) of the
text

Song Cycle
A collection of Lieder that suggest a narrative
Settings by a single poet
Poetry from 1st person perspective (“Lyrical I”)
Usually about unrequited love
Depicts journey or narrative arc

Franz Schubert
1797-1828
Lived and worked in Vienna
Supported by friends
Composed Lieder, piano music, chamber music, symphonies, choral works
Studied with Mozart’s rival

Lieder in Performance
Often performed in the home by skilled amateurs as form of entertainment
Early Lieder reflect this social situation: strophic forms, modest ranges, simple accompaniments
Schubertiade: social gatherings specifically organized around performance of Franz Schubert’s
Lieder
Created spirit of sociability

Schubert’s Lieder
Feature folk-like melodies
Often in strophic or modified strophic form
Modified Strophic from: additional strophes are varied or interrupted with contrasting sections
Frequent mixture of major/minor modes
Accompaniment: independent, takes on important narrative role

Schubert: Winterreise (D. 911/ Op. 89)

Published in 1828
Setting of 24 poems by Wilhelm Müller
Song cycle about rejected lover and his Winter’s journey
No clear plot, up to individual interpretation

I. ”Gute Nacht” (“Good Night”)

Strophic form
Last strophe in major
Postlude returns to minor
What character does the music have, what specific features create this character, and how does
this relate to the text
What does the music tell us?

V. “Der Lindenbaum” (“The Linden Tree”)

Modified Strophic form (AA’BA)
Unusual modulation in middle section
What is the relationship between text and music?
What does the piano accompaniment add?

XXIV. “Der Leiermann” (“The Organ Grinder”)

Modified Strophic from (AAA’)
What is the text-music relationship?
What relationship does this Lied have to the cycle as a whole? i.e. what kind of ending is this?

Hugo Wolf
1860-1903
Composer and music critic
Lived and worked in Vienna
Composed Lieder
Influenced by Richard Wagner

Wolf’s Lieder
Through-composed: each new poetic line requires new musical treatment
Very chromatic
Dramatic: each song like a mini-opera

Mörike-Lieder
Published in 1888
Collection of 53 songs in 4 volumes
Settings of Eduard Mörike
NOT a song cycle

VII. “Das verlassene Mägdlein” (“The Abandoned Maiden”)

Through-composed
How does Wolf express the text?
How does this compare with Schubert?

Character Piece
Ca. 1800-1900 (Takes off in the first half of the century)
Brief work for solo piano that often depicts an extra-musical character, idea, or situation
Extra-musical: anything outside the music itself
Often part of collections given evocative titles: “Album for the Young”; “Songs Without
Words”; etc.
Impromptus, Nocturnes, Intermezzos, Ballades, Waltzes, Mazurkas, Polonaises, Etudes,
Preludes, Romances, Fantasies, etc. (More prominent at the end of 19th century)

Character Piece Musical Characteristics

Clear melody (lyrical)
Form: binary, ternary, through-composed
Distinctive rhythms, motives, figurations, harmonies that depict extra-musical ideas
Simple to play; meant to appeal to wide audiences

Felix Mendelssohn
1809-1847
Lived and worked in Germany
Credited with rediscovering J.S. Bach
Composed piano music, chamber music, symphonies, concertos, choral work, Lieder, etc.

Lieder ohne Worte (“Songs Without Words”)

1829-1845
8 collections of character pieces
Some titles given by Mendelssohn, others by publishers
Book 1: Op. 19 (1829-1830)

Op. 19, no. 3 in A major: “Jägerlied” (“Hunter’s Song”)

How does Mendelssohn evoke a hunter?
Quick tempo: Molto allegro e vivace
Hunting calls
“Horn 5ths”

Op. 19, no. 6 in G minor: “Venezianisches Gondollied” (“Venetian Gondola Song”)

How does Mendelssohn evoke a Venetian gondola?
Slower tempo
Steady 6/8 meter like rocking waves/gondolier’s oars
Melody in parallel 3rds: sign of Barcarolle
Accompaniment imitates guitar

Robert Schumann
1810-1856
Composer and music critic
Lived and worked in Germany
Composed piano music, Lieder, chamber music, some orchestral works

Carnaval (Op. 9)
Composed 1834-1835
Collection of 21 short pieces depicting figures from festival of Carnival
Including Eusebius and Florestan, 2 characters representing 2 sides of Schumann’s personality
Eusebius: dreamy, introspective
Florestan: heroic, impetuous
Op. 9, no. 5: Eusebius
How does Schumann capture Eusebius’s dreamy, introspective personality?
Slow tempo
Meandering melody
Obscured meter
Chromaticism

