©A PRODUCT OF INFOTHIRST

INCLUDES INDIAN ECONOMY, INDIAN POLITY WITH

AMENDMENTS, INDIAN HISTORY, GENERAL STUDIES
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HISTORY
Ancient Indian History
Indian Prehistory

• The fossils of the early human being have not been found in India. A hint of the earliest human presence in India
is indicated by stone tools of about 250,000 BC obtained from the deposits.

• However, recent reported artifacts from Bori in Maharashtra suggest the appearance of human beings in India
around 1.4 million years ago.

• From their first appearance to around 3000 BC humans used only stone tools for different purposes.

• This period is, therefore, known as the Stone Age, which has been divided into Paleolithic (early or Old Stone)
Age, Mesolithic (Middle Stone) Age, and Neolithic (New Stone) Age.

The Paleolithic Age in India (500,000 BC – 8000 BC):

• In India it developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age.b.

• The earliest traces of human existence in India go back to 500,000 BC.

• The Paleolithic sites are spread in practically all parts of India except the alluvial plains of Indus and Ganga.

• The people of this age were food gathering people who lived on hunting and gathering wild fruits and vegetables.

• Man during this period used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones and lived in cave and rock shelters.
They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery of any material.

• They mainly used hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades, scrapers and burin. Their tools were made of hard rock
called ‘quartzite’. Hence Paleolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite Men’.

• Homo sapiens first appeared in the last of this phase.

• It has been pointed out that Paleolithic men belonged to the Negrito race.

• The Paleolithic Age in India has been divided into three phases according to the nature of stone tools used by the
people and also according to the nature of change in the climate – Early or lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic
and Upper Paleolithic.

• The Early Paleolithic Age covers the greater part of the Ice Age. Its characteristic tools are hand axes, cleavers
and choppers. Such tools have been found in Soan and Sohan river valley (now in Pakistan) and in the Belan
Valley in the Mirzapur district of UP In this period climate became less humid.
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• Middle Paleolithic Phase is characterized by the use of stone tools made of flakes mainly scrapers, borers and
blade like tools. The sites are found in the valleys of Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers.

• In the Upper Paleolithic Phase, the climate became warm and less humid. This stage is marked by burins and
scrapers. Such tools have been found in APKarnataka, Maharashtra, Bhopal and Chhota Nagpur plateau.

The Mesolithic Era History (8000 BC – 6000 BC) :

• In this age, climate became warm and dry. Climate changes brought about changes in fauna and flora and made
it possible for human beings to move to new areas. Since then, there haven’t been major changes in the climate.

• The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic Age are known as Microliths-pointed, cresconic blades, scrapers, etc, all
made of stone.

• The people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering; at a later stage they also domesticated animals.

• The last phase of this age saw the beginning of plane cultivation.

• Various Mesolithic sites are found in the Chhotanagpur region, Central India and also south of the Krishna River.

• In the Belan valley of Vindhyas, all the three phases of the Paleolithic followed by the Mesolithic and then by the
Neolithic have been found in sequence. Similar is the case with the middle part of the Narmada valley.

The History of Neolithic Era (6000 BC – 1000 BC) :

• In India Neolithic Age is not earlier than 6000 BC and at some places in South and Eastern India; it is as late as
1000 BC.

• During this phase people were again depending on stone implements. But now they used stones other than
quartzite for making tools, which were more lethal, more finished and more polished.

• Neolithic men cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram. They domesticated cattle, sheep
and goat.

• They knew about making fire and making pottery, first by hand and then by potters wheel. They also painted and
decorated their pottery.

• They lived in caves and decorated their walls with hunting and dancing scenes. They also knew the art of making
boats. They could also weave cotton and wool to make cloth.

• In the later phase of Neolithic phase people led a more settled life and lived in circular and rectangular houses
made of mud and reed.

• Important sites of this age are Burzahom and Gufkral in J&K (famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyard in
house), Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalakota in Karnataka, Paiyampatti in Tamil Nadu, Piklihal and Hallur in AP, Garo
hils in Meghalaya, Chirand and Senuwar in Bihar (known for remarkable bone tools), Amri, Kotdiji, etc.

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• Koldihawa in UP revealed a three fold cultural sequence: Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age.

Chalcolithic Period :

• The end of the Neolithic Period saw the use of metals of which copper was the first. A culture based on the use of
stone and copper arrived. Such a culture is called Chalcolithic which means the stone-copper phase.

• Apart from stone tools, hand axes and other objects made of copperware also used.

• The Chalcolithic people used different types of pottery of which black and red pottery was most popular. It was
wheel made and painted with white line design.

• These people were not acquainted with burnt bricks. They generally lived in thatched houses. It was a
village economy.

• They venerated the mother goddess and worshiped the bull.

• Important sites of this phase are spread in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, MP, etc.

Indus Valley Civilization in India

Ancient Civilizations in India

• The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra
River in what is now Pakistan and north-western India. Among other names for this civilization is the Harappan
Civilization, in reference to its first excavated city of Harappa.

• An alternative term for the culture is Saraswati-Sindhu Civilization, based on the fact that most of the Indus Valley
sites have been found at the Halkra-Ghaggar River.

• R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921. R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or
‘Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus) in 1922. Sir John Marshal played a crucial role in both these.

• Harappan Civilization forms part of the proto history of India and belongs to the Bronze Age.

• Mediterranean, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloids and Alpines formed the bulk of the population, though the first two
were more numerous.

• More than 100 sites belonging to this civilization have been excavated.

• According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year 2500 – 1750 BC.

• Copper, bronze, silver, gold were known but not iron.

Geographical Extent :

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• Covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and some parts of Western UP. It extended from
Manda in Jammu in the north to Daimabad in the south and from Alamgirpur in W. UP to Sutkagendor in
Baluchistan in the west.

• Major sites in Pakistan are Harappa (on Ravi in W Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on Indus), Chanhu-Daro (Sindh), etc. In
India, major sites are Lothal, Rangpur and Surkotda (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banwali (Hissar), and
Alamgirpur (Western UP).

• Largest and the latest site in India is Dholavira in Gujarat. Dr. J.R Joshi and Dr. R.S. Bisht were involved in it.

Indus Valley Civilization Town Planning :

• Elaborate town-planning. It followed the Grid System. Roads were well cut, dividing the town into large
rectangular or square blocks. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lightning. Flanking the
streets, lanes and by-lanes were well-planned houses.

• Used burnt bricks of good quality as the building material. Elsewhere in the contemporary world, mud-bricks were
used.

• Houses, often of two or more storey, varied in size, but were quite monotonous a square courtyard, around which
were a number of rooms. No window faced the streets. The houses had tiled bathrooms.

• Good drainage system. Drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum and covered with large brick slabs for easy
cleaning. Shows developed sense of health and sanitation.

• The towns were divided into 2 parts: Upper part or Citadel and Lower Part. The Citadel was an oblong artificial
platform some 30-50 feet high and about 400-200 yards in area It was enclosed by a thick (13 m at Harappa)
crenelated mud-brick wall. In Citadel public buildings, granaries, important workshops and religious buildings were
there. In lower part people used to live.
• In Mohanjodaro, a big public bath (Great Bath) measuring 12 m by 7 m and 2.4 m deep, has been found. Steps
led from either end to the surface, with changing rooms alongside. It was probably used for ritual bathing.

Excavations & Excavators :

Chanhudaro (on Indus) 1931 M.G Majumdar

Sutkogendor (on Dasak) 1927 Sir Aurel Stein

Kotdip (on Indus) 1955 Fazl Ahmed Khan

Ropar (on Satluj) 1953 Y.D. Sharma

Banwaii (on Saraswati) 1973 R.S.Bisht

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Lothal (on Bhogwa) 1954 S.R.Rao

Rangpur (on Mahar) 1931-53 M.S.Vats, B.B. Lal, S.R. Rao

Amri (on Indus) 1929 N.G. Majumdar

Kalibangan (on Ghaggar) 1961 B.B.Lai

Sorkotda - 1964 J. Joshi

Alamgirpur (on Hindon) 1958 Y.D. Sharma

Indus Valley Civilization Economic Life

Indus Valley Civilization Agriculture :

• The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their
harvests of wheat and barley in Apr, before the advent of the next flood.

• Grew wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), cotton, dates, melon, etc. The Indus people
were the first to produce cotton.

• In Kalibangan, fields were ploughed with wooden ploughs.

• Domesticated animals on large scale. Besides the cattle, cats and dogs were domesticated. Horse wasn’t in
regular use but elephant was. Remains of horse at Surkotda and dogs with men in grave at Ropar have been
discovered.

• Produced sufficient to feed themselves.

• Food grains were stored in granaries.

Trade and Commerce in Ancient India :

• Well-knit external and internal trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and trade was carried through
Barter System.

• Weights and measures of accuracy existed in Harappan culture (found at Lothal). The weights were made of
limestone, steatite, etc and were generally cubical in shape.

• 16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64,160, 320).

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• Flint tool-work, shell-work, bangle making, pottery making, etc were practiced. Raw material for these came from
different sources: gold from N.Karnataka, silver and lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and Iran, copper from Khetri and
Baluchistan, etc.

• Bead making factory existed in Chanhudaro and Lothal. They were items of export.

• A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal. Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot functioned as seaports. Sutkagendor
and Sutkakoh functioned as outlets.

• The inland transport was done with bullock carts.

• Every merchant or mercantile family probably had a seal bearing an emblem, often of a religious character, and a
name or brief description, on one side. The standard Harappa seal was a square or oblong plaque made of
steatite stone. The primary purpose of the seal was probably to mark the ownership of property, but they may
have also served as amulets.

• The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC onwards refer to trade relations with Meluha, the ancient name
of the Indus region. Harappan seals and other material has been found at Mesopotamia. Also traded with Sumer.

Indus Valley Civilization Art and Craft :

• The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age.

• Bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were mostly made of copper and bronze. For making bronze,
copper was obtained from Khetri in Rajasthan and from Baluchistan, and tin from Afghanistan.

• Cotton fabrics quite common. Woolen in winter.

• Very fond of ornaments (of gold, silver, ivory, copper, bronze, precious stones) and dressing up. Ornaments were
worn by both men and women. Women wore heavy bangles in profusion, large necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets,
fingure-rings, girdles, nose studs and anklets. The Harappans were also an expert bead makers.

• Potter’s wheel was in use. Their pottery was red or black pottery. Played dice games. Their favourite pastime was
Gambling.

• The Harappans most notable artistic achievement was their seal gravings, esp. those of animals. The red
sandstone torso of a man is particularly impressive for its realism. However, the most impressive of the figurines
is perhaps the bronze image of the famous dancing girl (identified as devadasi), found at Mohenjodaro.

• For their children, they made cattle-toys with movable heads, model monkeys which could slide down a string,
little toy-carts, and whistles shaped like birds, all of terracotta.

The Indus Valley Civilization Religious Life :

• Main object of worship was the Mother Goddess. But the upper classes preferred a god, nude with two horns,
much similar to Pasupati Siva. Represented on the seal is a figure with three horned heads in a yogic posture. He

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is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger and a rhinoceros, and below his throne is a buffalo. Near his feet are two
deer. Pashupatinath represented male deity.

• Phallus (lingam) and yoni worship was also prevalent.

• Many trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were worshipped. Unicorn was also
worshipped. However, no temple has been found, though idolatry was practiced.

• At Kalibangan and Lothal fire altars have been found.

• Although no definite proof is available with regard to the disposal of the dead, a broad view is that probably there
were three methods of disposing the dead – complete burial, burial after exposure of the body to birds and
beasts, and cremation followed by burial of the ashes.

• The discovery of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vessels with ashes, bones and charcoal may, however,
suggest that during the flourishing period of the Indus Valley culture the third method was generally practiced. In
Harappa, there is one place where evidence of coffin burial is there. The people probably believed in ghosts and
evil spirits, as amulets were worn.

• Dead bodies were placed in the north-south orientation.

Indus Valley Civilization Script :

• The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about 600 undeciphered pictographs).

• The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of letters show that it was written from right to left in the
first line and left to right in the second line. This style is called ‘Boustrophedon’.

Indus Valley Civilization Political Organization :

• There is no clear idea of the political organization of the Indus Valley people. Perhaps they were more concerned
with commerce and they were possibly ruled by a class of merchants.

• Also, there was an organization like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people.

Vedic Period in India

The Aryans History :

• Many historians have given various theories regarding the original place of the Aryans.
• However, the Central Asian theory, given by Max Muller, is the most accepted one. It states that the Aryans were
semi-nomadic pastoral people and originated from area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
• Entered India probably through Khyber Pass (in Hindukush Mountains) around 1500 BC.
• The holy book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran.

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Early Vedic Or Rigvedic Period

Region : The early Aryans settled in Eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, Punjab and parts of western UP The whole
region in which the Aryans first settled in India is called the ‘Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava’ (The Indus and its
five tributaries and the Saraswati).

Political Organisation :

• Monarchial form, tribe was known as Jan and its king as RaJan He was the leader in battle and protector of tribe.
His office was not hereditary and was selected among the clan’s men. The rajan was not an absolute monarch,
for the government of the tribe was in part the responsibility of the tribal councils like sabha, samiti, gana and
vidhata. Even women attended sabha and vidhata.
• Many clans (Vish) formed a tribe. The basic social unit was the Kula or the family and Kulapa was the head of the
family.
• The king was assisted by a number of officers of which purohita was the most important. Next important
functionary was the Senani (leader of the army), although there was no regular or standing army. The military
technique of the early Aryans was much advanced. The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed
chariots driven by horses.
• There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by the voluntary tribute (Bali) of his
subjects and the booty won in battle.
• Villages were headed by Gramini who used to represent village in sabha and samiti. Later, Gramini was handed
over the charge of Vrajapati also (an officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground).

Social Life :

• When the Aryans entered India there was already a class division in their tribal structure.
• As they settled among the dark aboriginals, the Aryans seem to have laid greater stress than before on purity of
blood, and class divisions hardened, to exclude those dasas who had found a place in the Aryan society, and
those Aryans who had intermarried with the dasas and adopted their ways.
• Gradually, the tribal society got divided into three groups warriors, priests and commoners. Later, the fourth dasas
or shudra was also added.
• The term varna was used for color, the Aryans being fair, the dasas dark.
• Family was the basic unit of society. The family was patriarchal in nature. But women enjoyed equal power with
men. Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are few instances of polyandry, levirate and
widow-marriage. There are no examples of child-marriage. The marriageable age seems to have been 16 to 17.
• The word ‘Arya’ came to refer to any person who was respected.
• Aryans were fond of soma, sura, food and dresses. Soma was drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified by
religion. Sura was purely secular and more potent, and was diapproved by the priestly poets.
• The Aryans loved music, and played the flute, lute and harp. There are references to singing and dancing, and to
dancing girls. People also delighted in gambling. They enjoyed chariot racing. Both men and women wore
ornaments.

Rivers in Rigveda :

Modern Names Rigvedic Names

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Modern Names Rigvedic Names

Indus Sindhu

Jhelum Vitasta

Chenab Asikni

Ravi Purushni

Beas Vipasa

Sutlei Sutudri

Gomati Gumal

Kurram Krumu

Ghaggar Drisshadvati

Early Vedic Period Economy :

• Their bronze smiths were highly skilled, and produced tools and weapons much superior to those of Harappan
culture. There were artisans like carpenters, weavers, cobblers, potters, etc.
• Aryans followed a mixed economy – pastoral and agricultural – in which cattle played a predominant part.
• Most of their wars were foughtfor cow (most important form of wealth). Cattle were in fact a sort of currency, and
values were reckoned in heads of cattle (man’s life was equivalent to that of 100 cows), but they were not held
sacred at this time. The horse was almost as important as the cow.
• Standard unit of exchange was cow. At the same time coins were also there (gold coins like Nishkq, Krishnal and
Satmana).
• Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance and Godhuli as a measure of time.
• Lived in fortified mud settlements.
• Physicians were there called ‘Bhishakas’.
• The staple crop was ‘yava’, which meant barley.

Vedic Period Religion :

• The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings.
• The most important divinity was Indra who played the role of warlord (breaker of forts – Purandar, also associated
with storm and thunder).
• The second position was held by Agni (fire-god). He is considered as an intermediary between gods and men.
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• Varuna occupied the third position. He personified water and was supposed to uphold the natural order. He was
ethnically the highest of all Rigvedic gods.
• Soma was considered to be the god of plants. Maruts personified the storms. Some female deities are also
mentioned, like Aditi and Usha, who represented the appearance of dawn.
• Didn’t believe in erecting temples or idol worship. Worshipped in open air through yajnas.

The Mahajanpadas

The Mahajanpadas

S.No. Mahajanapadas Capital Present Day Location

1. Kashi Varanasi Around Varanasi

2. Kosala Shravasti Eastern UP

3. Anga Champanagri Bhagal and Munger distts of Bihar

4. Magadh Girivraj or Rajgriha Patna and Gaya distt

5. Vajji Vaishali Vaishali distt of Bihar

6. Malla Kushinagar and Pavapuri South of Vaishali distt

7. Chedi Shuktimati Eastern parts of modern Bundelkhand

8. Vatsa Koushambi Around modern Allahabad

9. Kuru Hastinapur, Indraprastha and Isukara Around the Delhi-Meerut region

10. Panchal Ahichhatra and Kampilya Rohilkhand

11. Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur-Bharatpur-Alwar distts

12. Surasen Mathura Mathura region

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S.No. Mahajanapadas Capital Present Day Location

13. Assaka Paudanya Near Paithan in Maharashtra

14. Avanti Ujjaini Ujjain distt

15. Gandhara Taxila Between Kabul and Rawalpindi

16. Kamboj Rajpur Punchh area in Kashmir

Buddhism in India

Ancient Buddhism in India

Buddhism stands for 3 pillars :

• Buddha : Its Founder.

• Dhamma : His Teachings.
• Sangha : Order of Buddhist monks and nuns.

The Buddha History :

• Also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata.

• Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal.

• His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler.

• His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after 7 days of his birth. Brought up by stepmother Gautami.

• Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahula.

• After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer.

• Left his palace at 29 (with Channa, the charioteer and his favourite horse, Kanthaka) in search of truth (also called
‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or The Great Renunciation) and wandered for 6 years.

• He first meditated with Alara Kalama. But he was not convinced that man could obtain liberation from sorrow by
mental discipline and knowledge. His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra. He then joined forces with five
ascetics- Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi, who were practicing the most rigorous self-
mortification in the hope of wearing away their karma and obtaining final bliss.