Op. 9, no. 6: Florestan

How does Schumann capture Florestan’s impetuous personality?
Quick tempo: Passionato
Leaping melody
More regular meter than Eusebius
Dramatic tempo changes

Chamber Music in the 19th Century

Follows structure of Classical string quartet
I. Fast: sonata from
II. Slow: binary, ternary, etc.
III. Moderate: dance-like (minuet and trio go away)
IV. Fast: sonata or rondo form
Movements become longer and more complex
Chamber music moves from home to concert hall
Establishment of professional string quartets and chamber groups

Johannes Brahms
1833-1897
From Hamburg, lived and worked in Vienna
Composed chamber music, piano music, Lieder, symphonies, choral music, etc.

Clarinet Quintet in B minor (op. 115)

Composed 1891
For clarinet and string quartet
Dedicated to clarinetist Richard Mühlfeld
4 movements
I. Allegro*
II. Adagio
III. Andantino
IV. Con moto

Op. 115: I. Allegro

How does Brahms’ quintet compare to Haydn?
Harmonic ambiguity: D major or B minor?
Metrical ambiguity: syncopation, ties across bar lines
Expansive melodic lines
Chromaticism
Unusual modulations
Formal ambiguity: where is the 2nd theme?

Op 115: II. Adagio

Ternary form (ABA)
Long, complex middle section
Inner movements take on greater weight

Innovations to Musical Instruments in the 19th Century

Replacing materials in existing instruments
Developing new mechanisms for existing instruments
Inventing new instruments
Extended techniques (playing instruments in new or novel ways)
Expanded size of orchestra

Program Music
From ca. 1830-
Instrumental music that depicts an extra-musical text or program
Program: A literary text/narrative included with program notes to help explain a piece of
program music
Genres: Program Symphony, Symphonic Poem, Tone Poem
NOT: Lieder, Opera, other genres in which a text is sung

Program Symphony
A symphony that has a program
Multiple movements
Cyclical form: different movements are connected by common thematic material
May use traditional symphonic structure or form determined by program

Hector Berlioz
1803-1869
Composer and music critic
Lived and worked in Paris
Wrote influential manual on orchestration
Composed program symphonies, operas, choral music, songs

Berlioz: Symphonie Fantastique

Composed in 1830
Program symphony in 5 movements
I. Rêveries – Passions
II. Un bal
III. Scène au champs
IV. Marche au supplice
V. Songe d’une nuit du sabbat
Evokes program through imaginative orchestration, colorful harmonies, extended techniques
Symphonie Fantastique Program
I. Artist falls in love
II. He sees her image everywhere, at a ball
III. He sees her nature in the countryside
IV. He is rejected and poisons himself with opium. He dreams he killed his beloved and
witnesses his own execution.
V. After his death he sees himself at a witch’s sabbath, where monsters and the beloved
gather for his funeral.
Symphonie Fantastique Instrumentation
Huge Orchestra: 90+ Instruments!

Idée fixe
A musical theme that represents a person, thing, or idea, and unifies a musical work
In Symphonie Fantastique it represents the beloved

Dies irae
Chant form Requiem mass

V. Songe d’une nuit du sabbat

Form
- Introduction
- “Vulgar dance” based on Idée fixe
- Quotation of the Dies irae
- Witch’s Round Dance
- Dies irae + Round Dance
How does Berlioz depict this program?

Introduction: string tremolos, con sordino, chromatic scales

“Vulgar dance”: squeaky sound of clarinets in C/Eb; leaps in high register
Dies irae: bassoon and low strings; brass and bells
Witch’s Round Dance: fugue-like texture
Dies irae + Round Dance: chant in brass/percussion; dance in strings; howling scales; eerie col
legno

Symphonic Poem
From ca. 1830-
Orchestral work in one movement that depicts extra-musical program
Thematic Transformation: transformation of a theme (associated with character, idea) to reflect
new narrative situation
Combines aspects of sonata form and multi-movement structure within single movement

Bedřich Smetana
1824-1884
Lived and worked in Prague
Championed Czech musical style
Composed symphonic poems, operas, chamber music, piano works, choral, vocal music
Smetana: Vltava (“The Moldau”)
Composed 1874-1875
Part of Má vlast (“My Homeland”), set of 6 symphonic poems depicting Czech country
Depicts the Vltava river

Vltava: Music
Introduction: “The Mouth of the Vltava”
Main theme: represents river: Theme 1/ I. Movement
Hunt in the woods: Transition
Peasants’ Wedding: Theme 2/ II. Movement
Moonlight; Nymphs’ Ring Dance: III. Movement
Main theme returns:
St. John’s Rapids: Development
The Vltava in All its Breadth: Recapitulation. IV. Movement
Coda based on Vyšehrad theme

Vltava: Music
Depiction of the river: repetitive running figuration
Main theme: personification of the river, symbolic of Czech spirit
How does Smetana evoke the other parts of the program?

Running notes in winds with string pizzicato water drops

Arching minor melody in violins with running notes in other strings depicting growing current
Hunting calls with dotted rhythms in brass
Regular phrases, steady meter of dance
Shimmering melody in high strings; soft dynamics
Pounding brass/percussion, string tremolos depict stormy current
Main theme in major, quicker tempo: triumphant
Chorale-like theme; main theme transformed in final ascending line

Virtuoso
A musician of extraordinary technical skill (used to mean professional musician)
Attributes of virtuosic playing
- Fast tempo
- High range, especially in singing
- Difficult to perform
Virtuosos often ascribed “supernatural” abilities

Nicolo Paganini
1782-1840
Italian violinist and composer
Greatest violin virtuoso of the 19th century
Odd stance while playing
Wild look, “possessed”
Prima Donna/Diva
Literally “first lady” or “goddess”
The leading female role, usually a soprano (refers to role and actual singer)
How are they characterized?
- Demanding
- Melodramatic
- Temperamental
- BUT revered by audiences

Bel Canto
“Beautiful singing”
Italian vocal style of the 18th and 19th centuries
Arias in 2 sections
- (1) Slower section shows off legato line, ends with improvised cadenza
- (2) Faster section shows off coloratura, lots of ornamentation
Emphasis on melody
Simple harmony
Transparent texture
Operas became singer driven
Leaves room for improvisation

Vicenzo Bellini
1801-1835
Italian composer
1827-1833 lived in Milan (most prolific years of writing opera)
Leading figure in early 19th century opera
Made a living entirely off of opera commissions

Bellini: La Sonnambula
Premiered in 1831 in Milan
Melodrama in 2 acts
Not to be confused with the other 5 operas about sleepwalking

“Ah! Non credea mirarti”

What do you hear? How does this aria show the diva’s talent?
Legato line
Light voice in higher register
Slower tempo
Improvised cadenza

“Ah! Non guinge uman pensiero”

What about this is virtuosic?
High coloratura line
Wide range
Quick tempo
Complex ornamentation
What does she look like?
- Big gestures, wild eyes

Franz Liszt
1811-1886
Hungarian, active in France and Germany
Virtuoso pianist and composer
Brought piano into the concert hall
Lisztomania – fan hysteria over Liszt
Memorized the music he played (wasn’t normal back then)
Composed for orchestra and choir, but best known for his piano works
Etudes, character pieces, piano transcriptions

Liszt’s Piano Transcriptions

Adaptations of popular opera melodies
- Could be copied exactly or just paraphrased
Variations
Reduces operas into 15-minute concert pieces
Characteristics:
- Extensive chromaticism
- Scales
- Arpeggios
- Three-handed piano technique - keeps melody in middle register, arpeggios in treble and
bass register

Liszt: Fantaisie sur des motifs favoris de l’opéra “La sonnambla” (S. 393)
Form
- Slow aria
- 3-handed technique
- Fast section
- Cadenza
- Tempo 1
- Poco animoto
Describe the behavior/demeanor of the pianist

Nationalism
Unifying or representing a group by creating a national identity through shared characteristics
such as:
- Common language, culture, history, institutions and rituals/traditions
- The arts helped to unify groups
- Certain melodic and harmonic styles were cultivated
- Culture specific subjects (folk stories, songs and dances)

Richard Wagner
1813-1883
Composer and writer who greatly influenced all the arts
Wrote on music, literature, drama, politics, and morality
Concerned with creating a German art
Wrote his own librettos
Believed in the oneness of music and drama

Music Drama
Music Drama: a dramatic work where music plays a primary role
Gesamtkunstwerk: total or collective artwork involving all the arts: poetry, scenic design,
staging, action, and music.
Leitmotif: a motive, theme or musical idea associated with a person, thing, mood, or idea that
recurs and changes (think about Lord of the Rings or Harry Potter)
- Can be a melody, harmonic progression, rhythmic pattern, or combination.

How is Music Drama different?