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• For six years he tortured himself until he was nothing but a walking skeleton. But after six years, he felt that his
fasts and penance had been useless. So he abandoned these things. The five disciples also left him.

• Attained ‘Nirvana’ or ‘Enlightenment’ at 35 at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.

• Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called
‘Dharmachakrapravartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.

• Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at the age
of 80 in the Malla republic.

The Dhamma Indian History :

1. The Four Great Truths :

• The world is full of sorrow and misery.

• The cause of all pain and misery is desire.
• Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire.
• Desire can be controlled by following the Eight Fold Path.

2. The Eight Fold Path : It consists of Right Faith, Right Thought, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Efforts, Right
Speech, Right Remembrance and Right Concentration.

3. Belief in Nirvana :

• When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and nirvana is attained i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth
is gained by following the 8-fold path.

• According to Buddha, soul is a myth.

4. Belief in Ahimsa : One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man.

5. Law of Karma : Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds.

The Sangha History :

• Consists of monks (Bhikshus or Shramanas) and nuns.

• Bhikshus acted as a torch bearer of the dhamma.
• Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upasakas.

Buddhist Councils : The monks gathered 4 times after the death of Buddha and the effect of these events had their
effect on Buddhism.

First Council : At Rajgriha, in 483 BC under the chairman ship of Mehakassaapa (King was Ajatshatru). Divided the
teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas – Vihaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka. Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka and Ananda
recited the Sutta Pitaka.

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Second Council : At Vaishali, in 383 BC under Sabakami (King was Kalasoka). Followers divided into Sthavirmadins and
Mahasanghikas.

Third Council : At Pataliputra, in 250 BC under Mogaliputta Tissa (King was Ashoka). In this, the third part of the
Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language.

Fourth Council : At Kashmir (Kundalvan), in 72 AD under Vasumitra (King was Kanishka). Vice-Chairman was
Ashwaghosha). Divided Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.

Note:
In Mahayana, idol worship is there. It became popular in China, Japan, Korea, Afghanistan, Turkey and other SE
countries.

Hinayana became popular in Magadha and SriLanka. It believed in individual salvation and not in idol-worship.

Apart from these 2, there is a third vehicle, called ‘Vajrayana’, which appeared in 8th century and grew rapidly in Bihar
and Bengal. They did not treat meat, fish, wine, etc, as a taboo in dietary habit and freely consumed them.

Buddist Literature :

• In Pali language.
• Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitakas, ie ‘Threefold Basket’.

Vinaya Pitaka : Rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries.

Sutta Pitaka : Largest, contains collection of Buddha’s sermons.

Abhidhamma Pitaka : Explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion.

Note:

1. Mahavansh and Deepvansh are the other Buddhist texts. They provide information about the then SriLanka.
2. Jataks are the fables about the different births of Buddha.

Growth of Buddhism :

Causes of New Movement :

1. The Vedic rituals were expensive & the sacrifices prescribed were very complicated & had lost their meaning.
2. The caste system had become rigid.
3. Supremacy of Brahmins created unrest.
4. All the religious text was in Sanskrit, which was not understandable to the masses.

Causes of decline of buddhism :

1. It succumbed to the Brahmanic rituals and ceremonies, such as idol worship, etc, which Buddhism had earlier
denounced.

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2. Revival of reformed Hinduism with the preaching of Shankaracharya from ninth century onwards.
3. Use of Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals, in place of Pali, the language of the common people.
4. Deterioration in the moral standards among the monks living in Buddhist monasteries.
5. Entry of women into Buddhist monasteries.
6. Attacks of Huna king Mihirkula in the sixth century and the Turkish invaders in the twelfth century AD.

Jainism in India

History of Jainism Religion

• Founded by Rishabhanath.
• There were 24 tirthankaras (Prophetsor Gurus), all Kshatriyas.First was Rishabhanath (Emblem: Bull). His
reference is also 4n Rigveda. But there is no historical basis for the first 22 Tirthankaras. Only the last two
Tirthankaras are historical personalities.
• The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras. His main
teachings were: Non-injury, Non-lying, Non-stealing, Non-possession.
• The 24th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion).

Vardhman Mahavira History :

• He was born in Kundagram (Distt Muzafffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC.

• His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of
Vaishali.
• Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.
• Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.
• At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.
• In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained
supreme knowledge (Kaivalya).
• From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He also got
the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy.
• At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna, in 527 BC.
• Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to
it.
• After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of King Chandragupta Maurya, a severe famine led to a great
exodus of Jain monks from the Ganga valley to the Deccan, where they established important centers of their
faith.
• This migration led to a great schism in Jainism. Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted on the retention of
the rule of nudity which Mahavira had established.
• Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who remained in the north, allowed his followers to wear white garments,
owing to the hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence arose the two sects of the Jains, the Digambaras
(sky-clad, i.e., naked) and the Svetambaras (white-clad).

Teachings of Mahavira :

1. Rejected the authority of the Vedas and do not attach any importance to the performance of sacrifices.

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2. He believed that every object, even the smallest particle, possesses a soul and is endowed with consciousness.
That is why they observe strict non-violence.
3. The Jains reject the concept of a Universal Soul or a Supreme Power as the creator or Sustainer of the universe.
4. Jainism does not deny the existence of gods but refuses to give gods any important part in die universe scheme.
Gods are placed lower than the Jina.
5. Attainment of salvation (moksha) by believing in penance and dying of starvation (Main difference between
Jainism and Buddhism).
6. Universal brotherhood (non-belief in caste system).

Note: In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given and they are called the way to Nirvana. They are Right Faith, Right
Knowledge and Right Conduct.

History of Jain Councils :

First Council : Held at Pataliputra by Sthulabhadra in the beginning of third century BC. It resulted in the compilation of
12 Angas to replace 14 Purvas.

Second Council : It was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in the fifth century AD under the leadership of Devridhigani. It resulted
in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Growth of Jainism in India :

Causes of New Movement :

• The Vedic rituals were expensive & the sacrifices prescribed were very complicated & had lost their meaning.
• The caste system had become rigid.
• Supremacy of Brahmins created unrest.
• All the religious text was in Sanskrit, which was not understandable to the masses.

Other Points:

• Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta Maurya’s time. In Kalinga, it was greatly patronized by
Kharavela in the first century AD.
• Various factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism in India. They took the concept of Ahimsa too far. They
advised that one should not take medicine when one fell sick because the medicine killed germs.
• They believed that there was life in trees and vegetables and so refrained from harming them. Such practices
could not become popular with common man. There was moreover no patronage from the later kings.
• Jain literature is in Ardh-Magadhi and Prakrit dialects.
• Due to the influence of Jainism, many regional languages emerged out, like Sauraseni, out of which grew the
Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani and Kannada.

The Magadha Empire

Period of Magadha Empire : 6th Century – 4th Century BC.

Extent of Magadha Empire : Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya & parts of Shahabad & grew to be
the leading state of the time.

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Haryanka Dynasty : Originally founded in 566 BC by the grand father of Bimbisara, but actual foundation by Bimbisara.

King Bimbisara of Magadha (544 BC – 492 BC):

• Contemporary of Buddha.
• He conquered Anga (E.Bihar) to gain control over trade route with the southern states.
• His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja). He strengthened his position by matrimonial alliance with the ruling families of
Kosala, Vaishali, and Madra (3 wives).
• His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made
Rajgir impregnable.

Ajatshatru History (492 BC – 460 BC):

• Son of Bimbisara killed his father & seized the throne.

• Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed Vaishali with the help of a war engine, which was used to throw stones
like catapults. Also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killings). Kosala was
ruled by Prasenajit at that time.
• Buddha died during his reign; arranged the first Buddhist Council.

History of Udayin (460 – 444 BC): He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, situated at the confluence of the Ganga &
Son.

Shishunaga Dynasty :

• Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeeded by Kalasoka (II Buddhist council). Dynasty lasted for two
generations only.
• Greatest achievement was the destruction of power of Avanti.

Nanda Dynasty :

• It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya dynasties.

• Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. He added Kalinga to his empire. He claimed to be the ekarat, the sole
sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.
• Alexander attacked India in their reign. Dhana Nanda was there at that time.
• Nandas were fabulously rich & enormously powerful. Maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry & 6,000 war
elephants. This is supposed to have checked Alexander’s army from advancing towards Magadha.

Causes of Magadha’s Success :

• Enjoyed advantageous geographical position, i.e., near richest iron deposits (thus effective weapons).
• The 2 capitals of Magadha, Rajgir and Patliputra, were situated at very strategic points.
• Fertile soil of the lower Ganga regions.
• First used elephants in wars.

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Note:
Archaeologically, 6th century BC marks the beginning of NBPW phase (Northern Black Polished Ware) which was very
glossy, shinning type of pottery. This marked the beginning of Second Urbanization in India.

Alexander’s Invasion of India

Invasion of Alexander in India

• Alexander (356 BC – 323 BC) was the son of Philip of Macedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326 BC. At that
time NW India was split up into a number of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (kingdom of Porus),
Gandhara etc.

Except Porus who fought the famous battle of Hydaspes (on banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, all other kings submitted
meekly.

• When Alexander reached Beas, his soldiers refused to go further, so he was forced to retreat.

To mark the farthest point of his advance, he erected 12 huge stones altars on the northern bank of Beas. Remained in
India for 19 months and died in 323 BC at Babylon.

The effects of Alexander’s invasion were indirect :

1. It exposed India to Europe, by opening up four distinct lines of communication, three by land and one by sea.
2. Due to cultural contact, a cosmopolitan school of art came up in Gandhara.
3. Paved the way for the unification of north India under Chandragupta Maurya by weakening small states.

The Mauryan Dynasty

Chandragupta Maurya History (322 – 297 BC):

• With the help of Chanakya, known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta, he overthrew the Nandas & established the rule of
the Maurya dynasty.

• Chandragupta is called Sandrocottus by the Greek scholars.

• Seleucus Necater was one of the generals of Alexander and after his death, had succeeded in gaining control of
most of the Asiatic provinces.

• Chandragupta defeated him in 305 BC and was compelled to yield parts of Afghanistan to Chandragupta. There
was also a marriage alliance between the two families.

• Built a vast empire, which included not only good portions of Bihar and Bengal, but also western and north
western India and the Deccan.

• This account is given by Megasthenes (A Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya) in his book Indica. We also get the details from the Arthashastra of Kautilya.

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• Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Sravanabelagola (near Mysore) with Bhadrabahu, where he died by
slow starvation.

• Vishakhadatta wrote a drama Mudrarakshasa (describing Chandragupta’s enemy) & Debi Chandraguptam in
sixth century AD.

History of Bindusara (297 – 273 BC):

• Called Amitraghat by Greek writers.

• Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 BC. He is said to have conquered ‘the land between
the 2 seas’, i.e., the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal. At the time of his death, almost the entire subcontinent came
under the Mauryan rule. Greek Ambassador, Deimachos visited his court.

• History of Ashoka (269 – 232 BC):

• Ashoka was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain by his father, Bindusara. He was at Ujjain when
Bindusara, died. His formal coronation was delayed for four years, suggesting a disputed succession. A Buddhist
literature says that he came to throne after killing his 99 brothers.

• Regarded as one of the greatest kings of all times. He was the first ruler to maintain direct contact with people
through his inscription.

• In his inscriptions following languages have been used:

• Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Armaic and Greek. (James Princep first deciphered the inscriptions).

• Ashoka became the Buddhist under Upagupta.

Extent of Empire : His empire covered the whole territory from Hindukush to Bengal & extended over Afghanistan,
Baluchistan & whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south. Kashmir and Valleys of Nepal were
also included, first empire to do so.

The Kalinga War History : (261 BC, mentioned in XIII rock edict). It changed his attitude towards life. Ashoka became a
Buddhist after that.

Aspects of Ashoks’s Reign :

• Ashok’s empire was divided into provinces with a viceroy in each province. He established Dhramshalas,
hospitals and Sarais throughout his kingdom.

• He appointed Dharma Mahapatras to propagate dharma among various social groups including women.

• He organized a network of missionaries to preach the doctrine both in his kingdom and beyond. He sent them to
Ceylon, Burma (sent his son Mahindra & daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon) and other south-east Asian regions,
notably Thailand.

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• Ashoka is called ‘Buddhashakya & Ashok’ in Maski edict and ‘Dharmasoka’ in Sarnath inscription. He was also
known as ‘Devanampiya’- beloved of the gods, and ‘Piyadassi’- of pleasing appearance.

Significance of Mauryan Rule :

• The emblem of the Indian Republic has been adopted from the 4 – lion capital of the Ashokan pillar at Sarnath.

• Gurukuls & Buddhist monasteries developed with royal patronage. Universities of Taxila & Banaras are the gifts of
this era.

• Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Bhadrabahu’s Kalpa Sutra, Buddhist texts like the Katha Vatthu & Jain texts such as
Bhagwati Sutra, Acharanga Sutra and Dasavakalik comprise some of the important literature of this era.

Causes of the fall of Mauryan Empire :

• Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism and his anti-sacrificial attitude is said to have affected the income of the
Brahmins. So they developed antipathy against Ashoka.

• Revenue from agrarian areas was not sufficient to maintain such a vast empire as booty from war was negligible.

• Successors of Ashoka were too weak to keep together such a large centralized empire.

Note: The last Mauryan king Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga (Commander in Chief) in 185 BC, who
started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha.

Central Asian Contact

In Eastern India, Central India & the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of native rulers such as the
Shungas, the Kanvas & the Satavahanas. In N.W. India, they were succeeded by a no. of ruling dynasties from central
Asia.

1. The Indo-Greeks History :

• A number of invasions took place around 200 BC. The first to invade India were the Greeks, who were also called
the Indo – Greeks or Bactrian Greeks (because they ruled Bactria). It is said that they pushed forward as far as
Ayodhya and Pataliputra.
• The most famous Indo Greek ruler was Menander (165 – 145 BC), also known as Milinda. He had his capital at
Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab.
• He was converted into Buddhism by Nagasena. The conversation between the two has been described in the Pali
text, Milinda panho or ‘The Questions of Milinda’.
• Greeks were the first to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings, and also the first to issue gold
coins in India.
• They also introduced the practice of military governorship. The governors were called ‘Strategos’.
• The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of India. Gandhara art was its best
example.

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• The term ‘Horshastra’, used for astrology in Sanskrit is derived from the Greek term ‘Horoscope’.

2. The Shakas Or Scythians History (90 BC):

• The Greeks were followed by the Shakas, who controlled a larger part of India than the Greek did.
• There were 5 branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.
• A king of Ujjain, who called himself Vikramaditya, defeated Shakas. An era called the Vikram Samrat is reckoned
from the event of his victory over the Shakas in 57 BC. (From this time onward, Vikramaditya became a coveted
title).
• The most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman I (AD 130 – 150). His achievements are highlighted in his
Junagarh inscription. This inscription records in details the repairs of Sudrashana Lake in Kathiarwar. It is the first
major inscription to be written in Sanskrit.

3. The Parthians History :

• Originally they lived in Iran, invaded at the beginning of Christian era, from where they moved to India. In
comparison to Greeks and Shakas, they occupied only a small portion in N.W. India in the first century.
• The most famous Parthian King was Gondophernes (AD 19 – 45), in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have
come to India for the propagation of Christianity.

4. The Kushans in India (45 AD):

• Came from north central Asia near China. Their empire included a good part of central Asia, a portion of Iran, a
portion of Afghanistan, Pakistan & almost the whole of north India.
• Kanishka (AD 78-144) was their most famous king. He had two capitals- first at Purushpur, near modern
Peshawar and second at Mathura.
• He patronized the following persons:

1. Ashwaghosha (wrote ‘Buddhacharita’, which is the biography of Buddha and ‘Sutralankar’)

2. Nagarjuna (wrote ‘Madhyamik Sutra’)
3. Vasumitra (Chairman of fourth Buddhist Council)
4. Charak (a physician, wrote ‘Sasruta’.

• Kanishka controlled the famous silk route in Central Asia, which started from China and passed through his
empire in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia which formed part of Roman Empire.
• Kanishka is known in history for two reasons:

1. He started an era in AD 78, which is now known as Saka era and is used by the Govt, of India.
2. He extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism (Held the fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir).

• Some of the successors of Kanishka bore typical Indian names as Vasudeva.

• The Gandhara School of art received royal patronage of the Kushans.

Impacts of Central Asian Contacts :

• Introduced the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for both flooring and roofing.

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• Introduced the use of riding horse on a large scale. The Shakas and Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers,
and heavy long coats. They also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
• In the religious field, the Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a pillar in honour of Vasudeva near Vidisa in M.R.
• The Kushan Empire gave rise to several schools of art – Central Asian, Gandhara & Mathura.
• Mathura produced beautiful images of Buddha, but it is also famous for the headless erect statue of Kanishka.
• Vatsyayana wrote Kamasutra.

Kingdoms after the Mauryans

The Sunga Dynasty History :

• Pushyamitra founded this dynasty. His dominions extended to South as far as the Narmada River & included
cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya & Vidisha. He performed two Ashwamedha sacrifices. He also defeated the
Bactrian king, Dematrius.
• The fifth king was Bhagabhadra, to whose court Heliodoros, the Greek ambassador visited.
• A Shunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram.
• They were basically Brahmins. This period saw the revival of Bhagvatism.
• Patanjali’s classic Mahabhashya was written at this time.

The Kanva Dynasty :

• The founder of this short-lived dynasty was Vasudeva, who killed the last Sunga king, Devabhuti.
• They were swept away by Satavahanas of the Deccan.

The Chetis of Kalinga :

• The Hathigumpha inscription (near Bhubhaneshwar, Orissa) of Kharavela, the third ruler of the dynasty, gives
information about the Chetis.
• Kharavela pushed his kingdom beyond the Godavari in the South.
• He was a follower of Jainism and patronized it to a great extent.

The Satavahanas Or The Andhras :

• They were the successors of the Mauryans in the Deccan & the central India.
• Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynasty. The most important king was Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106
– 130) who raised the power and prestige of Satavahanas to greater heights. He set up his capital at Paithan on
the Godavari in Aurangabad distt.

Important aspects of Satavahanas :

• Mostly issued lead coins (apart from copper and bronze).

• Acted as a bridge between North and South India.
• Satavahanas rulers called themselves Brahmans. Performed Vedic rituals and worshipped gods like Krishna,
Vasudeva and others.
• However, they also promoted Buddhism by granting land to the monks.
• The two common religious constructions were the Buddhist temple that was called ‘Chaitya’ & the monasteries,
which was called ‘Vihara’. The most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in W. Deccan.