Music Drama Previous Opera
-Continuous story -Story is broken up into sections
-Through-composed/endless melody -Various musical forms: arias, recits,
-Syllabic/declamatory ensembles, and scenes
-Very chromatic/consonant harmonic change -Declamatory recitatives with more melodic
-Larger orchestra or melismatic arias
-Orchestra takes on important narrative -Orchestra doesn’t cover singers
function -Orchestra acts as accompaniment

Wagner’s Theatre
Bayreuth Festspielhaus (1876)
Keeping the audience’s attention:
- Dimming the lights
- Hiding the orchestra
- Audience sat together
- Expected to stay seated
- Set changes happened during the music

The Ring Cycle

26 years to complete (1848-1874)
First complete performance in 1876
Der Ring des Nibelungen – A cycle of four dramas based on Norse legend
- Das Rheingold (The Rhine Gold)
- Die Walküre (The Valkyrie)
- Siegfried
- Götterdämmerung (The Twilight of the Gods)

Characters
Gods, mortals, giants, dwarfs, mermaids, and a talking bird!
Siegfried – mortal hero and son of Wotan, King of the gods
Siegmund and Sieglinde – his human parents who are also siblings
Valkyries – Warrior daughters of Wotan who escort souls of slain warriors to Valhalla
Brünhilde – a Valkyrie, Siegfried’s Aunt and lover
Alberich – a Nibelung, or dwarf, who steals the Rhine gold
Rhine Maidens – mermaids that protect the Rhine gold

Das Rheingold: Scene 1 “Lugt, Schwestern!...Haltet den Räuber!”

The Rhine Maidens mock the dwarf, Alberich, and he steals the gold.

Die Walküre: “Leb wohl”/Feuermusik

Wotan is saying goodbye to his daughter Brünnhilde, who will sleep in a ring of rfire until
someone comes for her. Wotan is punishing her for disobeying his orders.

Women in Society in the 19th Century

Could not vote
Could not attend universities
Discouraged from working outside the home
Often could not control finances/own property

Women and Music

Learned instrument as part of education – to attract husband
Could become professional singers, pianists
Did not play in orchestras
Not encouraged to compose
Had to perform their own works
Composed mostly small-scale works (piano music, Lieder, chamber music, etc.)

How did women exert influence?

As performers
As curators of culture
As muses
As editors/advisors

Clara Wieck-Schumann
1819-1896
Child prodigy, daughter of Friedrich Wieck
60+ year career as concert pianist
Composed piano works, Lieder, chamber music
Close working relationship with Brahms, Joachim

C. Schumann: Scherzo no. 1

Published as op. 10 in 1838
Scherzo and trio
Musical style
 Chromatic
 Formally complex (when does the trio appear?)
 Harmonically adventurous
Fanny Mendelssohn-Hensel
1805-1847
From prosperous family
Hosted Salons in Berlin
Did not perform in public (only once)
Composed piano works, Lieder, chamber music (400+ works)
Including works attributed to Felix

F. Mendelssohn: Piano Trio

Published as op. 11 in 1850
Violin, cello, piano
4 movements
I Allegro molto vivace
 Long, especially lengthy development
 Lyrical melodies
 Chromatic
 Continuous (no repeats; no clear sections)

Alma Mahler
1879-1964
Viennese socialite and composer
Emigrated to U.S.
Hosted salons in California and New York
Composed lieder

Alma Mahler: “Laue Sommernacht”

Published in 1911 as part of 5 Lieder but composed earlier
Musical style
 Quite chromatic
 Expressive declamatory style
 Harmonically adventurous (ends of V7)

20th Century I: Modernisms

Continued technological advancement
Political restructuring of society
Wars redraw borders
Globalism makes the world smaller
Events:
- WWI
- Great Depression
- WWII
- Cold War
- NATO, United Nations, European Union, etc.

20th Century Music

No one coherent style period
A collection of highly individual movements and ideas
New and traditional genres
All in some departing from tradition (tonality)

Modernism
Ca. 1900-1950
Philosophical and aesthetic movement
Self-consciously new: rejects or departs from tradition
Encompasses other “isms”
- Impressionism
- Expressionism

Musical Modernism
Reaction to 19th century musical style
Abandons tonality
- Does not necessarily mean atonal, but it does not follow traditional harmonic
progressions or ideas of tonality
More experimental (in performance and composition)
More irregular rhythms, meters, and melodies

Impressionism
Ca. 1870-1920
Centered in France
First applied to visual art
Focus on individual impression an experience makes on viewer (rather than realistic depiction)
Emphasis on play of light and color

Musical Impressionism
Focus on timbre, texture
Weakening of tonality through:
- Use of synthetic scales
- Parallel motion
- Static harmonies
Genres: tone poems, songs, chamber music, etc.
Composers: Debussy, Ravel, Faure

Claude Debussy
1862-1918
Studied at Paris Conservatory
Influenced by Eastern music
Composed songs, piano works, chamber music, tone poems, etc.

Debussy: “Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun”

Composed in 1894
For orchestra
Tone poem: based on poem by Stephane Mallarme
No concrete narrative (in poem or music)
Use of whole-tone scale
Many themes but no development of those themes
Very chromatic; no real tonal center
Constantly changing meter
Lots of parallel motion
Static harmonies
Emphasis on texture and timbre

Expressionism
Ca. 1900-1930
Germany/Austria
Applied to music, art, literature
Expresses highly subjective, often distorted emotions/ideas
Often on grotesque or perverse themes

Musical Expressionism
Expressive use of dissonance
Atonality: music with no tonal center
Angular melodies
- Not stepwise, very disjunct
Irregular rhythms/meters
Counterpoint
Genres: songs, opera, chamber music, etc.
Composers: Schoenburg, Berg

Arnold Schoenberg
1874-1951
Composer and theorist
Self-taught
Championed “pantonality,” 12-tone method
Emigrated to the U.S.
Composed chamber music, Lieder, piano music, orchestral works, etc.

Schoenberg: Pierrot Lunaire

Composed 1912
Melodrama for voice and chamber ensemble (flute/piccolo, clarinet/bass clarinet, violin/viola,
cello, piano, singer)
Setting of 21 poems by Albert Giraud/ Otto Erich Hartleben about Pierrot
Atonal but not 12-tone
Sprechstimme: half-sung, half-spoken singing style
“Gemeinheit”
- Disturbing text
- Very dissonant harmonies
- Angular but expressive melody
- Changing meter
 - Very independent lines=counterpoint

Arnold Schönberg
1874-1951
Born in Vienna, worked in Germany and later in the United States
Began career by writing tonal works
Tied to expressionism in his music and paintings
Developed atonality and later the twelve-tone method

Atonality
Avoidance of tonal center, “emancipation of dissonance”
Progression from highly chromatic music from the 19th century
Structure and coherence:
- Use of tonal-sounding melodies
- Use of variation
- Chromatic saturation (using twelve notes in a given segment)

Free Atonality
Pitches free from relationship to a tonal center
Dissonances are usually unresolved
Integer numbers from 0 to 11 assigned to pitches, arranged in multiple ways
Becomes the basis for the development of the twelve-tone method

Alban Berg
1885-1935
Began studying with Schönberg at age nineteen
Considered to have a more accessible approach to atonality
Personal role of music

Wozzeck: Background
Adapted from Georg Büchner’s play Woyzeck
Setting music to pre-written text was not common at the time
Fifteen scenes (out of twenty-six) picked by Berg
Focus on oppression by authorities
In line with expressionist aesthetics

Wozzeck: Music
Written in 1922
Formal structure without relying on tonality
Coherence through melodies
Sprechstimme: chromatic vocal lines that lie somewhere between melody and highly inflected
speech
Representational use of pitches (e.g., B for Wozzeck, F for Marie)

Wozzeck, Act 1, Scene 3, March and Lullaby*

Listen for:
 - Interactions between tonality and atonality to express the outside world and tensions in
the inside world of Marie and Wozzeck
- Vocal style varieties
- Use of folk melodies and Sprechstimme
Timeline:
- Military march, Marie singing with band
- Arguments between Marie and her neighbor
- Window shutting changes the mood of the music
- Lullaby using folk-like melodies and rhythms (B and F tritone included)
- Lush chords in the strings
- Wozzeck interrupts

Wozzeck, Act 3, Scene 2, Invention on a Note

Listen for:
- Extended use of the pitch B representing Wozzeck
- Dramatic action portrayed musically
Timeline:
- Low B’s coming in and out along with the actions in the plot
- Tension builds to a climax ended by the triangle as Wozzeck praises Marie
- Tension returns shortly afterwards
- Another stop as Wozzeck sings the word “Nix” (nothing) on the low B
- Moon rises with B’s on the strings and pianissimo brass
- B’s played by the timpani as Wozzeck stabs Marie
- Two dramatic crescendos on B, followed by the brass drum playing Wozzeck’s madness
rhythm from the following movemement

Twelve-Tone Method
Tones related to each other instead of a tonic
Use of rows or series of all twelve tones in a specific order
Notes may be used as melody, harmony, or counterpoint
Rows may be transformed by inverting the intervals, playing the row in reverse order, or a
combination of the two
All tones in the row should be stated before being repeated in another row or iteration

Arnold Schönberg Variation für Orchester (Variations for Orchestra) Op. 31

Written between 1926 and 1928
First composition to use the twelve-tone method for a large orchestra
Movements differing in sound spectrums
Splits the row and its permutations between instruments, allowing for individual unique motives
while maintaining the twelve-tone system
Uses the B A C H (B-flat, A, C, B-natural) motive as homage to J.S. Bach