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• Their distt was called Ahara’, as it was in Ashoka’s time. Their officials were known as ‘amatyas’ and
‘mahamatras’, as they were known in Mauryan times.
• Started the practice of granting tax free villages to brahmanas & Buddhist monks.
• The official language was Prakrit & the script was Brahmi, as in Ashokan times. One Prakrit text called
Gathasattasai is attributed to a Satavahana king called Hala.

Sangam Age in India

History of Pandyas :

• Their capital was Madurai.

• First mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was famous for pearls and was ruled by a woman.
• The Pandya kings profited from trade with the Roman Empire and sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augus.

History of Cholas :

• The kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Coromondal. The chief centre was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton
trade. Capital was Kaveripattanam/Puhar.
• A Chola king named Elara conquered SriLanka & ruled it over for 50 years.
• Karikala was their famous king.
• Main source of wealth was trade in cotton cloth. They also maintained an efficient navy.

History of Cheras :

• Their capital was Vanji (also called Kerala country).

• It owed its importance to trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regiments there to protect their
interests.
• Fought against the Cholas about 150 AD.
• Greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera.

Other aspects of the 2 kingdoms :

• All the gathered information is based on Sangam literature. Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets
held probably under Royal Patronage (esp. Pandyas)
• Sangam age corresponds to the post-Maurya and the pre-Gupta period.
• Three Sangamas were held. The first Sangam was held at Madurai but its work has not survived. Its chairman
was Agastya. The second Sangam was held at Kapatpuram.
• Its chairman was Tolkappiyar (author of Tolkappium). The third Sangam was held at Madurai. Its chairman was
Nakkirar. It was the third Sangam from which covers the entire corpus of Sangam literature.
• Silappadikaram by llano Adigal (story of a married couple) and Manimekalai by Sattanar are the famous epics of
this time.
• Other books are Tolkappium by Tolkappiyar, Jivikachintamani by Tirutakkdewar and Kural (called the ‘fifth veda’
or ‘the Bible of the Tamil Land’) by Tiruvalluvar.
• The chief local god was Murugan, who was also called Subramaniya.
• ‘Pariyars’ – agricultural laborers who used to work in animal skin.
• Civil and military offices held by vellalas (rich peasants).
• The ruling class was called “Arasar”.

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• Captains of the army were given the title ENADI in formal functions.

The Gupta Dynasty

Gupta Empire Golden Age of India

On the ruins of the Kushan empire arose a new empire, which established its way over a good part of the former
dominions of both Kushans and Satavahanas. The first two kings of the dynasty were Srigupta and Ghatotkacha.

Chandragupta I (AD 319 – 335):

• First important king of Gupta Dynasty.

• Started the Gupta era in 319-320 AD.

• He enhanced his power & prestige by marrying Kumara Devi, princes of the Lichchavi clan of Nepal.

• He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj.

• Struck coins in the joint names of himself, his queen and the Lachchavi nation, thereby acknowledging his
marriage alliance.

History of Samudragupta (AD 335 – 375):

• The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta’s son & successor Samudragupta.

• His court poet Harisena wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of his patron. In a long inscription at the
Prayag Prashasti pillar (at Allahabad), the poet enumerated the people & countries that were conquered by
Samudragupta.

• Samudragupta believed in the policy of war and conquest and because of his bravery and generalship he is called
the ‘Napoleon’ of India (by the historian V.A. Smith).

• Samudragupta is said to have composed numerous poems of high merit. Some of his coins represent him playing
vina. He also performed Asvamedha sacrifice.

• He assumed the titles of Kaviraj and Vikramanka.

• Vasubandhu, a celebrated Buddhist scholar was his minister.

• Though a follower of the brahmanical religion, he was tolerant of other faiths; Received a missionary from
Meghavarman, the ruler of SriLanka, seeking his permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya, which he
granted.

History of Chandragupta – II (AD 380 – 413):

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• Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta II killed him and married his queen Dhruvadevi.

• He entered into matrimonial alliance with the Nagas (of upper and the Central Provinces) by marrying princess
Kubernaga whose daughter Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena-II of the Vakataka family.

• Took the title of Vikramaditya by defeating Rudrasimha III, a Kshatrap king of Ujjain. He also took the title of
Simhavikrama.

• He was the first ruler to issue silver coins. Also issued copper coins.

• The iron pillar inscription, fixed near Qutabminar in Delhi mentions a king Chandra (considered by many as
Chandragupta II only).

• His court was adorned by celebrated nine gems (navratnas) including Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Varahmihir, and
Dhanvantri.

• Chinese pilgrim Fahien visited India at this time.

History of Kumaragupta – I (AD 413 – 455):

• He adopted the title of Mahendraditya.

• Founded Nalanda University (a renowned university of ancient India).

• He was the worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of Lord Shiva).

• In the last years of his reign, the peace and prosperity of the empire was disturbed due to the invasion of Turko-
Mongol tribe, Hunas. During the war with the Hunas, Kumaragupta died.

History of Skandagupta (AD 455 – 467):

• Kumaragupta-I was followed by Skandagupta. He faced Hunas effectively.

• Restored Sudarshana Lake.

• After his death, the great days of the Guptas were over. The empire continued but central control weakened, and
local governors became feudatory kings with hereditary rights.

Fall of Gupta Empire :

• The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the growing Huna power.

• Feudatories rose in Bihar, Bengal, MP, Vallabhi, etc.

• Note: Mihirkula was the most famous Huna king. Hjuen Tsang mentions him as a fierce per secutor of Buddhism.
He was defeated by Yashodharman (one of the feudatories of Guptas in Malwa).

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• Contributions of Gupta Rulers

Gupta Administration :

• Kings were called Parameshwara /Maharajadhiraja /Paramabhattaraka.

• The most important officers were Kumaramatyas.

• Their military organization was feudal in character (though the emperor had the standing army).

• They issued the largest number of gold coins in Ancient India, which were called Dinars. Silver coins were called
rupyakas.

Social Development of Guptas Empire :

• The castes were further divided into sub-castes.

• Vishti (forced labour) was there.

• Position of women declined further. First instance of Sati took place at Eran, MP.

• The position of shudras improved substantially.

• The practice of untouchability intensed. (Especially hatred for Chandalas). Fa-hien mentions that the Chandalas
lived outside the village and were distanced by the upper class.
• Nalanda (a university) was established as a Buddhist monastery during the reign of Kumara Gupta.

Gupta Religion :

• Bhagavad-Gita was written during this time only. Buddhism declined.

• Bhagavatism centered around worshipping Vishnu or Bhagvat.

• History was presented as a cycle of 10 incarnations of Vishnu.

• Idol worship became a common feature.

• Vishnu temple at Deogarh (near Jhansi), a small temple near Sanchi and a brick temple at Bhitragaon (near
Kanpur) belong to the Gupta architecture.

Gupta Art :

• Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (vina).

• 2 mt high bronze image of Buddha belonging to the Mathura school (The Gandhara Buddha represents mask-like
coldness, while the Buddha from the Mathura school imparts a feeling of warmth and vitality.

• The Buddha sitting in his Dharma Chakra mudra belongs to Sarnath.

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• Buddha images of Bamiyan belonged to Gupta period.

• Ajanta Paintings and paintings at Bagh, near Gwalior in MP, are of this time. They belong to the Buddhist art.

• Images of Vishnu, Shiva & some other Hindu Gods feature I time in this period.

Gupta Literature in India :

• Kalidas, the great Sanskrit dramatist, belonged to this period. His books are: Abhigyanashakuntalam, (considered
as one of the best literary works in the world & one of the earliest Indian work to be translated into European
language, the other work being the Bhagavadgita), Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Kumarasambhavam,
Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvansha, Vikramurvashi etc. Out of these, Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Raghuvansha
were epics and the rest were plays.

• Apart from Kalidas, others were Sudraka (author of Mrichchakatikam), Bharavi (Kiratarjuniya), Dandin
(Kavyadarshana and Dasakumaracharita). To this period belongs 13 plays written by Bhasa. Most famous of
these was Charudatta.

• Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.

• Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchtantra and Hitopdesh.

• The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali. This period is
particularly memorable for the compilation of Amarakosha by Amarasimha.

• Ramayana & Mahabharata were almost completed by the 4th century AD.

Science and Technology of Gupta Period :

• Gupta period is unparalleled for its achievements in the field of mathematics and astronomy.

• Aryabhatta, the great mathematician wrote Aryabhatiya and Suryasiddhanta. In Aryabhatiya, he described the
place value of the first nine nos. & the use of zero. He also calculated the value of pie and invented Algebra.

• In Suryasiddhanta, he proved that the earth revolves round the sun and rotates on its axis. In this way he
discovered the cause of the solar and lunar eclipses and the methods for calculating the timings of their
occurrence. He also said that the heavenly bodies, like the moon, were spherical and they shone by reflecting the
light.

• Varahamihira wrote Panchasi- dhantika and Brihatsamhita. He said that the moon moves round the earth and the
earth, together with the moon, move round the sun.

• Brahmagupta was a great mathematician. He wrote Brahma-sphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at the Law of
Gravitation.

• In the field of astronomy, Romakasidhanta was compiled.

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• Vagbhatta was the most distinguished physician of the Ayurvedic system of medicine.

• Palakapya wrote Hastyagarveda, a treatise on the disease of elephants.

• Court language was Sanskrit.

• Dhanvantri – famous for Ayurveda knowledge.

Other Dynasties and Rulers

(7th Century – 12th Century AD)

History of Harshavardhana (AD 606 – 647) :

• Belonged to Pushyabhuti family & son of Prabhakar Vardhan.

• Originally belonged to Thaneshwar, but shifted to Kannauj (after Harsha’s death Kannauj was won from Harsha’s
successors by the Pratiharas).
• Brought ’5 Indies’ under his control (Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa).
• Defeated by Pulakesin – II, the great Chalukya king, on the banks of Narmada in 620. Pulakesin – II bestowed the
title of ‘Sakalottara – patha – natha’ – ‘the lord of the entire north’ – on him.
• Chinese pilgrim, Hieun Tsang (Prince of Travelers) visited during his reign. He spent about eight years (635 –
643) in the dominions of Harsha and earned his friendship. Hieun Tsang has left a detailed account of a grand
assembly held at Kannauj in 643 attended by representatives of Hinduism and Jainism.
• Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag (Allahabad), at the end of every five years.
• Harsha was a great patron of learning. He established a large monastery at Nalanda. Banabhatta, who adorned
his court, wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari. Harsha himself wrote 3 plays – Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and
Nagananda.
• After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire once again broke up into petty States.
• I – tsing, another Chinese pilgrim, visited in 670 AD.

The Vakatakas History :

• The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccan and Central India till the rise of the Chalukyas.
• The founder of this Brahmin dynasty was Vindhyasakti.
• Most important king was Pravarsen – I who performed 4 Ashwamedha yagyas.
• Chandragupta – II married his daughter Prabhawati to the Vakataka king, Rudrasena – II.

Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami) :

• Founder : Pulakesin – I.
• Established their kingdom at Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka).
• Pulakesin – II Was their most famous king, who was a contemporary of Harsha. He sent an embassy to the
Persian king, Khusro – II. His court poet, Ravikirti, wrote Aihole inscription. Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom.
• They were the maritime powers of their time.
• Much of the paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta and Ellora caves were completed during the Chalukyan reign.
They builr several magnificent temples in Aihole and other places. Aihole is called the cradle of Indian
temple architecture.

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Note :

1. There were two more Chalukya dynasties which were separate entities. They were Eastern Chalukvas of Vensi
and Western Chalukvas of Kaivani.
2. Vengi dynasty was founded by Pulakesin ll’s brother, Kubja – Vishnu-Vardhana. The power of Eastern Chalukyas
was weakened in the tenth century and they became the allies of Cholas.
3. The greatest ruler of Kalyani Chalukyas was Vikramaditya II Tribhuvanamalla. He was the hero of Bilhana’s
Vikramankadeva Gharita. He introduced the Chalukya – Vikrama era (1076 A.D).

The Rashtrakutas Dynasty :

• Founder : Dantidurga.
• Originally district officers under Chalukyas of Badami.
• Their king, Krishna – I is remembered for constructing the famous rock – cut Kailasha temple at Ellora. It was
constructed in the Dravidian style and elaborately carved with fine sculptures.
• Their king, Amoghvarsha, is compared to Vikramaditya in giving patronage to men of letters. He wrote the first
Kannada poetry named Kaviraj marg and Prashnottar Mallika. He built the city of Manyakheta as his capital.
• Their king, Krishna – III set up a pillar of victory and a temple at Rameshwaram.
• Rashtrakutas are credited with the building of cave shrine of Elephanta. It was dedicated to Shiva, whose image
as Mahesh (popularly known as Trimurti), counts among the most magnificent art creations of India. The three
faces represent Shiva as creator, Preserver and Destroyer.

The Gangas Dynasty :

• Also called Chedagangas of Orissa.

• Their king Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun Temple at Konark.
• Their king Anantvarman Ganga built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri.
• Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa before Gangas built the Lingaraja temple at Bhubhaneshwar.

The Pallavas History :

• Founder : Simhavishnu. They set up their capital at Kanchi (south of Chennai).

• Narsimhavarman was their greatest king. He founded the town of Mamalapuram (Mahabalipuram) which he
adorned with beautiful rock – cut Raths or Seven Pagoras. Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.

Medieval Indian History

History of Ghazni Mahumud

Invasion of Ghazni Mohammed :

• Until the rise of the west, India was possibly the richest country in the world. Such a country presented an
irresistible target for the ravening Mongols and their descendents who settled in present day Afghanistan,
Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, all within comparatively easy reach of north-western India.
• The northwest was, at this time, a mish-mash of warring kingdoms, more interested in sending scores with their
neighbours than in unifying against the Mongols. It is then unsurprising that Mahmud Ghaznavi’s armies so
handily defeated those of the Indian kings.
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• Born in 971 AD, Mahmud Ghaznavi was the eldest son of Subuktagin, the king of Ghazni (in present day
Afghanistan). When Subuktagin attacked King Jaipala of Punjab, Mahmud fought for his father in the battlefield.

Though Mahmud was the eldest son of his father, it is said that in his last days, Subuktagin was not happy with Mahmud.
So, when Subuktagin died in 997 AD, his younger son Ismail became the king of Ghazni. Ismail reigned only for a little
time. Very soon, Mahmud defeated him and became the king.

• Mahmud began a series of seventeen raids into northwestern India at the end of the 10th
century. Nonetheless, he did not attempt to rule Indian Territory except for Punjab, which was
his gateway to India.

His first expedition was directed against the frontier towns in 1000 AD.
His second expedition was against Jaipala, the Hindushahi king of Punjab whom he defeated in the First Battle of
Waihind. Jaipala could not survive the shock of humiliation and he burnt himself to death. He was succeeded by his son,
Anandpala in 1002 AD.
In his sixth expedition, Mahmud defeated Anandpala in the II Battle of Waihind (1008). Anandpala had organized a
confederacy of rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi and Ajmer, but the alliance was defeated.
In his other expeditions, Mahmud plundered Nagarkot, Thaneshwar, Kannauj, Mathura and Somnath.
His sixteenth expedition was the plunder of Somnath temple (dedicated to Shiva) in 1025 AD, situated on the sea coast
of Kathiarwar.
After looting the Somnath temple, when Mahmud was going back to Ghazni, the Jats had attacked his army. So, to
punish the Jats, he returned and defeated them in 1026.
The objective of Mahmud’s expeditions was to plunder the riches of temples and palaces and was not interested in
expanding his empire to India. However, he later annexed Punjab and made it a part of his kingdom, just to have easy
access.

He patronized 3 persons :

1. Firdausi (Persian poet, known as Homer of the east) who wrote Shahnama.
2. Alberuni (a brilliant scholar from Central Asia) who wrote Tahqiq-I-Hind.
3. Utbi (court historian), who wrote Kitab-ud-Yamni.

History of Somnath Temple Gujarat:

The Somnath Temple located in the Kathiarwar region of Gujarat, is one of the twelve Jyotiriings (golden lingas) symbols
of the God Shiva. It is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Somnath mean “The Protector of Moon God”. It is known as ‘the Shrine
Eternal’, as although the temple has been destroyed six times it has been rebuilt every single time.

The first temple of Somnath is said to have existed before the beginning of the Christian era. The second temple, built by
the Maitraka kings of Vallabhi in Gujarat, replaced the first one on the same site around 649 AD. In 725 Junayad, the Arab
governor of Sind sent his armies to destroy the second temple.

The Pratihara king Nagabhata II constructed the third temple in 815 AD, a large structure of red sandstone. Mahmud of
Ghazni attacked this temple in 1025 AD, and looted it of gems and precious stones. He then massacred the worshippers
and had the temple burnt. It was then that the famous Shiva lingam of the temple was entirely destroyed.

The temple and citadel were sacked, and most of its defenders massacred; Mahmud personally hammered the temple’s
gilded lingam to pieces and the stone fragments were carted back to Ghazni, where they were incorporated into the steps
of the city’s new Jamiah Masjid.

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The fourth temple was built by the Paramara King Bhoj of Malwa and the Solanki king Bhima of Gujarat between 1026 AD
and 1042 AD. The wooden structure was replaced by Kumarpal who built the temple of stone. The temple was razed in
1297 when the Sultanate of Delhi conquered Gujarat, and again in 1394 AD. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed
the temple again in 1706 AD.

The present temple is the seventh temple built on the original site. It was completed on December 1, 1995 and the then
President of India, Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma dedicated it in the service of the nation. The present temple was built by the
Shree Somnath Trust which looks after the entire complex of Shree Somnath and its environs.

History of Muhammad Ghori

Muhammad Ghori History

• The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India was Shihab – ud – Din Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghur.
It is true that Muhammad bin Qasim was the first Muslim invader of India but he failed to carve out a Muslim
empire in India on account of his premature death.
• Mahmud also failed to set a Muslim empire in India and the only permanent effect of his invasions was the
annexation of Punjab. It was left to Muhammad Ghori to build up a Muslim Empire in India on a secure footing.
• He was also a ruler of a small kingdom in Afghanistan. But he was interested in conquering northern India and
adding it to his kingdom, and not merely in getting gold and jewellery like Mahmud.
• His first invasion was directed against Multan in 1175 AD, which was successful. By 1182, Sindh was also
captured. Punjab was captured by 1186 AD.
• Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the king of Delhi at that time, received contingents from other Rajput kings and
defeated him in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
• But he defeated Prithviraj in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192. Captured Delhi and Ajmer and thus laid the
foundation of Muslim Rule in India. Also defeated Jaichandra (Gahadval Rajput, ruler of Kannauj) at the Battle of
Chandweri in 1194 AD.
• Ikhtiyar – ud – din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, one of Ghori’s commanders, annexed Bihar and Bengal and
destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila University.
• Died in 1206 AD, leaving Qutab – ud – Din Aibak the charge.