Anton Webern
1883-1945
Began studying with Schönberg in 1904 as did Berg
Music following rules based on natural law
Believed twelve-tone music to be the inevitable evolution of Western art music
Twelve-tone music as discovery, not invention
Anton Webern, Symphony Op. 21
Written in 1928
Spacious diction, only about eight to nine minutes in length
Use of twelve-tone method, canons
Timbre becomes integral to the melody through Klangfarbenmelodie (tone-color melody)
New takes on Classical formal principles (e.g., sonata form)

Interactions Between Music and Politics

Propaganda
Activism
With/without composers’ intent

Music as Propaganda
Propaganda: biased or misleading information used to promote political cause
Music is particularly effective because it is abstract and emotional
It can be made to mean anything
It can connect us to causes emotionally, rather than rationally

Music in Nazi Germany

Music had a unique status in German culture
“Politics aspires to music”
Creation of Reichsmusikkammer (“Reich Music Chamber”) in 1933 [responsibility was to
regulate music]
Part of RKK (“Reich Culture Chamber”) headed by Goebbels

Reich Music Chamber

Headed by Richard Strauss (1933-1935), Wilhelm Furtwängler (1933-1934) but controlled by
Goebbels
Promoted “Good German Music”
Banned “Degenerate Music”
Functioned as Musician’s Guild – membership was compulsory in order to have a career as a
musician in Nazi Germany (caused many musicians to be accused as Nazis)

“Good Music”
Canonical German composers: Beethoven, Wagner, Bach, Mozart, Haydn, Brahms, Bruckner
i.e. Aryans
Nazis (mis)appropriated their music as examples of unique German spirit
Communal singing of folk-like songs to unite German people (in support of Nazi ideology)

“Degenerate Music”
Music by Jewish composers, atonal music, Jazz and American popular music, anything else
deemed threatening
Banned: Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, Mahler, Schoenberg, Debussy, etc.
Banned: Berg, Hindemith, Stravinsky, etc. (not Jewish, but Modernists)
Banned: Irving Berlin, George Gershwin, Benny Goodman, etc.
Illegal: listening to American music, foreign radio stations

Disseminating Music as Propaganda

Public concerts
International tours of German orchestras – demonstrating Germany’s cultural superiority
Playing music on the radio – tune in for the music, stay for the propaganda!
Publishing songbooks for school children, Hitler Youth, amateur choral societies, etc.
Music in propaganda films
“Triumph of the Will”
1935 Nazi propaganda film depicting 1934 Nazi Party Congress in Nuremberg
Employs music by Wagner, Horst-Wessel-Lied, original score (now illegal in Germany)
What impact does the music have?
Can you imagine how the music and the film would have been compelling for its original
audiences?

The Case of Hindemith

Attempted to write “Good German Music”
Ended up banned anyway
Danger of trying to conform to indistinct ideology

Paul Hindemith
1895-1963
Born and educated in Frankfurt, Germany
“Bad Boy” of Weimar Republic
Gebrauchsmusik: “Music for Use”
Banned by RKK

Mathis der Maler

Opera based on life of renaissance painted Matthias Grünewald
Composed 1934-35
Symphony Mathis der Maler standalone work using instrumental music from the opera
Composed 1933-34

Symphony Mathis der Maler

How might this appeal to the Nazis?
How not?
Not strictly tonal, but consonant with many triadic harmonies
Employs folk songs or folk-like melodies
But still Modernist

Other Examples of Musical Propaganda

USSR: Shostakovich, Prokofiev, etc.
Maoist China: Beijing Opera
Jim Crow America: KKK Songs
Music in contemporary political ads
Music as Activism
Composers write music to call attention to specific societal problems
Political, but not necessarily supporting any one ideology
Unites through appeal to sentiment

“We Shall Overcome”

Originally a Gospel hymn but became a protest song
1945: sung by tobacco workers during strike in SC
1936: sung by Joan Baez during March on Washington
1968: cited by Martin Luther King Jr. in a letter
1960’s: sung in Spanish for grape boycotts, by Robert F. Kennedy in protest of Apartheid in
South Africa
Connections to Prague Spring, Bloody Sunday, Israel-Palestine conflict, terrorist attacks in
Norway, Bangladesh War of Independence, Indian student protects, etc.

Avant-garde
Literally “advanced guard”: describes artists or works that are “ahead of their time” or “on the
cutting edge”
Experimental, radical rejection of tradition
Musical avant-garde after WWII
- Total Serialism
- New York School
- Postmodernism

Total Serialism
From late 1940’s-
Inspired by Schoenberg’s 12-tone method
Applies the principle of an ordered row to other musical elements: rhythm, dynamics, register,
etc.
Music might sound random but is highly ordered
Composers: Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Milton Babbitt

Electronic Music
Music that uses electronic technology to create or manipulate sounds
- Splicing magnetic tape
- Electronic instruments
- Computers/Synthesizer
Could produce music too complex for human musicians to play

Milton Babbitt
1916-2011
Lived and worked in USA
Studied mathematics and music
Thought of music as scientific research
Composed for acoustic, electronic mediums, and combinations of both
Babbitt: Ensembles for Synthesizer
Composed 1962-1964
Genre: Electronic Music
Created using RCA Mark II Synthesizer at Columbia-Princeton
“Ensembles” = collections of pitches
How does this compare to Schoenberg’s 12-tone music?
- Great diversity of timbral effects
- Complex rhythms
- But thematic/motivic consistency

New York School

Group of artists, musicians, and writers living in NYC in 1960’s
Wanted to radically redefine their respective artistic mediums
Examples: Abstract Expressionism, Stream of Consciousness, Modern Dance, etc.
Composers: John Cage, Morton Feldman, Earle Brown, Christian Wolff

John Cage and 4’33’’

Questioned “What is music?”
Created new musical sounds: Prepared Piano
Giving up compositional control: Indeterminate Music
Non-traditional notation
4’33’’ (1952) invites us to reinterpret “non-musical sounds”

Cathy Berbérian
1925-1983
Mezzo-soprano and composer
Lived in USA, Italy
Associated with musical avant-garde, Early Music
Composed only 2 works

Berbérian: Stripsody
Composed 1966
For unaccompanied voice
Genre: Indeterminate Music
Graphic score: consists of drawings rather than traditional notation
Series of comic book sounds/onomatopoeia
How does it challenge our preconceptions about what music is? For audiences and performers?

Postmodernism
From mid-20th century-
Philosophical and aesthetic movement
Rejects Modernism’s focus on progress, rationality, totality
Embraces irony, intertextuality, self-referentiality, pluralism
Postmodern Music
Rejects
- Boundaries between “high” and “low” art
- Idea of progress
- Stylistic consistency
Embraces
- Stylistic eclecticism (popular/classical, tonal/atonal, etc.)
- Collage: quotations of other musical works
- Multiple meanings

Luciano Berio
1925-2003
Active in Italy
Studied serialism, electronic music
Composed electronic, acoustic, electroacoustic music

Berio: Sinfonia
Composed 1968-1969
Symphony in 5 movements
For orchestra, 8 amplified voices
Includes quotations of spoken texts and other musical works

Sinfonia: III
Musical collage based mostly on Mahler’s Symphony 2 Scherzo (III)
Also quotes: Debussy, Ravel, Stravinsky, Schoenberg, Berg, Webern, Brahms, Hindemith,
Berio, Boulez, etc.
Quoted texts: Samuel Beckett’s The Unnameable, references to James Joyce, Berio’s diary,
French graffiti
What effect does this musical collage have?
In what ways could we consider it postmodern?
How does it challenge/reject tradition?

Jazz and Popular Music

Musical traditions/genres popular in America during the 20th century
Outside the canon of Western art music
But influence concert music
Genres
- Jazz
- Musical

Jazz
From ca. 1910
Tradition/Genre of American music
Multiple different styles: Swing, Bebop, Free Jazz, etc.
Develops from African-American, European, and popular music
Starts as an oral tradition
Ragtime
Ca. 1910-1920
Popular genre of piano music composed by African-Americans (Scott Joplin)
Characterized by “ragged time”: heavily syncopated rhythms
Syncopation: rhythmic accents on metrically weak beats
Originally improvised

Blues
From ca. 1870
Genre of songs composed/sung by African-Americans
Themes: sad but defiant
Twelve bar blues: repeating rhythmic-harmonic pattern over which melody could be improvised
I-I-I-I-IV-IV-I-I-V-V-I-I
“Blue notes”: pitches lowered for expressive effect

Jazz: Musical Features

Ensembles divided into melodic instruments (trumpet, clarinet, trombone, saxophone, etc.) and
“rhythm section” (drums, piano, guitar)
Syncopated and “swung” rhythms
Repeated rhythmic-harmonic patterns
Improvisation in both ensemble and solos
Harmonies often embellished with added 7ths, 9ths, 13ths, etc.