Rajput King Prithviraj Chauhan

Prithviraj III (1179-1192), also called Rai Pithaura by Muslim historians, was a king of the Rajput Chauhan (Chahamana)
dynasty, who ruled a kingdom in northern India during the latter half of the 12th century. He was born to king Someshwara
Chauhan and his wife Karpuravalli. He succeeded to the throne while still a minor, and ruled from the twin capitals of
Ajmer and Delhi.

His elopement with Samyukta, the daughter of Jai Chandra, the Gahadvala king of Kannauj, is a popular romantic taleand
is one of the subjects of the Prithviraj Raso, an epic poem composed by Prithviraj's court poet, Chand Bardai.

His kingdom included much of the present-day Indian states of Rajasthan and Haryana, and parts of Uttar Pradesh and
Punjab. In Prithviraj Raso, Chand Bardai depicts Prithviraj as a romantic, chivalrous and an jextremely fearless king.

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His fast rise aroused the envy of the then powerful ruler of Kannauj, Jaichand Gahadwala, and caused ill-feeling between
the two. Samyogita also known as Samyukta in folklore, daughter of Jaichand, fell secretly in love with Prithviraj and
began a secret correspondence with him. Her father got wind of this and resolved to have her safely wed at an early date.

He arranged a Swayamwara, a ceremony where a maiden date. He arranged a Swayamwara, a ceremony where a
maiden selects her husband from a number of suitors who assemble at the invitation of her guardian. Jaichand invited
many princes of acceptable rank and heritage, but deliberately failed to invite Prithviraj.

To add insult to injury, Jaichand had a statue of Prithviraj made and placed at the door of the venue, thus parodying
Prithviraj as a doorman. Prithviraj came to hear of this. He made his plans and confided the same to his lover, Samyukta.

On the day of the ceremony, Samyukta emerged from an inner chamber, entered the venue of the, swayamwara, walked
straight down the hall past the assembled suitors, bypassing them all. She reached the door and garlanded the statue of
Prithviraj. The assemblage was stunned at this brash act, but more was to follow:

Prithviraj, who had been hiding behind the statue in the garb of a doorman, emerged, put Samyukta upon his steed, and
made a fast getaway. Jaichandra and his army gave earnest chase, to no avail. This incident resulted in a string of battles
between the two kingdoms and both of them suffered heavily. The Chauhan-Gahadvala feud led to the weakening of both
Rajput kingdoms.

After the Second Battle of Tarain, Prithviraj was taken as a prisoner in Ghor and was brought in chains before Mahmud.
He haughtily looked Ghori straight into the eye. Ghori ordered him to lower his eyes, whereupon a defiant Prithviraj
declared that the eyelids of a Rajput are lowered only in death.

On hearing this, Ghori flew into a rage and ordered that Prithviraj's eyes be burnt with red hot iron rods. This heinous deed
was committed. The blind Prithviraj was then regularly brought to the presence of the barbaric warlord to be taunted by
Ghori and his courtiers.

Chand Bardai came to Ghor to be near Prithviraj in his misery. Chand Bardai came in disguise and secured himself a
place in Mahmud's court by purveying his skills as a composer of poems. The two got the revenge opportunity when Ghori
announced an archery competition. Chand Bardai told Ghori that Prithviraj was so skilled an archer, that he could take
aim based only on sound, and did not even need to look, at his target.

The blind and hapless Prithviraj was brought out to the field and given a bow and arrows. In the a spirit of the occasion,
Mahmud Ghori personally gave Prithviraj the order to shoot. Thus, Chand Bardai provided Prithviraj with an aural
indication of where Ghori was seated. He gave Prithviraj one further indication of the same, by composing a couplet on
the spot and reciting the same in Prithviraj's hearing.

The couplet, composed in a language understood only by Prithviraj went thus:

Char bans, chaubis gaj, angul ashta praman,

Ete pal hai Sultan, (Taa Upar hat Sultan),

ab mat chuko hey Chauhan.

(Ten measures ahead of you and twenty four feet away, is seated the Sultan. Do not miss him now Chauhan).

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Ghori then ordered Prithviraj to shoot, Prithviraj turned in the direction from where he heard Ghori speak, and, taking aim
based only on the voice and on Chand Bardai's couplet, he sent an arrow racing to Ghori's throat. Ghori was thus stuck
dead by Prithviraj.

Naturally, after this deed, Prithviraj was killed by Mahmud's courtiers. But the brave Rajput had avenged the betrayals and
humiliations suffered by him. Selects her husband from a number of suitors who assemble at the invitation of her
guardian. Jaichand invited many princes of acceptable rank and heritage, but deliberately failed to invite Prithviraj.

To add insult to injury. Jaichand had a statue of Prithviraj made and placed at the door of the venue, thus parodying
Prithviraj as a doorman. Prithviraj came to hear of this. He made his plans and confided the same to his lover, Samyukta.

The Ilbari Dynasty

The Ilbari Dynasty or Slave Dynasty of India

• Out of all the kings belonging to the so – called Slave Dynasty, only three, viz., Qutab – ud – din Aibak, Iltutmish
and Balban were slaves and even they were manumitted by their masters.
• The dynasty is called Ilbari dynasty because all rulers of this dynasty, except Aibak, belonged to the Ilbari tribe of
Turks.

Qutab – ud – din Aibak History (1206 – 1210) :

• Md. Ghori left his Indian possessions in his hands. He ruled on the death of his master and founded this dynasty.
• Lahore and later Delhi were his capitals.
• Famous for his generosity and earned the sobriquet of lakh – baksh (giver of Lakhs).
• Laid the foundation of Qutab Minar after the name of famous Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• Died of a horse fall at Lahore, while playing Chaugan (polo). The Turks only introduced polo in India.
• Built the first mosque in India – Quwwat – ul – Islam (at Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpara (at Ajmer).
• He was a great patron of learning and patronized writers like Hasan Nizami, who wrote Taj – ul – Massir, and
Fakhr – ud – din, writer of Tarikh – i – Mubarakshahi.

History of Aram Shah (1210) :

• When Qutab – ud – din Aibak died all of a sudden at Lahore, the Amirs and Maliks of Lahore put Aram Shah on
the throne. Some texts say that he was the son of Aibak while others deny so.
• He was a weak and worthless young man and was rejected by the people of Delhi. Iltutmish, who was the
Governor of Badaun at that time, defeated him and acquired the throne.

Iltumish (1210 – 36) :

• Shams – ud – din Iltutmish was the son – in – law of Aibak. He is considered the greatest of the slave kings and
the real consolidator of the Turkish conquest in India.

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• He suppressea the revolts of ambitious nobles and sent expeditions against the Rajputs in Ranthambor, Jalor,
Gwalior, Aimer, Malwa.
• Prevented Chengiz Khan attack by refusing to give refuge to an enemy of Khan, Jalaluddin Mangabarani (a ruler
from Iran). Thus, due to his diplomatic skill he prevented Mongol attack.
• He got his authority (Sultanate of Delhi) recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad (Khalifa), as a member of world
fraternity of Islamic states.
• He formed Turkan – i – Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of 40 powerful Turkish nobles to suppress nobles).
• Divided his empire into IQTAS, an assignment of land in lieu of salary, which he distributed to his officers. Every
Iqtadar had to maintain law and order and collect revenue. After deducting his salary and the expenses of the
government, he sent the surplus revenue to the Central Government. Iqtadars were transferable.
• He introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital – 2 basic coins of the Sultanate.
• He patronized Minhaj – ul – Siraj, the author of Tabaqat – i – Nasiri.
• He is called the Father of Tomb Building (built Sultan Garhi in Delhi).
• As his successor, declared Razia, thus deviating from the normal practice.

• History of Qutub Minar Delhi :

Qutub Minar in Delhi is the tallest brick minaret in the world. It is 72.5 metres (239ft) high. The diameter of the
base is 14.3 metres wide while the top floor measures 2.7 metres in diameter. Inspired by the Minaret of Jam in
Afghanistan and wishing to surpass it, Aibak commenced construction of the Qutub Minar in 1193; but could only
complete its basement.
• His successor, Iltutmish, added three more stories and, in 1368, Firuz Shah Tughluq constructed the fifth and the
last story.
• The development of architectural styles from Aibak to Tughlak are quite evident in the minaret. The minaret is
made of fluted red sandstone covered with intricate carvings and verses from the Quran.
• The purpose for building this beautiful monument has been speculated upon, apart from the usual role of a
minaret that of calling people for prayer in a mosque – in this case the Quwwat – ul – Islam mosque.
• Other reasons ascribed to its construction are as a tower of victory, a monument signifying the might of Islam, or a
watch tower for defence. Controversy also surrounds the origins for the name of the tower.
• Later, Ala ud din Khilji started building another minaret near Qutab Minar, the Alai Minar, which was conceived to
be two times higher than Qutub Minar. The construction was abandoned, however, after the completion of the
24.5 meter high first storey; soon after death of Ala – ud – din.
• The Qutab Minar complex also houses Quwwat – ul – Islam mosque, built by Aibak. The mosque is said to be
built by the parts taken by destruction of twenty – seven Hindu and Jain temples.
• To the west of the Quwwat – ul – Islam mosque is the tomb of Iltutmish which was built by the monarch in 1235.
The Ala – i – Darwaza is a magnificent gateway to the complex. It was built by Ala ud din Khilji. The iron pillar,
situated behind Qutab Minar is one of the world’s foremost metallurgical curiosities.
• Made up of 98% wrought iron of pure quality, it is 23 feet 8 inches (7.21 m) high and has a diameter of 16 inches
(0.41 m). It was erected by Chandragupta II Vikramaditya of the Gupta dynasty.
• It has attracted the attention of archaeologists and metallurgists as it has withstood corrosion for the last 1600
Years, despite harsh weather. A fence was erected around the pillar due to the popularity of a tradition that
considered good luck if you could stand with your back to the pillar and make your hands meet behind it.

History of Ruknuddin Firuz Shah (1236) :

• Iltutmish had many sons but as all of them were incompetent, he appointed his daughter Raziya as his successor.
• In spite of this, the nobles of the court who considered themselves too proud to bow their heads before a woman
put on the throne Ruknuddin Firuz Shah who was the eldest son of Iltutmish. But he was an utterly worthless
person.
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• He took pleasure in riding through the streets of Delhi on an elephant and scattering gold among the people. He
left the works of the government in the hands of his ambitious mother, Shah Turkan. She was originally a Turkish
handmaid. She had her revenge against all those who had offended her in her youth.
• The result of all this was that rebellions occurred on all sides. Finally Ruknuddin and her mother were put to death
and throne was given to Raziya.

Raziya History (1236 – 1240) :

• She was the first and the last Muslim woman ruler of medieval India. She succeeded her brother in 1236 and
ruled for 31 / 2 Years.
• She disregarded purdah, began to adorn male attire and rode out in public on elephant back.
• She promoted Jamaluddin Yaqut, an Abyssinian, to the important office of superintendent of the stables. It
provoked the Turkish nobles. There were simultaneous revolts in the various parts of the kingdom. The Governor
of Lahore was the first to create trouble but he was defeated.
• There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda, refused to
acknowledge the suzerainty of Raziya. Raziya, accompanied by Yaqut Mared against Altunia. On the way, the
Turkish followers of Altunia murdered Yaqut and imprisoned Raziya. She had to marry Altunia to get out of the
situation.
• But she was killed, along with her husband, by Bahram Shah, a son of Iltutmish, on their way back to Delhi.
• Raziya was an excellent horsewoman who led the army herself. Her only problem was that she was a lady.

Note : After Razia, the battle of succession continued in which the following rulers ruled insignificantly :

1. Muizuddin Bahram Shah (1240 – 1242).

2. Alauddin Masud Shah (1242 – 1246).
3. NasiruddJn Mehmud (1246 – 1265).

Balban History (1266 – 1286) :

• He himself was a member of Chalisa. To guard himself, he got every member of Iltutmish family killed and gave a
death blow to the Turkish nobility (Chalisa). He ordered the separation of military department from the finance
department (diwan – i – wizarai), and the former was placed under a ministry for military affairs (diwan – i – ariz).
• The declared the Sultan as the representative of God on earth. He impressed upon the People that king was the
deputy of God (niyabat – i – khudai) and the shadow of God (zil – i – ilahi).
• Introduced Sijdah or Paibos practice, in which the people were required to kneel and touch the ground with their
head to greet the Sultan. He also instructed to the ulemas to confine themselves to religious affairs and not to
engage in political activities. He also started the festival of Nauroz.
• In order to win the confidence of the public, he administered justice with extreme impartiality. He employed an
efficient spy system.
• He was a liberal patron of Persian literature and showed special favour to the poet, Amir Khusro.
• He was deeply racist and excluded non – Turks from the administration.
• He strengthened the frontiers against Mongols.
• But his son, Muhammad’s death was a smashing blow to Balban and the death – knell to his dynasty.
• After Balban’s death, Kaiqubad (1287 – 1290) sat on throne but he was an inefficient and fun – loving person.

Khalji Dynasty in India

Coming of Khaljis marked the end of monopolization of power by the Turkish nobility and racial dictatorship.

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Jallaluddin Firuz Khalji History (1290 - 1296):

• He was the first ruler to put forward the view that since a large majority of people in India are Hindus, the state in
India could not be a total Islam state.
• The most important event of his reign was the invasion of Devagiri in 1294 by his nephew and son-in-law, Ali
Gurshap or Ala-ud-din Khalji. Devagiri was the capital of the Yadava kingdom in the Deccan and Ala-ud-din
plundered the vast treasury.
• Married his daughter to Ulugh Khan, a descendent of Chengiz Khan, to win their goodwill.
• He assassinated his uncle and proclaimed himself Sultan winning over the nobles and soldiers to his side by a
lavish use of gold (accumulated from Devagiri).
• After coming to power, he massacred the old Balbani and Jalali nobles and the Mongols who had settled in Delhi,
and some of his own family members.
• His first conquest was of the rich kingdom Gujarat, (ruled by the Vaghela king, Rai Kama Dev II). This conquest is
notable.for two reasons - first, he married the Raja's wife, Kamla Devi; and secondly, there only he acquired Malik
Kafur, a eunuch, who later on rose to become a great military general.
• Then he captured Ranthambhor, Chittor and Malwa. Chittor was ruled by a Gahlot king, Ratna Singh whose
queen Padmini committed jauhar when his husband was defeated. Alauddin named Chittor as Khizrabad, after
his son.
• After his conquest of north India, he sent Malik Kafur towards South.
• Malik defeated Yadavas of Devagiri (king was Ram Chandra Deva), Kakatiya king Pratap Rudra Deva I of
Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra (king was Vira Ballala III) and Pandyas of Madurai (king was Maravarman
Kulasekhara). He is said to have reached as far as Rameshwaram where he built a mosque. Thus, the whole of
Deccan was subjugated.
• He strengthened the North West Frontier under his trusted commander Ghazi Malik.
• He adopted Balban's policy of 'Blood and Iron' in tackling the Mongol menace.
• Added an entrance door to Qutab Minar, Alai Darwaza and built his capital at Siri.
• Also built Hauz Khas, Mahal Hazaar Satoon and Jamait Khana Mosque in Delhi.
• Adopted the title Sikandar-i-Sani.

Administration of Alauddin Khilji :

• First Sultan to have permanent army- paid soldiers in cash, imported horses, detailed description of each soldier
(Chehra) and each horse (Dagh) was kept (first time).
• He took radical preventive measure to prevent rebellion.
a. Confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands.
b. An efficient espionage system was built.
c. Sale of liquor and intoxicants prohibited.
d. Restrictions and strong checks on social gatherings, marriages between the families of nobles etc.
• Revenue Reforms :
a. Measured the cultivable land and fixed land revenue accordingly; Biswa was declared to be the standard
unit of measurement.
b. The state demand was half of the produce / Biswa.
c. House tax (ghari) and pasture tax (chari) were imposed.
d. A special post Mustakhraj was created for the purpose of collection of revenue.
• Market control / Economic regulations:
a. The price was fixed by the state of commodities.
b. Four separate markets were established for various commodities-Central grain market, market for
manufactured goods, market for general items and market for horses, cattle and slaves.
c. The Sultan received daily reports of these from independent sources (spies).
d. Strict punishment for cheating and underweightment.
• First Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed - "Kingship knows no kinship".
• Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was a patron of learning and art. There were many great poets in his court.
Both Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his patronage.

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Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah History (1316 - 1320):

• He was one of the sons of Alauddin who, somehow, escaped the preying eyes of Malik Kafur. After the death of
Kafur he became the king.
• After seating himself on the throne, he tried to win over the goodwill of the people. He cancelled all harsh
regulations started by his father.
• During his reign, many revolts took place across the country. Although he was able to crush them, he wasn't able
to run the administration smoothly.

History of Nasiruddin Khusro Shah (1320):

• He killed Mubarak Shah and usurped the throne. But like his mentor, he too was an incapable ruler.
• He was defeated and killed by Ghazi Malik. With him, the thirty year rule of Khalji dynasty also came to an end.

History of Malik Kafur :

• He was an Indian eunuch and slave who became a general in the army of Alauddin Khilji. In 1297, he was
purchased for 1,000 Dinars by Nusrat Khan. That is the reason why Malik Kafur is sometimes called Hazar-
Dinari. It is reported that Alauddin fell in love with his effeminate handsomeness and named him senior
commander in his army after he agreed to convert to Islam.
• Perhaps due to the favor of the sultan, Kafur rose quickly in the army; He led the sultan's army against the
Yadava kingdom of Devagiri, the Kakatiya kingdom and eventually into the Pandyan kingdom in far southern
India, winning immense riches for the sultanate.
• Kafur's invasion of Pandya was the farthest south that any Muslim invasion would ever reach in India; Kafur's
success in the Deccan made him so powerful that Alauddin became merely a puppet in his hands. This "evil
genius of the Sultan" told Alauddin that his wife and sons were conspiring against him and got them imprisoned.
• After the death of Alauddin he placed, Kafur was responsible for the execution of all those princes of royal blood
who had any claim to the throne. Thirty six days after the death of Alauddin, Kafur and his associates were killed.

Amir Khusro (1253 - 1325):

• Ab'ul Hasan Yamin al-Din Khusro, better known as Amir Khusro Dehlavi, is one of the iconic figures in the cultural
history of India. A Sufi mystic and a spiritual disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi, Amir Khusro was not only one
of India's greatest poets, he is also credited with being the founder of both Hindustani classical music and
Qawwali (the devotional music of the Sufis).
• He was born of a Turkish father, Saif Ad-din and an Indian mother, in India. He was associated with royal courts
of more than seven rulers of Delhi Sultanate. He created the fusion of Indian Arabic and Persian music. He is
credited to have invented tabla and sitar and modified veena. He was given the title Tuti-i-Hind (parrot of India).
One of his famous Persian couplet goes like this:

"Agar firdaus bar roo-e zameen ast,

Hameen ast-o hameen ast-o hameen ast."
If there is paradise on face of the earth,
It is this, it is this, it is this (India)

• His famous works include Tuhfa-tus-Sighr (his first divan), Wastul-Hayat (his second divan), Ghurratul-Kamaal,
Baqia-Naqia, Nihayatul-Kamaal, Qiran-us- Sa'dain, Miftah-ul-Futooh (in praise of the victories of Jalauddin Khalji),
Ishqia / Mathnavi Duval Rani-Khizr Khan (a tragic love poem about Gujarat's princess Duval and Alauddin's son
Khizr Khan), Mathnaui Noh Sepehr (Khusrau's perceptions of India and its culture), Tughlaq Nama (Book of the
Tughlaqs), Khamsa-e-Nizami (five classical romances: Hasht-Bahisht, MatlaulAnwai, Sheerin-Khusrau, Majnun-
Laila and Aaina-Sikandari, Ejaaz-e-Khusrovi, Khazain-ut-Futooh, Afzal-ul-Fawaid (utterances of Nizamuddin
Auliya), Khaliq-e-Bari, Jawahar-e- Khusrovi.

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The Tughlaq Dynasty

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320 – 25) :

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughlaq Dynasty. This dynasty is also known as the
dynasty of the Qaraunah Turks as the father of Ghiasuddin Tughlaq was a Qaraunah Turk.
• He was the first Sultan of Delhi who took up the title of Ghazi or slayer of the infidels.
• He liberalized Alauddin’s administrative policies and took keen interest in the construction of canals and
formulated a famine policy. The judicial and police arrangements were made efficient. The Chehra and Dagh
system introduced by the Alauddin was continued. Efficient postal services were restored.
• Built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and made it his capital.
• Dispatched his son, Jauna Khan to re-establish the authority in Warangal (Kakatiyas) and Madurai (Pandyas).
• Had troublesome relationship with the sufi saint, Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia.
• Died in 1325, after a fall from a high-raised pavilion. Ibn Batuta, the Moroccon traveller, who was in Delhi at that
time, opined that his death was due to sabotage arranged by his son, Jauna Khan.

History of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325 – 1351) :

• Real name was Jauna Khan.

• Regarded as the most controversial figure in Indian history, because of his five ambitious projects.
1. Increase in the land revenue in the Doab, between Ganga and Yamuna in north India. The measure
proved to be ill – timed, as Doab was passing through famine which was followed by plague.
2. He was committed to maintaining the Sultanate’s expansion into the newly – conquered provinces of
peninsular India. To have better administration of these southern parts of the Empire, Muhammad moved
the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in the Deccan, renaming that city Devagiri as Daulatabad.

Instead of moving just his government offices there, he forcibly moved the entire population of Delhi to the
new capital. The plan failed due to inadequate water supply arrangements in Devagiri; the capital had to
be shifted back again to Delhi after two years.

A vast amount of the population died during the moves due to the inadequate travel arrangements. It was
said that Delhi was a ghost town for years after the move back.

3. He also had the idea of introducing token currency for the first time in India, modelled after the Chinese
example, using copper coins, backed by silver and gold kept in the treasury. However, very few people
exchanged their gold/silver coins for the new copper ones and the tokens were easy to forge, which led to
heavy losses. Later, the Sultan repealed his verdict and all the copper coins were redeemed in silver or
gold from the treasury, making it empty.
4. Muhammad Tughlaq planned an expedition for the conquest of Khurasan and Iraq. But the scheme was
abandoned as conditions in Iraq improved (paid the extra army for one full year).
5. The plan for the conquest of Karajal (Kumaon hills) also met with a disastrous end.

• During his last days, the whole of S.India became independent and three major independent states – The Empire
of Vijaynagar, The Bahmani kingdom and Sultanate of Madura were founded.
• A new department for agriculture Dewan – i – Kohi was setup.
• He knew Arabic and Persian languages. He was also an expert in philosophy, astronomy, logic and mathematics.
He was also a good calligrapher.

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• He built the fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah.

• The famous traveller, Ibn Batuta came to Delhi during 1334. He acted as the Quazi of the capital for 8 years. He
has recorded the contemporary Indian scene in his ‘Safarnamah’ (called Rehla).

History of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 – 1388) :

• He was Muhammad’s cousin. He was chosen the Sultan by the nobles.

• He tried to appease everybody. He cancelled the loans of peasants which had been advanced by his
predecessor. He did not give any harsh punishment and banned the inhuman practices like cutting hands, nose,
etc. Agriculture was developed by the reclamation of wastelands and by providing irrigation facilities. He
constructed four canals for irrigation.
• He made iqtadary system hereditary. The principle of heredity was recognised not only in civil
offices, but also in army. Soldiers were given land assignments instead of cash payment.
• Imposed some new taxes :
1. Kharaj : a land tax equal to 1/10 of the produce of the land (by Hindus only).
2. Jaziya : a tax by non – muslims (even by brahmins).
3. Zakat : Tax on property (@ 2.5%) (by Muslims only).
4. Khams : 1 / 5th of booty captured in war.

• Took steps to translate Hindu religious texts & Sanskrit books on music into Persian.
• Built new towns : Hissar, Firozpur, Fatehabad, Firozabad (the present day Firoz Shah Kotla in Delhi) and
Jaunpur.
• Set up hospitals, dug a number of canals, dams, mosques.
• Repaired Qutab Minar when it was struck by lightening.
• Built his capital Firozabad and to beautify it, brought 2 Ashoka Pillars, one from Topara in Ambala & the other
from Meerut.
• Was fond of slaves (had around 1,80,000 slaves).
• Wrote a book ‘Fatuhat Firozshahi’.
• Gained notoriety for temple breaking and Mathura was destroyed during his period.
• Barani, the historian was in his court. He wrote two well known works of history: Tarikh – i – Firozshahi and Fatwa
– i – Jahandari.
• Khwaja Abdul Malik Isami wrote Futuh – us – Sulatin.
• He formed Diwan – i – Khairat and built Dar – ul – Shafa or a charitable hospital at Delhi. Also introduced 2 new
coins – Adha (50% jital) and bikh (25% jital).

The Later Tughlaqs History :

• Firoz Tughlaq was succeeded by his grand son who took up the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah II. He was a
pleasure – loving king who tried to strengthen his position by merely disposing of all possible rivals.
• Ghiyasuddin was replaced by Abu Bakr Shah in 1389.
• Abu Bakr was replaced by Nasiruddin Muhammad in 1390, who ruled till 1394. His son Alauddin Sikandar Shah
ascended the throne briefly in 1394. But he fell sick almost immediately after his accession and died in 1394 only.
• The vacant throne now fell to Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq. In his reign, Timur invaded India.

Timur’s Invasion :

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• He was a great Mongol leader of Central Asia. He became the head of the Chaghtai Turks at the age of 33.
Before reaching India, he had already conquered Mesopotamia and Afghanistan. He reached Delhi in December
1398. At that time, Nasiruddin Mahmud was the ruler.
• Timur ordered general massacre in Delhi and robbed people mercilessly.
• He is said to have inflicted on India more misery than had ever before been inflicted by any conqueror in a single
invasion. The Tughlaq Empire could never recover from such a terrible blow and came to an end.

Sayyid Dynasty

History of Sayyid Dynasty

• Khizr Khan (1414 – 1421) founded the dynasty and claimed to have descended from the prophet of Islam.
• He helped Timur in his invasion, so he was given the governorship of Lahore, Multan & Dipalpur.
• When Khizr Khan got possession of Delhi, his position was very weak and he didn’t take up the title of king and
contended himself with that of Rayat – i – Ala.
• The coins were struck and Khutba was read in the name of Timur and after his death in the name of his
successor, Shah Rukh.
• Khizr Khan’s 3 successors – Mubarak Shah (1421 – 33), Muhammad Shah (1434 – 43) and Alauddin Alam Shah
(1443 – 51) were incapable leaders.
• Sayyid dynasty’s 37 Years remained troubled with external invasions, internal chaos, etc.
• Provided opportunity to Bahlul Lodhi.
• Yahya – bin – Ahmed – bin – Abdullah – Sirhindi wrote Tarikh – i – Mubarakshahi (history from Mahmud to
Muhammad Shah of Sayyid Dynasty).

The Lodhi Dynasty

Lodhi Empire

• They were Afghans by race (considered the first Afghan dynasty of India).
• They were ruling over Sirhind when Sayyids were in India.

History of Bahlul Lodhi (1451 – 1489):

• Conquested Jaunpur by ousting Sharqui dynasty.

• Revived Sultanate to quite an extent.

History of Sikandar Lodhi (1489 – 1517):

• Real name was Nizam Khan. Noblest of the three Lodhi rulers.
• Introduced the Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields.
• In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it his capital.

• Set up an efficient espionage system and introduced the system of auditing of accounts.
• Took care of department of Justice and department of agriculture.
• Was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persian under the pen-name of Gulrukhi.
• Repaired Qutab Minar.

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Ibrahim Lodhi (1517 – 1526):

• Repressive ruler.
• Was defeated and killed by Babur in the I Battle of Panipat in 1526.
• With this the Sultanate of Delhi ended.

Administration, Society and Economy Under the Delhi Sultanate :

• The country was divided into iqtas which was distributed among the nobles, officers and soldiers for the purpose
of administration and revenue collection. Iqtadars could also be transferred. Iqtadars maintained the iqtas, kept a
certain sum for the cost of administration and their personal expenses, and sent the rest to the Sultan.
• Civil administration was headed by Wazir (Chief Minister) who supervised the collection of revenue, the checking
of the accounts and the regulation of expenditure. His office was known as Diwan-i-wizarat.
• The next important department was diwan-i-arz headed by ariz-i-mumalik, who was responsible for the
recruitment, payment and inspection of troops.
• Diwan-i-Insha headed by dahir-i-mumalik managed the royal correspondence.
• Religious matters and endowments were dealt with by the diwan-i-rasalat headed by sadr-us-sadur.
• Barid-i-mumalik was the head of the state news agency.
• The provinces were divided into shiqs under the control of shiqdars. The next unit was parganas, groups of
hundred villages, headed by cbaudhary. The village was the smallest unit of administration.

Lodhi Dynasty Cultural Development (13th – 15th Century)

Art and Architecture India :

• The use of arch and the dome is the special feature of the Muslim architecture. As the arch and dome needed
strong cement finer quality of mortar became wide-spread in north India.
• For decoration, the Turks used geometrical and floral designs (instead of human and animal figures in Hindu
temples), with verses from Quran. They also used some Hindu motifs like bel motifs, lotus, swastik, etc.
• The Tughlaq built sloping walls called battar combining the principles of arch and the lintel and beam.

Music :

• New musical modes and instruments like rabab and sarangi were introduced.
• Amir Khusro introduced many Persian Arabic ragas. Also invented the sitar.

Painting in India : Paper was introduced by the Arabs in the 15th century and this patronized painting.

Literature India :

• Udayaraja wrote Raja Vinoda on Mahmud Begarha.

• Merutanga’s Prabandha Chintamani
• A no. of Sanskrit works – Rajatarangani, Mahabharata, Koka Shastra – were translated into Persian.
• Zai Nakshabi’s TutiNama (a translation of Sanskrit stories into Persian) was very popular.

Provincial Kingdoms

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Bengal Province :

• Broke away from Delhi under the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• In 1342, Ilyas Khan founded a new dynasty.
• Famous sultan was Ghiyas-ud-din Azam who established friendly relations withChina and encouraged trade
and commerce.
• The celebrated poet, Maladhar Basu, compiler of Sri-Krishna Vijay, was patronized by the Sultans and was given
the title of ‘Gunaraja Khan’.
• Shankaradeva and Chaitanya belonged to this time.
• The province was occupied by Sher Shah Suri in 1538.

Gujarat Province India :

• Broke away from Delhi in 1397, under Zafar Khan who assumed the title of Sultan Muzaffar Shah.
• His grandson Ahmed Shah-I, built a new city, Ahmedabad. He built Jama Masjid of Ahmedabad and Tin Darwaza.
• The next prominent ruler was Mahmud Begarha. In his reign, Portuguese set up a factory at Diu. His court poet
was the Sanskrit scholar, Udayaraja.
• In 1573, Akbar annexed Gujarat to his empire.

History of Malwa :

• Malwa was annexed by Alauddin Khalji in 1305 and remained a part of Sultanate until its Governor; Dihawan
Khan Ghuri asserted his independence in 1435.
• It became powerful under the reign of Hushang Shah. He beautified the city Mandu with Jama Masjid, Hindol
Mahal and Jahaz Mahal. Next ruler, Mahmud Khalji was defeated by Rana Kumbha.
• Malwa became a part of Gujarat in 1531, and was finally annexed by the Mughals in 1562.

History of Kashmiris :

• Kashmir continued to be under its Hindu rulers up to 1339. Its first Muslim ruler was Shamsuddin Shah.
• The greatest Muslim ruler was Zainul Abidin (1420-70). Accepted the policy of broad tolerance, introduced the art
of shawl-making in Kashmir, built Zaina Lanka and artificial island in the Wular Lake. Called the “Badshah” (the
great Sultan) and “Akbar of Kashmir” by the Kashmiris.
• Later ruled by Chak dynasty, which later submitted to Akbar in 1586.
• It is said that women played a leading role in their history.

History of Mewar :

• Alauddin Khalji captured its capital Chittor in 1303. But Rajput rule was soon restored by Rana Hamir (1326-64).
• The greatest ruler of this house was the famous Rana Kumbha Karan (1538-68). Rana Kumbha built the famous
victory tower or ‘Vijaya Stambh’ at Chittor to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Khalji of Malwa.
• His court was adorned by Mandan who wrote many books on architecture (Parsad Mandan, Rupa Mandan).
• Another important king was Rana Sangram Singh (1509-28), who defeated Mahmud-II of Malwa and Ibrahim
Lodhi. But he was defeated by Babur at Khanua in 1527.

Religious Movements in History

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History of Sufis :

• There were 3 chief orders of Sufis in India : The Chishti, The Suharawadi and the Silsilah of Firdausi.
• The link between the teacher or pir and his disciple or Murid was a vital part of Sufi system. Every pir nominated a
successor or Wali to carry out work. Khanqah was the place where Sufi mystics lived.

1. The Chishti History :

• The Chisti order was established by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer). His two main disciples were Bakhtiyar
Kaki and Shaikh Hamiduddin Sufi.
• Others were Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin Chiragh – i – Dehlvi, the historian Barani and the poet Amir Khusro.
• It was popular in Delhi and the Doab region.

2. The Suhrawardi Sufi Order :

• It was popular in Punjab and Sindh.

• Popular saints were Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and Hamid – ud – din Nagory.
• Saints of this order had big jagirs and had close contact with the state.

3. The Firdausi Order : It was a branch of the Suhrawardi order and its activities were confined to Bihar. It was
popularized by Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya who was a disciple of Khwaja Nizamuddin Firdausi.

4. The Qadiri Order :

• It was founded by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad. It was popularized in India by Shah Niamatullah and
Makhdum Muhammad Jilani.
• Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, was a follower of this order.

5. Nakshabandi Sufi Order :

• It was founded in India by the followers of Khwaja Pir Muhammad. It was popularized in India by Khwaja Baqi
Billah who came to India from Kabul in the last years of the reign of Akbar.
• Of all the Sufi orders, it was nearest to orthodoxy and it tried to counteract the liberal policies of Akbar who was
considered by them as heretic.

6. Shattari Sufi Order :

• Shah Abdullah brought the Shattari order to India during the Lodhi Dynasty. Muhammad Ghhauth of Gwalior was
the most important saint of this order.
• Tansen was the follower of this order.

Bhakti Movements in India :

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• Among the Hindus, the Bhakti movement preached religion which was non – ritualistic and open to all without any
distinction of caste or creed.
• The real development of Bhakti took place in south India between 7th and 12th century. The bhakti saints came
usually from lower castes. They disregarded castes, encouraged women to join in the gatherings and taught in
the local vernacular language.

Ramanuja (12th century) : Earliest exponent of Bhakti Movement. According to him, the way of Moksha lies through
Karma, Gyan and Bhakti. The performance of duty without any selfish motive purifies the mind. He gave the concept of
Vishishtadvaita.

Nimbarkara History : The next leader of the bhakti movement was Nimbarkara, a younger contemporary of Ramanuja.
He was a worshipper of Krishna and Radha.

Madhavacharya (1238 – 1317) : He ranks with Ramanuja in the Vedanta system. He said that release from
transmigration can be secured only by means of knowledge and devotion. His successor was Jayatirtha.

Ramanand (15th century) : First great Bhakti saint of north India. Worshipper of Lord Ram. He put emphasis on Bhakti
and avoided both Cyan marg and Karma marg. His followers were Ravidas, Kabir, Dhanna, Sena, etc.

1. Namadeva – Tailor.
2. Ravidas – Cobbler (His 30 hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib).
3. Kabir – Weaver.
4. Sena – Barber.
5. Sadhana – Butcher.

Baba Guru Nanak History :

Histoey of Guru Nanak (1469 – 1539) was born in the village of Talwandi (now called Nankana in present day Pakistan).
He undertook wide tours all over India and then to Sri Lanka, Mecca and Medina. He laid great emphasis on the purity of
character and conduct as the first condition of approaching God and the need of a gurufor guidance.

He laid emphasis on the oneness or unity of God. His concept of God was Nirguna (attributeless) and Nirankar (formless).
He used the name of Hari, Ram, Allah and Khuda for God. He didn’t believe in the Vedas and the Quran.

History of Kabir :

History of Kabir (1440 – 1518) was not only concerned with religious reform but also wished to change the society. He
emphasized the unity of God and expressed his ideas in dohas or couplets. He composed Bijak, Sabads, Sakhis, Mangal,
Basant, Holi, Rekhtal, etc. He did not make any distinction betwee Hinduism and Islam.