Duke Ellington
1899-1974
Composer, pianist, band leader
Associated with Swing
Credited with elevating Jazz as an art form
Called his compositions “American Music”

“It Don’t Mean a Thing”

Composed 1931, released 1932
Ellington: “the expression of a sentiment which prevailed among jazz musicians at the time”
Listen for
- Big Band orchestra in 2 sections
- Repeating harmonic pattern
- Syncopation/swing rhythms
- Improvisation

Ella Fitzgerald’s version compares with the original how?

Jazz combo vs. Big Band orchestra
Scat: vocal improvisation without text
More improvisation overall

Musical
From ca. 1900
Musical-dramatic genre featuring songs, dance, and spoken dialogue
Influence by operetta, vaudeville
Plots are typically romantic comedies
Music is in accessible style to appeal to popular taste
- Melody + simple accompaniment
- Mostly diatonic
- Fewer complex rhythms, textures, etc.

Leonard Bernstein
1918-1990
American composer/conductor
Synthesized popular and classical musical styles
Composed musicals, operas, film music, orchestral works, choral music, etc.

West Side Story

Premiered in 1957
Based on Shakespeare’s Romeo & Juliet
Commentary on race relations in 1950’s NYC
Combines elements of popular music, jazz, opera, and ballet
Large orchestra with variety of instruments, including those associated with jazz and Latin music
Complex rhythms, harmonies, and textures
Chromaticism anchored in tonality

“Cool”
Draws on Bebop jazz
- Fast tempo
- Complex harmonic progressions
- Quick chord changes
- Virtuosic melodies
Fugue with 12-tone subject and several counter-subjects

What references to jazz music do you hear?

How does this differ from more accessible styles of jazz and musicals?
What is the relationship between the musical style and the dramatic situation?

Jazz elements
- Syncopated/swung rhythms
- Improvisatory melodies
- Repeated harmonic pattern
Very complex harmonies, counterpoint

“America”
References to Latin American music
- Dance rhythms
- Mixed meters (6/8 and ¾)
 - Use of calves, guiro (percussion)
How does the musical style compare to “Cool?”
Accessible melody
Relatively straight-forward harmonically
Dance rhythms, mixed meters
Overall less complex than “Cool”
Ironic juxtaposition of upbeat music and depiction of racism

Turnio’s Model of Identity

Self
Identity
Culture
Society

Self
Everything an individual does
What makes a person “unique”?
Shaped by body and social environment (nature and nurture)
Can be changed by changing behavior/habits
All the music I listen to

Identity
Selection of these habits/behaviors used to represent oneself
Not every aspect of the self is relevant to the identity
Involves unifying ourselves with others and differentiating ourselves from others
The music I listen to that I’m not embarrassed of

Culture(s)
Habits/behaviors that are roughly shared by a group of individuals
There is no single culture, but many cultures
An individual can belong to multiple cultures
Cultural habits are based on our personal experience
The music I listen to that other members of my social class, race, gender, generation, etc. also
like to listen to

Society
All the habits/behaviors within a social order
Largest group of individuals, cultures with a shared way of life (i.e. the industrialized world)
“Global Community”
All the music that exists in the industrialized world

Music and Identity

Music is one of many habits that index a given culture or group
Music can be created for a given group
Existing music may become associated with a given group
Music may be shared by multiple groups
Music may be appropriated by one group to another group

Spirituals
Index culture defined by race
Composed by African-Americans for African-Americans
Binds members of a race group
- Text references shared history: slavery
- Tradition of performance by African-Americans
- Personal experiences/memories of songs
Not all African-Americans listen to/sing spirituals
There is a sense that this music “belongs” to this group

“Classical” Music
Indexes culture defined by class
Originally performed for/by AN upper middle-class
What does 18th century Italian music have to do with late 20th century American consumers?
Do most members of this social group listen to Vivaldi?
Why is it an effective marker of identity?

Sharing Culture vs. Cultural Appropriation

Blues, Jazz, Rock-n-Roll, Hip-Hop, Rap originated within one culture but are now performed
and consumed by multiple groups
Is this necessarily problematic?
Does the music cease to be a signifier of the original group?
Does it come to signify another group (young people, Western society, etc.)?
Can multiple cultural associations exist simultaneously?

Music and Representation

Representation: seeing your culture(s) in depictions of society at large (“mainstream”/dominant
culture)
Because music is such an important part of identity, representation of cultural groups in music
matters
Seeing people of our race, gender, class, religion, sexual orientation, etc. represented tells us we
matter to society
Why is classical music so bad at representation?

Does representation in music matter? Why or why not? How could we increase diversity in
leadership positions? How should we approach representation in music education?