Note : The followers of Kabir and Nanak founded independent religious communities, the Kabirpanthis and the Sikhs.

Vaishnavism : Popular in north India. They can be distinguished from other Ehakti saints as their teachings were not
influenced by Islamic ideas.

Chaitanya : (1485 – 1534) of Bengal traveled throughout India and popularized Krishna cult. ‘Kirtan system’ was given by
Chaitanya only.

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Meerabai History : (1498 – 1546) of Rajasthan was the follower of Lord Krishna. She was married to Rana Sanga’s
eldest son and heir-apparent Bhojraj. But Bhojraj died in the lifetime of his father leaving Mira a widow in her youth. After
the death of her husband, she devoted herself completely to religious pursuits. She wrote some poetic stanzas on Lord
Krishna.

Surdas History : (1479 – 1584) of western UP wrote lyrical poems on Radha and Krishna. Wrote Sur – Sarawali, the
Sahitya Lahari and the Sur – Sagar.

Vallabhacharya : (1479 – 1531), a Tailanga brahmana, advocated the worship of Krishna and dedication of everything to
Him alone.

Tulsidas History (1532 – 1623) was born in a Brahmin family in Varanasi. On account of a taunt of his wife, he is said to
have to the life of a religious hermit. Wrote Ram Charit Manas, Gitawali, Kauitawali, Vinay Patrika, etc. He also used
Arabic and Persian words in his writings.

Narsingh Mehta : was a saint from Gujarat who wrote songs in Gujarati depicting the love of Radha – Krishna. He is the
author of Mahatma Gandhi’s favourite bhajan ‘vishnaoajan ko’.

Vijaynagar Kingdom

History of Vijaynagar Kingdom

Founded in 1336 as a result of the political and cultural movement against the Tughluq authority in the south.

The Sangama History (1336 – 1485) :

• The empire of Vijaynagar was founded by Harihara – I and Bukka, two of the five sons of Sangama. They were
originally feudatories of Kakatiyas. Harihara – I was the first ruler. A Bhakti saint Vidyaranya motivated them.
• The next ruler was Deva Raya – I. He constructed a dam across the river Tungabhadra to bring die canals into
die city to relieve die shortage of water.
• Italian traveler Nicolo Conti visited during his reign (Also a Russian merchant, Nikitin).
• His court was adorned by the gifted Telegu poet Srinatha, the author of Haravilasam.
• There was a ‘Pearl Hall’ in the palace where he honored men of eminence.
• Devaraya – II (1423 – 46) was the greatest Sangama ruler.
• During his time, Vijaynagar became the most wealthy and powerful state.
• The commoners believed that he was the in carnation of Indra.
• The inscriptions speak of his tide ‘Gajabetekara’ i.e., die elephant hunter.
• He wrote ‘Mahanataka Sudhanidhi’ and a commentary on die Brahma Sutras of Badaryana (Both in Sanskrit).
• Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq visited his court.
• Sangama dynasty was replaced by Saluva dynasty, which lasted for 2 decades. Ultimately, a new dynasty called
the Tuluva dynasty (1503 – 69) was founded by Vira Narsimha.

The History of Tuluvas :

• Krishnadeva Raya (1509 – 29) was their greatest ruler. Portuguese traveller, Domingo! Paes writes high about
him. Berbosa also came as a traveler.
• He was a warrior, an administrator and a patron of art and literature.

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• His political ideas are contained in his Telegu work ‘Amuktamalyada’ (also Jambavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit).
• As a great patron of literature, he was known as Abhinava Bhoja, Andhra Pitamaha and Andhra Bhoja.
• Eight great poets of Telegu, known as ‘Ashta Diggaja’ adorned his court. Pedanna wrote Manucharitam, while
Tenalirama was the author of Panduranga Mahamatyam.
• Built a new city ‘Nagalapuram’ and decorated it with Hazura temple and Vithalswamy temple.
• The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak and incompetent rulers. Achyuta Raya followed him. A
Portuguese traveler Fernoa Nuniz came during his reign.
• Sadasiva, the last ruler of the dynasty, was a puppet in the hands of his PM, Rama Raya, who was an able but
arrogant man.
• In 1565, Battle of Talikota was fought between an alliance of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and Bidar on one
side and Sadasiva on the other side. Sadashiv was defeated.
• After that, Aravidu dynasty was found by Rama Raya’s brother, Thirumala.
• Aravidu dynasty lingered on for almost 100 Years, but no political influence.
• Caesor Fredrick (1567 – 68 AD) visited Vijaynagar after the Battle of Talikota.
• Vina (musical instrument) acquired a prominent place in the Vijayanagar Empire.

The Nayakar and Ayagar Systems : The Nayakar and Ayagar systems were the backbones of the Vijayanagar
administration.

The Nayakar System : Under this system, military chiefs were assigned certain pieces of land called amaram. These
chiefs, known as nayaks, had revenue and administrative rights on their lands. They were required I to maintain
elephants, horses and soldiers in certain numbers which were included in the royal I army during wars.

They also had to pay a sum of money to the central exchequer. In course of time, nayaks began to assert their military,
administrative and economic powers which later became a major cause of the decline of the Vijayanagar empire.

The Ayagar System : It involved the constitution of a 12 – member officials group by the Centre to maintain
administration at the village level. These officials, called the ayagars, were village functionaries and constituted of groups
of families.

They were given, for their service, a portion, of or plot in the village, which were tax – free. The ayagars were hereditary
officials and there was to be no sale or purchase of land without their permission.

Bahmani Kingdom

History of Bahmani Kingdom

• The Bahmani Kingdom of the Deccan was the most powerful of all the independent Muslim kingdoms that arose
on account of the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Alauddin Hasan, who took the title of Abul Muzaffar Alauddin Bahman Shah, was the first king of Bahmani
Kingdom in 1347.
• Bahman Shah selected Gulbarga as his capital and gave it the name of Ahsanabad. At the time of his death, his
dominions had four provinces, namely Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar.
• Bahman Shah (1347 – 58) was succeeded by his elder son, Muhammad Shah I (1358 – 75). He had troubled
relationship with Vijaynagar Empire.
• Mujahid Shah (1375 – 78) succeeded Muhammad Shah. During his rule, Raichur Doab was the bone of
contention between Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdom.

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• The next ruler was Muhammad Shah II (1378 – 97). A man of peace, he set up monastries and public schools.
• Muhammad Shah II was followed by his two sons, namely Ghiyasuddin and Shamsuddin. However, their rule
lasted for a few months only.
• The throne was finally captured by Tajuddin Firoz Shah (1397 – 1422). During his term, Bahmani Kingdom and
Vijaynagar Empire were mostly in war.
• The next ruler was Tajuddin’s brother, Ahmad Shah (1422 – 36), who again had a fight with Vijaynagar Empire.
• Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Alauddin II (1336 – 58).
• Humayun (1458 – 61) succeeded his father Alauddin II. He was so cruel that he got the title of “Zalim” or the
tyrant.
• Humayun was succeeded by his son Nizam Shah (1461 – 63). He was succeeded by his brother Muhammad
Shah III (1463 – 82).
• During his reign, his minister Mahmud Gawan was practically the king. Mahmud won Konkan, Goa, Orissa,
Kanchi, etc. Nikitin, a Russian merchant, visited Bidar during his reign.
• Muhammad Shah III was succeeded by his son Mahmud Shah (1482 – 1518).
• The last ruler of the Bahmani Kingdom was Kalim Ullah Shah (1524 – 27).
• After the break up of the Bahmani Kingdom, five separate States of the Muslims came into existence :

1. Adilshahi Kingdom of Bijapur : Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.

2. Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar : Founded by Malik Ahmad. It was annexed by the Mughals in 1636.

3. Imadshahi Kingdom of Berar : Founded by Fateh Ullah Imad Shah. It was annexed by Ahmednagar in 1574.

4. Qutub shahi Kingdom of Golconda : Founded by Qutub Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.

5. Baridshahi Kingdom of Bidar : Founded by Amir AH Barid. It was annexed by Bijapur in 1618 – 19.

Mughal Emperors of India

The Mughal Empire of India:

• The Mughal era is the historic period of the Mughal Empire in India, it ran from the early sixteenth century, to a
point in the early eighteenth century when the Mughal Emperors power had dwindled.
• It ended in several generations of conflicts between rival warlords.
• During the Mughal period, art and architecture flourished and many beautiful monuments were constructed. The
rulers were skillful warriors and admirers of art as well.
• The Mughal Empire lasted for more than three centuries. The Mughal Empire was one of the largest centralized
states in premodern history and was the precursor to the British Indian Empire.
• More information about the famous Mogul rulers in our related sections.

The Mughal Emperors :

• Babur (1526 – 1530)

• Humayun (1530 – 40 & 1555 – 1556)
• Akbar (1556 – 1605)
• Jahangir (1605 – 1627)
• Shahjahan (1628 – 1658)

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• Aurangzeb Alamgir
• Later Mughal or Fall of Mughal

Salient Features of Mughal Dynasty in India :

• Mughal Administration in India

• Mughal Buildings in India
• Mughal Paintings in India
• Mughal Literature

Babar Emperor (1526 – 1530) :

• Was a descended of Timur on his father’s side and Chengiz Khan on his mother’s side. His family belonged to the
Chaghtai section of the Turkish race and were commonly known as Mughals.
• Originally ruledover Ferghana (Afghanistan). He became the Sultan at the early age of 12, when his father Sultan
Umar Shaikh Mirza died.
• He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodhi (Subedar of Punjab), Alam Khan (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) and
Rana Sanga. Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.
• In this Babar used the Rumi (Ottoman) device of lashing a large number of carts to form a defending wall with
breastwork in between to rest guns (Tulghama system of warfare). His artillery was led by Ustad Ali and Mustafa.
• Defeated Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) of Mewar in the Battle of Khanua in 1527. This weakened the Rajput
confederacy and strengthened Babar’s position. Babar took the tide of “Ghazi” after that.
• Defeated another Rajput ruler, Medini Rai (of Chanderi) in the Battle of Chanderi in 1528.
• Defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi brother of Ibrahim Lodi) in the Battle of
Ghagra in 1529.
• His victories led to rapid popularization of gunpowder and artillery in India.
• Died in 1530. Buried at Aram Bagh in Agra; later his body was taken to Aram Bagh, Kabul.
• His memoir, the Tazuk – i – Baburi in Turki language is a classic of world literature. It shows his humane outlook
and sensitivity to the beauty of nature. Also wrote ‘Masnavf.

Note : After the Kushans, Babur was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian Empire, which provided stability
since it was the staging post of invasions of India.

This helped in promoting trade since these towns were the starting points of caravans meant for China in the east and
Mediterranean in the west.

Humayun (1530 – 40 and 1555 – 56) :

• He was born to Mahim Begam and Babur. The throne inherited by Humayun was not a bed of roses.
• Babar had practically got no time to consolidate his position and authority. Before he could put the whole country
on a stable basis, he was gone.
• He did a blunder by dividing his empire among his three brothers – Kamran, Hindal and Askari.
• Built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital.
• Defeated the Afghan forces at Daurah in 1532.

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The Afghan Interlude

Sher Shah Suri History(1540 – 1545) :

• Real name was Farid. Given the title Sher Khan by Babar Khan Lohani (Governor of Bihar) who appointed him
Vakil (deputy).
• Became the master of Delhi after the exit of Humayun.
• Crushed the Rajput forces of Marwar at Samel in 1544.
• Died in 1545 while campaigning against Kalinjar Fort.

Shershah’s Administration :

• For administrative convenience, Shershah divided his whole empire into 47 divisions called sarkars, and sarkars
into smaller parganas. In the field of central administration, Shershah followed the Sultanate pattern. There were
– four main central departments, viz, Diwan – i – wizarat, Diwan – i – arz, Diwan – i – insha and Diwan – i –
rasalat.
• His Land Revenue System is noteworthy as he classified his land under 3 heads – good, middle and bad, and
claimed 1 / 3rd of the produce. Land was measured by using the Sikandari – gaz (32 points). Todarmal
contributed greatly in the development of revenue policy of Shershah. Akbar also adopted the same revenue
policy, albeit with some amendments.
• Shershah personally supervised the recruitment of the soldiers and paid them directly, He revived Alauddin’s
system of branding the horses (daag) and keeping a descriptive roll of soldiers (chehra).
• Shershah introduced a regular postal service. He also attempted to fix standard weights and measures.
• Introduced the silver ‘Rupaya’ and the copper ‘Dam’ and abolished all old and mixed metal currency. He
promoted the cause of trade and commerce by reducing the number of the customs duty collection points to just
two :

1. Goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside had to pay customs duty at Sikrigali (at the border of Bengal and
Bihar).

2. For the goods coming from West and Central Asia at the Indus.

• Shershah improved communication by building roads. The roads built by Shershah are called ‘the arteries of the
empire’. Sarais were built on roads. He restored the old imperial road called Grand Trunk road, from the Indus
River to Sonargaor, in Bengal.

• Built his tomb at Sasaram in Bihar.

• Built a new city on the bank of Yamuna River (present day Purana Qila).
• Malik Mohammad Jaisi composed Padmavat (in Hindi) during his reign.
• Abbas Khan Sarwani was his historian, who wrote Tarikh – i – SherShahi.
• Sher Shah Suri gradually gained power during his time.
• He was attacked by Sher Shah at Chausa (Battle of Chausa) in 1539, but escaped. Here Humayun was saved by
Nizam, a water carrier (saqqa).
• But in the Battle of Kannauj (also called Battle of Bilgram) in 1540, he was defeated by Sher Shah and had to flee.
• Passed nearly 15 years (1540 – 1555) in exile.
• First fled to Sind, which was under Shah Hussain Arghuna. In 1545, he went to the Persian emperor’s court.
• Had the chance to return in 1555. Sher Shah, the victor of Kannauj, died in 1545. He was succeeded by his son
Islam Shah, who ruled up to 1553. He was succeeded by Muhammad Adil Shah.
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• He was very fond of pleasures and left the affairs of his government in the hands of Hemu, his minister. His
authority was challenged by Ibrahim Shah and Sikandar Shah. There were a large number of bloody battles
among the various rivals. The net result of all this was that the Suri Empire was broken up.
• Bairam Khan, his most faithful officer, helped him in this.
• Died in 1556, due to a fall from his library building stairs (Sher Mandal, Delhi) seven months after he captured
Delhi. It is said about him that “Humayun tumbled through life and he tumbled out of it”.
• Gulbadan Begum, his half – sister, wrote Humayun – nama.

History of Akbar (1556 – 1605) :

• Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar was the son of Humayun and Hamida Banu Begam. He was born at Amarkot in
1542.
• Bairam Khan coronated him at Kalanaur when he was 14 years old.
• Bairam Khan represented him in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 against Hemu Vikramaditya. Hemu, the PM
of Muhammad Shah Adil of Bengal, was defeated. Hemu is considered the last Hindu king ofDelhi.
• Between 1556 – 1560, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan’s regency. (Bairam Khan was as sassinated at Patan,
Gujarat, on his way to Mecca by one of his old Afghani enemies).
• Conquered Malwa in 1561 defeating Baz Bahadur. He was later made the Mansabdar to honour his skill as a
musician.
• Then defeated Garh – Katanga (ruled by Rani Durgawati) followed by Chittor and Ranthambhore.
• Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation with the Rajputs. Some of the Rajput princes entered into matrimonial
alliances with him. In 1562, he married the eldest daughter of Raja Bharmal of Jaipur. In 1570, he married
princesses from Bikaner and Jaisalmer. In 1584, Prince Salim was married to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das.
All these activities paved the way for friendship between Rajputs and Mughals (except Mewar).
• Won Gujarat in 1572. It was in order to commemorate his victory of Gujarat that Akbar got the Buland Darwaza
constructed at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Fought Battle of Haldighati with Mewar forces on 18 Jun, 1576. Mughals were represented by Raja Maan Singh
and Rajputs by Rana Pratap Singh. Rajputs were defeated.
• Raja Maan Singh conquered Bihar, Bengal and Orissa for him.
• In 1586, he conquered Kashmir and in 1593, he conquered Sindh. His last conquest was at the fort of Asirgarh in
Deccan.
• At his death in 1605, his empire included Kashmir, Sind, Kandhar and extended as far as the Godavary in the
Deccan.

Maharana Pratap :

A Rajput ruler of Mewar, he belonged to the Sisodia clan of Suryavanshi Rajputs. He was a son of Udai Singh II. In 1568,
during the reign of Udai Singh II, Mewar was conquered by the Akbar.

Battle of Haldighati was fought on Jun 18, 1576, in which Maharana Pratap was defeated by Akbar’s army, led by Raja
Maan Singh. Maharana had to flee the field on his trusted horse Chetak.

Thereafter, Pratap had to retreat into the Aravallis from where he continued his struggle through the tactics of guerilla
warfare. Using the hills as his base, Pratap harassed the large and therefore awkward mughal forces in their
encampments.

He ensured that the mughal occupying force in Mewar never knew peace. Rana Pratap died of injuries sustained in a
hunting accident.
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Important aspects of Akbar’s Rule :

• Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to visit Akbar’s court.
• Abolished jaziyah in 1564 and the tax on pilgrims. The use of beef was also forbidden.
• Regularly visited the shrine of Sheikh Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.
• Believed in Sulh – i – Kul or peace to all.
• Built Ibadatkhana (Hall of prayers) at Fatehpur Sikri. He used to conduct religious discussions there with :
Purshottam Das (Hindu), Maharaji Rana (Parsi), Harivijaya Suri (Jain), Monserate and Aquaviva (Christian).
• In 1579, Akbar issued the ‘Decree of Infallibility.
• Formulated an order called Din – i – Ilahi or Tauhid – i – Ilahi in 1581. Birbal, Abul Fazl and Faizi joined the order.
• His Land Revenue System was known as Todar Mai Bandobast or Zabti System. Three salient features of Zabti
system were – measurement of land, classification of land and fixation of rates. Todar Mai and Muzaffar Khan
Turbati were the important revenue officers.
• Also introduced the Mansabdary System to organise the nobility as well as the army. Mansabdar meant holder of
a rank. There were two ranks: Zat and Sawar. Zat fixed the status and standing in the administrative hierarchy
while sawar fixed the number of troopers held by the Mansabdar. It wasn’t a hereditary system.

Akbar’s Navratna History :

• Abu’l – Fazl, the Wazir of Akbar and author of the Akbamama an account of Akbar’s reign. He also led the
Mughal imperial army in its wars in the Deccan. He was assassinated in a plot contrived by Akbar’s son, Salim.
• Faizi was historian Abul Fazl’s brother in Akbar’s court. He was a poet composing in Persian and an all – round
genius. Akbar highly recognized the genius in him and appointed him teacher for his son and gave place to him
among his decorative ‘Nau Ratnas’. His famous work Lilabati is on mathematics.
• Tansen, believed to be one of the greatest musician of all times, was born in a Hindu family in Gwalior. He served
as the court musician to King Ramachandra of Mewar and later to Akbar.
• Tansen accepted Islam at the hands of the great Sufi mystic and saint – Shaykh Muhammad Ghaus of Gwalior. It
was believed that Tansen made miracles such as bringing rain and fire through singing the ragas Megh Malhar
and Deepak, respectively.
• Raja Birbal, alias Mahesh Das, was a courtier in the administration of Akbar. Birbal was referred to as a court wit
as a result of the fact that he frequently had witty and humorous exchanges with Akbar.
• He was a poet and author whose wit and wisdom led the Emperor Akbar to invite him to be a part of the royal
court and to bestow upon him a new name – Birbal. Akbar also conferred on him the title of “Raja”.
• Raja Todar Mai was Akbar’s finance minister, who overhauled the revenue system in the kingdom. He introduced
standard weights and measurements, revenue districts and officers.
• His systematic approach to revenue collection became a model for the future Mughals as well as the British. He
had developed his expertise while working under Sher Shah. In 1582, Akbar bestowed on the raja the title Diwan
– i – Ashraf.
• Raja Man Singh was the Kacchwaha raja of Amber. He was a mansabdar and a trusted general of Akbar. He
was the grandson of Akbar’s father – in – law, Bharmal and the adopted son of Raja Bhagwan Das.
• He assisted Akbar in many battles including the well – known | battle of Haldighati, among others. He also led
campaigns in Orissa and Bengal.
• Abdul Rahim Khan – e – Khana was a poet and the son of Akbar’s trusted caretaker, Bairam Khan. After Bairam
Khan was murdered, Bairan Khan’s wife became the second wife of Akbar, which made Abdul Rahim Khan – e –
Khan his stepson. He had a high place I among Akbar’s Navratnas. Although a Muslim by birth, he was a devotee
of Lord Krishna.
• Faqir Aziao Din was one of Akbar’s chief advisors.

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• Mullah Do Piaza was among the Mughal emperor Akbar’s chief advisors. Akbar regarded his advice in high
esteem.

History of Jahangir (1605 – 1627) :

• Akbar’s eldest son Salim assumed the title of Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir and ascended the throne.

• He mostly lived in Lahore which he adorned with gardens and buildings.

• But soon, his eldest son Khusro revolted, which was suppressed.

• The fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjun Dev, had helped Khusro. So he was also executed after 5 days of torture.

• Rana Amar Singh (son of Maharana Pratap) of Mewar submitted before Jahangir in 1615. Rana’s son Karan
Singh was made a mansabdar in the Mughal court.

• Faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber in his expedition to Ahmednagar.

• His greatest failure was the loss of Kandahar to Persia in 1622.

• The most important event in Jahangir’s life was his marriage to Mehr – un – Nisa, the widow of Sher Afghani in
1611. The title of Nur Jahan was conferred on her.

• She had great influence on Jahangir’s life, as she was given the status of Padshah Begum, coins were struck in
her name and all royal farmans beared her name.

• She got high positions for her father (Itmad – ud – daulah), and her brother (Asaf Khan). She married Asaf’s
daughter, Mumtaz Mahal to Khurram (later, Shahjahan). This cemented the alliance between Nurjahan, her
father, Asaf Khan and Khurram.

• This alliance practically ruled the empire for 10 years. Problem arose when Nur Jahan married her daughter by
Sher Afghani to Jahangir’s youngest son, Shahryar. Now Nur Jahan supported him for the heir – apparent.

• All these events hampered the military events for the recovery of Kandhar.

• Had a chain of justice outside his palace in Agra (called Zanzir – i – Adil). He also laid a number of gardens, such
as the Shalimar and Nishat gardens in Kashmir.

• Captain Hawkins (1608 – 11) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615 – 1619) visited his court. Due to the efforts of Sir
Thomas Roe English factories were established at Surat and some other places.

• Pietra Valle, famous Italian traveler came during his reign.

• Tobacco growing started during his reign. It was brought by the Portuguese.

History of Shahjahan (1628 – 1658) :

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• Able general and administrator.

• Had to face revolts in Bundelkhand (Jujjhar Singh Bundela of Orchcha) and in the Deccan (Khan – i – Jahan Lodi)
in the initial years.
• Shahjahan’s policy of annexing the Deccan was quite successful. Ahmednagar was annexed while Bijapur and
Golconda accepted his overlordship.
• Shahjahan also expelled the Portuguese from Hughli, as they were abusing their trading privileges.
• In 1639, Shahjahan secured Kandahar and immediately fortified it. But Persia wrested Kandahar from the
Mughals in 1649. Shahjahan sent three expeditions to recover Kandahar, but all failed.
• Made his son, Aurangzeb, the Viceroy of Deccan in 1636. Aurangzeb first tenure was till 1644.
• Aurangzeb’s second term as Viceroy in Deccan began in 1653 and continued till 1658. Aurangzeb built an
effective Revenue System there (Murshid Kuli Khan was his dewan there).
• Last 8 years of his life were very painful, as there was a brutal war of succession among his four sons – Dara,
Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad. Dara was his favourite but Aurangzeb was the ablest.
• Ultimately, Aurangzeb took control and he was made the prisoner in the Agra Fort, being looked after by his
daughter, Jahan Ara, till his death in 1666.
• His reign is considered the ‘Golden Age of the Mughal Empire’.
• 2 Frenchmen, Bernier and Tavernier, and an Italian adventurer Manucci, visited during his reign.

History of Taj Mahal :

• Taj Mahal, the eternal love monument is located in Agra. Shah Jahan commissioned its construction as a
mausoleum lor his favourite wife, Arjumancl Bano Begum, better known as Mumtaz Mahal, in 1631.
• It was constructed in 22 years (1631 – 1653) by a workforce of 22,000. It is generally considered the finest
example of Mughal architecture.
• The Taj Mahal was not designed by a single person. The project demanded talent from many quarters. Ustad Isa
and Isa Muhammad Effendi are edited with a key role in the architectural design of the complex.
• The main dome was designed by Ismail Khan. Qazim Khan cast the solid gold finial that crowned the Turkish
masters dome.
• Chiranjilal was chosen as the chief sculptor and mosaicist. Amanat Khan was the chief calligrapher.
• Muhammad Hanif was the supervisor of masons. Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan handled finances and
the management of daily production.
• The Taj rises on a high red sandstone base topped by a huge white marble terrace on which rests the famous
dome flanked by four tapering minarets. Within the dome lies the jewel – inlaid cenotaph of the queen.
• The only asymmetrical object in the Taj is the casket of the emperor which was built beside the queen’s as an
afterthought. It is often described as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.

Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658 – 1707) :

• At the time of Shahjahan’s illness, Dara was in Delhi and the other brothers were in different places – Shuja in
Bengal, Murad in Gujarat and Aurangzeb in Deccan.
• Aurangzeb first defeated the Imperial army in the Battle of Dharmat and then defeated a force led by Dara in the
Battle of Samugarh.
• Thereafter, he entered Agraand crowned himself with the title of ‘Alamgir’ (conqueror of the world).
• Under him, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, and the largest single state ever known in India from
the dawn of history to the rise of British Power was formed.
• His reign can be broadly divided into two 25 year periods: first in the affairs of N.India when the Maratha power
under Shivaji emerged, and second marked by his preoccupations about the affairs of Deccan.

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• In his rule, various rebellions took place – Jat peasantry at Mathura, Satnami peasantry in Punjab and Bundelas
in Bundelkhand.

• He caused serious rift in the Mughal-Rajput alliance by his policy of annexation of Marwar in 1639 after the death
of Raja Jaswant Singh.
• In 1675, he ordered the arrest and execution of ninth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur.
• In 1679, he reimposed jaziyah. Also, Nauraj, singing in the court, and the practice of ‘jharokha-darshan’ were
banned. Also forbade inscription of Kalima (the Muslim credo) on the coins.
• When he was conducting the campaign against Marwar, his son Akbar rebelled in 1681.
• The Mughal conquests reached the territorial climax during his reign, as Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687) were
annexed to the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire stretched from Kashmir in die north to Jinji in the south, from
the Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east.
• Patronized the greatest digest of Muslim law in India, Fatwa-i-Alamgiri.
• Mutasib (regulator of moral conduct) was appointed.
• He was called a ‘Darvesh’ or a ‘Zinda Pir’.
• He also forbade Sati.

Fall of Mughal Empire

• The empire lost power after Aurangzeb’s rule. His successors were weak and incapable rulers.
• Bahadur Shah (1707 – 1712) : Assumed the title of Shah Alam I was also known as Shah – i – Bekhabar. He
made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chhatrasal. He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also released
Shahu.
• Jahandar Shah (1712 – 13) : First puppet Mughal emperor. He abolished jaziya.
• Farrukhsiyar (1713 – 19) : Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers. He executed Banda Bahadur.
Farrukhsiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with Maratha help in 1719.
• Mohammad Shah (1719 – 48) : Nadir Shah (of Iran) defeated him in the Battle of Karnal (1739) and took away
Peacock throne and Kohinoor diamond. During his tenure, Chin Kilich Khan (Nizam – ul – Mulk) founded
Hyderabad, Murshid Quli Khan founded Bengal and Saddat Khan laid down the foundation of Awadh out of the
realms of Mughal Empire. He was a pleasure – loving king and was nick – named Rangeela.
• Ahmad Shah (1748 – 54) : During his period, Safdarjung, the nawab of Awadh, was the Wazir or Prime Minister
of the empire.
• Alamgir II (1754 – 59)
• Shah Alam II (1759 – 1806) : Shah Alam II joined hands with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja – ud – Daula of
Awadh in the Battle of Buxar against the British in 1764. They were defeated.

Note :

o Ambitious nobles became direct contenders of power. The Sayyid brothers (also known as King Makers)
put three princes on the throne. Ultimately these brothers were murdered by a conspiracy between
Mohammad Shah and Chin Kilich Khan (Nizam – ul – Muik).
o One of the generals of Nadir Shah, Ahmed Shah Abdali, invaded India repeatedly between 1748 – 1767.
He defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. In this battle, Marathas were led by
Sadashiv Rao Bhau, while the Peshwa at that time was Balaji Bajirao.

• Akbar II (1806 – 37) : He gave Rammohan the title ‘Raja’. He sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to London to seek a
raise in his allowance.

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• Bahadur Shah II (1837 – 57) : He was confined by the British to the Red Fort. During the revolt of 1857, he was
proclaimed the Emperor by the rebels. He was deported to Rangoon after that.

Kohinoor Diamond History :

• Kohinoor is a 105 carat (21.6 gm) diamond that was once the largest known diamond in the world it originated in
India, belonged to various Indian and Persian rulers who fought bitterly over it at various points in history, and
seized as a spoil of war, it became part of the Crown Jewels of England when Queen Victoria was proclaimed
empress of India.
• It is reputed to bring misfortune or death to any male who wears or owns it. Conversely, it is reputed to bring good
luck to female owners.
• Most sources agree that the Kohinoor was mined at Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh. It was first owned by
Kakatiya dynasty, but the Kakatiya kingdom under Pratapa Rudra was ravaged in 1323 by Muhammad bin
Tughluq.
• From then onwards, the stone passed through the hands of successive rulers of the Delhi sultanate, finally
passing to Babur in 1526.
• Shah Jahan had the stone placed into his ornate Peacock Throne. It was taken away by Nadir Shah in 1739
along with the Peacock Throne. After the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1747 it came into the hands of Ahmed
Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. It was passed down to his descendants until it was taken by Maharaja Ranjit Singh
ofPunjab in 1813.
• From him, the gem passed on to the British. Ranjit Singhs successor, Duleep Singh gave the gem to Queen
Victoria in 1851. In 1852, under the personal supervision of Victoria’s consort, Prince Albert, the diamond was cut
from 1861 / 16 carats (37.21 gm) to its current 105.602 carats (21.61 gm), to increase its brilliance.
• The stone is presently used as the centre piece of the crowns of the Queens consort of the United Kingdom.
Queen Alexandra was the first to use the stone, followed by Queen Mary.
• In 1936, the stone was set into the crown of the new Queen Elizabeth (later known as the Queen Mother), wife of
King George VI. In 2002, the crown rested atop her coffin as she by in state.

Mughal Administration System

• The entire kingdom was divided into suba or pranta, suba into sarkar, sarkar into pargana and the pargana into
villages.
• Babar and Humayun had a Prime Minister known as Vakil. The office of Vakil, was, however, discontinued after
Bairam Khan.
• Wazir was the Prime Minister.
• Dewan was the head of the revenue department.
• Mir Bakshi : Military Department.
• Khan – i – Saman : Royal household.
• Qazi – ul – quzaf : Judicial Department. The qazis were helped by the muftis.
• Sadr – us – Sadr : Charitable and religious endowments.
• Mustaufi : Auditor – General.

• Amil : Judicial officer in civil and judicial disputes.

• Quanungo : Head accountant.
• Lambardar : Village headman.
• Patwari : Village accountant.
• During Akbar’s reign the empire was divided into 15 subas. The number reached 21 during Aurangzeb’s reign.

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• The territory of the empire was divided into khalisa (crown lands), jagirs (land granted to nobles) and inam (land
granted to religious and learned men).

Mughal Buildings in India

Babar : Built two mosques: one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other in Sambhal in Rohilkhand.

Buildings in Humayun Empire :

• Laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi.

• Built Jamali Mosque and the Mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi.
• Humayun’s tomb is called the prototype of Taj Mahal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum.

Akbar Buildings :

• Built Agra fort (in red sandstone).

• He also built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra. In Fatehpur Sikri are the Panch Mahal, Diwan-I-Khas,
Diwan-I-Aam, Jodhabai’s palace and Sheikh Salim Chishti’s tomb. Buland Darwaza (53 m high) is located here,
commemorating the emperor’s conquest of Gujarat.
• Built his own tomb at Sikandra, near Agra.
• Built the temple of Govindadeva at Vrindavan.

Buildings in Jahangir Mughal Empire :

• With Jahangir’s reign, the practice of putting up buildings in marble and decorating the walls with floral designs
made of semi-precious stones started. This method of decoration was known as Pietra Dura.
• Nurjahan built the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula at Agra.
• Jahangir built Moti Masjid at Lahore and his own mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore).

Shahjahan Architecture :

• Built Taj Mahal, Moti Masjid at Agra, Jama Masjid and Red Fort at Delhi, Shalimar Bagh at Lahore and city of
Shahjahanabad.
• Also built Mussaman Burz at Agra (where he spent his last years in captivity), Sheesh Mahal, etc.
• He got the peacock throne built by Bebadal Khan on which Amir Khusrau’s couplet – ‘If there is a paradise on
earth, it is here’, inscribed on it.

Aurangzeb Architecture :

• Built Moti Masjid at Delhi and Badshahi Mosque at Lahore.

• Built Bibi ka Makbara in Aurangabad.

Paintings of Mughal Period :: List of Mughal Emperors

Humayun :

He invited 2 Persian artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad, who became his court painters.

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Paintings of Akbar Mughal Empire :

• Organised painting in imperial karkhanas and also introduced European style.

• Abdus Samad, Farrukh Beg, Khusro Kuli, Jamshed, Basawan, Daswanth, etc were the prominent painters.
• Daswanth painted the Razm Namah (Persian Mahabharat).

Mughal Empire Jahangir Paintings :

• Painting reached its zenith under Jahangir.

• Special progress was made in portrait painting and painting of animals. Bishan Das was a master of portraits
while Ustad Mansur specialised in animal painting.

• Use of ‘Halo’ or Divine Lights started under Jahangir.

History of Mughal literature :: List of Mughal Emperors

• Khan Abdur Rahman translated Babur’s Tuzuk – I – Baburi from Turki to Persian during Akbar’s reign.
• Abul Fazal composed Ain – I – Akbari and Akbarnamah.
• Abdul Qadir Badauni, who was in Akbar’s court, wrote : Kitab – ul – Ahadish, Tarikh – i – Alfi and Muntakhab – ul
– Tawarikh.
• Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad Harawi wrote Tabaqat – i – Akbari.
• Jahangir composed his memoir, Tuzuk – I – Jahangiri (in Persian language), and patronized the valuable
dictionary, Farhang – I – Jahangiri.
• During Jahangir’s reign Hamid wrote Padshah Namahand Khafi Khan wrote Muntakhab – i – Lubab.
• Dara was a great scholar. He translated Upanishads and Bhagvadgita. He also wrote Majm – ul – Bahrain.
• Mirza Md. Qazim wrote Alamgirnama.
• Ishwar Das Nagar wrote Fatuhat – i – Alamgiri.

Communal and Regional Uprisings

The Sikhs History :

• Belong to a religious sect founded by Guru Nanak (1469 – 1539). His main teachings were the faith in one true
Lord, the worship of the Name and the necessity of a Guru in the worship of the name.
• After his death, Guru Angad (1539 – 52) became his successor. He invented the Gurumukhi script for the Punjabi
Language.
• Guru Amardas (1552 – 74) was the next guru. He reformed the institution of hangar and gave more importance to
it. He divided his spiritual empire into 22 parts called Manjis. Each Manjis was put under the charge of a Sikh.
• IV guru, Guru Ramdas (1575 – 81) had very cordial relations with Akbar. He laid the foundation of Amritsar city.
He dug a tank (sarovar) and it exists at Amritsar. In the midst of the tank, the Harmandir Sahib (Temple of God)
was constructed.
• V guru, Guru Arjun Dev (1581 – 1606) compiled the Adi Granth. He also completed the construction of Amritsar
and founded other cities like Taran Taran and Kartarpur. He was executed by Jahangir for helping his rebellious
son, Khusro.

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• VI guru, Guru Har Govind Rai (1606 – 44) defeated a Mughal Army at Sangrama. He transformed the Sikhs into
military community, estd. Akal Takhtat the Golden Temple and held court there to conduct secular matters. He
himself took up the tide of Sachcha Padshah.He also fortified Amritsar.
• Guru Har Rai (1644 – 61) and Guru Har Kishan (1661 – 64) were the VII and VIII gurus respectively.
• IX guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664 – 75) revolted against Aurangzeb but was executed by him. He was beheaded
at Delhi’s Chandni Chowk in November 1675. The Sis Ganj Gurudwara marks the site of his martyrdom.
• X and last guru, Guru Gobind Singh (1675 – 1708) (born in Patna) organised Sikhs as a community of warriors
and called them as Khalsa (Baisakhi day, 1699). He summoned a big assembly of Sikhs at Anantpur and selected
5 persons who came to be known as Panj Piaras. They took the water of immortality.

The Sikhs were given a distinct dress and they were required to keep on their person five things beginning with K, viz.,
Kesh, Kripan, Kachha, Kanga and Kara. He compiled a supplementary granth called ‘Daswen Padshah ka Granth’.

After the death of Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Singh had cordial relations with his son. Bahadur Shah I. He even agreed to
accompany the new king to Deccan. But the Guru was stabbed to death by a Pathan in 1708. At his death, he declared
that henceforth, the Guru shall be in the Khalsa and the Khalsa in the Guru. He declared that from now on Granth Sahib
should be treated as the Guru.

The Marathas Indian History :

• Rose to prominence under Shivaji.

• He was born to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai in 1627 at fortress of Shivner in Poona. Shahji was a military officer in
the state of Bijapur and he owned the territory of Poona as a jagir.
• He was highly impressed by his mother, Dadaji Kondadeo (his guardian), Guru Ramdas Samarth and Tuka Ram,
both Bhakti saints.
• From 1656, he started capturing many forts from the local officer’s of Bijapur.
• Ali Adil Shah, sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan to teach Shivaji a lesson in 1659. But Shivaji killed him in a
meeting with his tiger claws.
• Ultimately, in 1662, the Sultan of Bijapur made peace with Shivaji and acknowledged him as an independent ruler
of his conquered territories.
• Aurangzeb got worried by Shivaji’s extensive conquests. He sent Shaista Khan (Viceroy of Mughal Deccan) to kill
him. Here again, in a daring manner, Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan’s camp in night, injuring him.
• Then Aurangzeb sent Raja Jai Singh (of Amber) who forced him to sign the Treaty of Purandar in 1665. Under the
treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 of his major forts out of the total 35 forts. Shivaji also agreed to help the
Mughals in their attack of Bijapur.
• Shivaji visited Agra with his son Sambhaji in 1666. There he was put on a house arrest. But he escaped from
there, concealing in a basket of sweets.
• He very soon conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the Mughals.
• He defeated a Mughal force in the Battle of Salher in 1672.
• He was crowned in 1674 at Raigarh and assumed the title of Chhatrapati. He became the sovereign ruler
of Maharashtra.
• Unfortunately, Shivaji didn’t live long. He died in 1680 at the age of 53.

Marathas after Shivaji :

• After Shivaji, his son Sambhaji (1680 – 89) succeeded throne (although a lot many supported his step-brother,
Rajaram). He was a man of loose character and spent all his time in merry – making.

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• When Aurangzeb was busy in his campaigns against Bijapur and Golconda, he and his followers did not take full
advantage of the opportunity. When Sambhaji gave shelter to Aurangzeb’s rebel son, Akbar, he was executed
and his infant son, Shivaji II, better known as Shahu, was taken captive by Aurangzeb.
• Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram in 1689. Rajaram also lacked the qualities of his father. He was hardly ten
when his father died and he was kept a prisoner by his brother Sambhaji. The result was that he failed to get the
education which was necessary for his status.
• However, he was fortunate in having brilliant advisors and helpers. Initially, he was successful against the
Mughals. But he was killed in 1700 when Aurangzeb himself conducted an expedition against him. After Raja
Ram’s death, his widow Tarabai put her infant son, Shivaji III on the throne.
• After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughals tried to divide the Marathas. Shahu was released by
Aurangzeb’s successor, Bahadur Shah I. now he claimed the government. His release led to the Maratha civil war
between Shahu and Tarabai. In the civil war Shahu emerged victorious (Battle of Khed) with the help of Balaji
Vishwanath, the founder of the line of Peshwas. After the battle, Tarabai retired to Kolhapur with her son.
• In the reign of Shahu, the Peshwa or Prime Minister, Balaji Vishwanath, virtually became the ruler of the state.
From now onwards began the rule of the Peshwas who had their seat of power at Poona. (Shahu’s capital was
Satara).
• In all, there were seven Peshwas, namely :
1. Balaji Vishwanath (1713 – 20)
2. Balaji Baji Rao I (1720 – 40)
3. Balaji Baji Rao (1740 – 61)
4. Madho Rao (1761 – 72)
5. Narayan Rao (1772 – 73)
6. Madho Rao Narayan (1773 – 95)
7. Baji Rao II (1795 – 1818)

• Of these seven Peshwas, the ablest was Baji Rao I and the weakest and most incompetent was Baji Rao II.
• Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802 with the British, which gave the British effective control of not only
the Maratha region but also of the Deccan and western India.
• Under Peshwas, Maratha kingdom transformed into an empire based on the principle of confederacy, in which
prominent Maratha chiefs were assigned a territory as their ‘sphere of influence’, which they were supposed to
conquer on their own and which they can administer autonomously.
• Consequently, several Maratha families became prominent in different parts of India :
1. Gaekwad in Baroda
2. Bhonsle at Nagpur
3. Holkar at Indore
4. Scindia at Gwalior
5. Peshwa at Poona

Maratha Administration :

• Besides the land revenue, Chauth or 1/4th land revenue was the main revenue.
• Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Marathas claimed
hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire.
• Shivaji was helped by 8 ministers or Ashta Pradhana.
a. Peshwa or Mukhya Pradhan (Prime Minister).
b. Majumdar or Amatya (Finance Minister).
c. Mantri or Waqianavis (Personal safety of king).
d. Sachiva or Surunavis (In charge of royal secretariat).
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e. Samant or Dabir (Foreign Minister) a Senapati (Commander in Chief).

f. Pandit Rao (Chief Religious Advisor).
g. Nyayadhish (Administration of justice).

• With the exception of Nyayadhish and Pandit Rao, all other ministers were required to command armies and lead
expeditions.
• Later, Rajaram created a new post of Pratinidhi, thus taking the total ministers to nine.

The Jats Indian History :

• First revolted in 1669 under Gokla.

• Second uprising in 1685 under Rajaram and Churaman. After Aurangzeb’s death, they set up separate Jat state
at Bharatpur (Churaman and Badan Singh).
• Suraj Mai (1756 – 63) took their state to glory. He is known as Plato of the Jat tribe.

Mysore India :

• In the second half of the 18th century, the rise of Mysore under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan and their alliance with
the French was seen as a danger to the British power in India.
• Mysore emerged as a powerful throne under Haider Ali who became the king in 1761.
• He used western military training to strengthen his army.
• In the I Anglo – Mysore war (1767 – 1769), Haider Ali faced the triple alliance of the English, the Nizam and the
Marathas. As Haider Ali was a great diplomat, he bought off the Marathas and won over the Nizam and thus
broke the alliance. The war was brought to an end by signing of the Treaty of Madras (1769).
• Hyder Ali died in 1782 during the II Anglo – Mysore war. His son Tipu Sultan carried on the war till 1784 when the
two sides concluded peace by signing the Treaty of Mangalore.
• Tipu planted a tree of liberty at Srirangapatnam. He employed French officers to train his army and showed a
keen interest in French Revolution and became a member of the Jacobin Club.
• He assumed the title of Padshah in 1797.
• In the III Anglo – Mysore war (1789 – 1792), he was defeated by the triple alliance of British, Nizam and the
Marathas and had to sign the Treaty of Sriranagapatnam. By this treaty, Tipu ceded half of his territory to the
English and paid a large amount as war indemnity.
• He was defeated and killed in the IV Anglo – Mysore war (1799) by Lord Wellesley.

Modern Indian History

Advent of Europeans in India

Portuguese in India :

• The Portuguese voyager Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on May 17, 1498. At that time Calicut was ruled by a
king named Zamorin. Vasco da Gama’s voyage was successful in establishing a sea route fromEurope to India
that would permit trade with the Far East, without the use of the costly and unsafe Silk Road caravan routes, of
the Middle East and Central Asia. In 1502, he established a factory at Cochin.
• The first Governor of Portuguese in India was Francisco Almeida.
• He was followed by Alfonso de Albuquerque in 1503. He gave them new heights. He captured Goa in 1510 from
the Bijapur ruler. He also abolished Sati.
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• Nino – da – Cunha transferred the Portuguese capital in India from Cochin to Goa in 1530 and acquired Diu (in
1535) and Daman (in 1559).
• Portuguese lost Hugly in 1631 during the reign of Shahjahan.
• In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry, for marrying his sister.
• Gradually, their Indian territories were taken away from them by various sources. The Dutch played an important
role to oust them.

Dutch East India Company :

• Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602.

• They set – up their first factory at Masulipatnam in 1605. Their other factories were at Pulicat, Chinsura, Patna,
Balasore, Nagapattanam, Cochin, Surat, Karikal, Kasimbazar.

English East India Company :

• The English East India Company was formed in 1599, and was given the royal Charter by Queen Elizabeth I in
1600 to trade in the east.
• Captain William Hawkins stayed in Jahangir’s court from 1609 – 1611. But he failed to get the king’s permission to
erect a factory at Surat. Captain Middleton succeeded in this effort in 1611.
• An imperial Farman allowed the Company to set up a permanent factory at Surat in 1613. Sir Thomas Roe played
an important role in this.
• In 1616, the Company established its first factory in the south in Masulipatnam. In 1633, it established its first
factory in east India in Hariharpur, Balasore (Orissa).
• The Company got the lease of Madras in 1639 and built Fort St. George in Madras, which acted as its
headquarter on the Coromandal coast.
• Bombay was made the Company’s main settlement on the west coast in 1668.
• Aurangzeb gave the Company the Farman in 1667 to trade in Bengal. In 1690, a factory was set up at Sutanuti
village. In Sutanati and nearby villages of Kalikata and Gobindpur, grew the city of Calcutta (now Kolkata). In
1696, the Company fortified the Calcutta factory into Fort William.
• In 1717, John Surman obtained a Farman from Farrukhsiyar which gave large concessions to the Company. This
Farman is called the ‘Magna Carta’ of the Company.

Danes in India :

• The Danish East India Company was formed in 1616.

• They established settlements at Serampur (Bengal) and Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu).
• The banes sold their settlements to the English in 1845.

French in India :

• The French East India Company was set in 1664, at the instance of a minister, Colbert, in the reign of Louis XIV.
• The French Company was created, financed and controlled by the State and it differed from the English Company
which was a private commercial venture.
• They established their first factor)’ at Surat in 1668 and at Masulipatnam in 1669.
• The foundation of Pondicherry was laid in 1673 which, afterwards, became its capital. They also developed a
factory in Chandernagar.

The British Conquest of Bengal :

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• The Mughal governor of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan, made Bengal virtually independent of the Mughal Empire
during his reign (1717 – 1727).
• His son Shuja – ud – daulah succeeded him and ruled for 12 years.
• After his death, Alivardi Khan ruled till 1756.
• These three rulers gave Bengal a long reign of peace and orderly administration.
• They suppressed the East India Company, but never crushed it. On the other hand, the Company constantly
increased its power taking advantage of the corrupt officers.
• The result was the defeat of Siraj – ud – daulah (grandson and successor of Alivardi Khan) in the Battle of
Plassey in 1757. In this battle major part of the Nawab’s army (led by Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh) didn’t take part in
the battle. The Nawab was defeated and killed.

Robert Clive and Battle of Plassey :

Robert Clive is regarded as the true founder of British Political Dominion in India. He correctly read the intricacies of the
political situation of the time and struck boldly and in the right direction. He outdid his French adversary Dupleix and
achieved more permanent results. He was made the Governor of Bengal twice form 1757 – 60 and then from 1765 – 67.
He administered Bengal under the Dual government.

With the resources of Bengal, the English conquered South India and routed their only political rival in India, the French.
Above all, he transformed a mere trading body that the east India Company was into a territorial power with the role of
king – maker in Bengal. On his return to England, he committed suicide in 1774.

• The Battle of Plassey had great political significance as it laid the foundation of the British Empire in India. It is
regarded as the starting point of British Rule in India.
• A great transformation came about in the position of the English Company in Bengal. Before Plassey, the English
Company was just one of the European companies trading in Bengal and suffering various extractions at the
hands of Nawab’s officials. After Plassey the English Company virtually monopolized the trade and commerce of
Bengal.
• The alleged Black Hole Tragedy happened during the reign of Siraj – ud – daulah in 1757.
• Mir Jafar was made the next Nawab of Bengal. The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It received the Zamindari of 24 Parganas.
• Next came Mir Qasim. He revoked against the British as he was angry that the British were misusing the dastaks
(free duty passes).
• The Battle of Buxar was fought in 1764 between the British forces (led by Major Munro) on one side, and the triple
alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja – ud – Daula of Awadh and Mughal emperor Shah Alam,
on the other side. But the triple – alliance was defeated. The importance of this battle lay in the fact that not only
the Nawab of Bengal but the Emperor of India was also defeated.
• If the Battle of Plassey had made the English a powerful factor in the politics of Bengal, the victory of Buxar made
them a great power of. North India and contenders for the supremacy of the whole country. The English now
faced the Afghans and the Marathas as serious rivals in the final struggle for the Empire of Hindustan.
• The Treaty of Allahabad followed (August 1765) in which the English got the Diwani (or right to collect revenue) of
Bengal and thus became the master of the whole of Bengal (i.e. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa). The Dual Government
of Bengal system followed wherein the Company acquired the real power, while the responsibility of
administration rested on the Nawab of Bengal.
• The Mughal emperor was virtually Company’s prisoner at Allahabad.

Note :

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Raja Sawai Jai Singh ruled Amber from 1681 – 1743. He was the most outstanding Rajput king of this period. He built the
city of Jaipur and set up observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Varanasi. He drew up a set of tables, titled Zij
Muhammadshahi, for astronomical observations.

Governor Generals of India

Governor Generals of British India

Warren Hastings Plan 1772 – 1785 :

• Brought the Dual Govt, of Bengal to an end by the Regulating Act, 1773.
• Deprived zamindars of their judicial powers and Civil and Criminal courts were established.
• Maintenance of records was made compulsory.
• The First Anglo – Maratha War (1776 – 82), which ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782), and the Second Anglo
– Mysore War (1780 – 84), which ended with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784), were fought during Hasting’s
period.
• As a great patron of oriental learning, he founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784. He
wrote introduction to the first English translation of “The Gita” by Charles Wilkins.
• Impeachment proceedings started against him when he returned on the charges of taking bribe. After a trial of 7
years, he was finally acquitted.

Note : Sir John MacPherson was made the acting Governor – General from 1785 to 1786.

Lord Cornwallis India (1786 – 1793) :

• Did the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (also called Zamindary System).

• First person to codify laws. The code separated the revenue administration from the administration of justice.
• Police Reforms : Each district was divided into 400 sq. miles and placed under a police superintendent assisted
by constables.
• The civil service was brought into existence.

Sir John Shore History (1793 – 1798)

Lord Wellesley in India (1798 – 1805) :

• Adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance a system to keep the Indian rulers under control and to make the British
the paramount power.
• He defeated the Mysore force under Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo – Mysore War in 1799.

Subsidiary Alliance in India :

• The Subsidiary Alliance System was used by Weilesley to bring Indian Slates within the orbit the British political
power. The system played a very important part in the expansion of ll Company’s dominionsand many new
territories were added to the Company’s possessions.
• There were four stages in it. In the first stage, the Company undertook to lend its, friendly Indian prince to assist
him in his wars, in the second stage, the Company’s troops tot the field on their own account with the assistance
of an Indian ally who made common; them.

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The next stage was reached when the Indian ally was not to supply men but money. The company undertook to raise,
train and equip an. army under English officers and rende to the ally a fixed number of troops on receiving a sum of
money towards the cost of these troop Tire final stage was the next logical step.

The Company undertook to defend the territories of an Indian ally and for that purpose stationed a subsidiary force in the
territory of the state. 11 Indian ally was asked not to pay money but surrender territory from the revenue of which tl
expenses of the subsidiary force were to be met.

• The Indian states were to conduct negotiations with other states through the Company. The ste was to accept a
British Resident at its headquarters. The Alliance enabled the Company maintain a large standing army at the
expense of Indian princes. It disarmed the Indian states ai threw British protectorate over them.
• The states that accepted this policy were the Nizam of Hyderabad, the ruler of Mysore, the Raja Tanjore, the
Nawab of Awadh, the Feshwa, the Bhonsle Raja of Berar, the Scindia, the Rajputs Jodhpur, Jaipur, etc.

Land Revenue System in India :

Permanent Settlement (The Zamindari System) :

• Introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and districts of Banaras and Northern districts of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in
1793.
• John Shore planned this.
• It declared Zamindars as the owners of the land. Hence, they could keep 1/11th of the revenue collected to
themselves while the British got a fixed share of 10/11th of the revenue collected. The Zamindars were free, to fix
the rent.
• Assured of their ownership, many Zamindars stayed in towns (absentee landlordism) and exploited their tenants.

Ryotwari System in India :

• Introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. Lord Munro and Charles Reed recommended it.
• In this, a direct settlement was made between the govt, and the ryot (cultivator).
• The revenue was fixed for a period not exceeding 30 years, on the basis of the quality of the soil and the nature of
the crop. It was based on the scientific rent theory of Ricardo.
• The position of the cultivator became more secure but the rigid system of revenue collection often forced him into
the clutches of the money – lender.

Mahalwari System in India :

• Modified version of Zamindari settlement introduced in the Ganges valley, NWFR parts of Central India
and Punjab. Revenue settlement was to be made by village or estate with landlords. In Western UR a settlement
was made with the village communities, which maintained a form of common ownership known as Bhaichara, or
with Mahals, which were groups of villages.
• Revenue was periodically revised.

George Barlow (1805 – 1807)

Lord Minto I Governor General of India (1807 – 1813) :

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• Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1809).

• Charter Act of 1813 was passed.

Lord Hasting India (1813 – 1823) : The Anglo-Nepal War (1814 – 16) was fought during his reign which ended with the
Treaty of Sagauli (1816).

Lord Amherst (1823 – 1828)

Lord William Bentinck History (1828-1835) :

• Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sari (1829) and elimination of thugs (1830).
• Made English the medium ofhighereducation inthe country (Afterthe recommendations of Macaulay).
• Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.
• Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India. Before him, the designation was
Governor General of Bengal.

Sir Charles Mercalfe History (1835 – 1836) : Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (called Liberator of the
Press).

Lord Auckland 1842 (1836 – 1842) : The most important event of his reign was the First Afghan War, which proved to be
a disaster for the English.

Lord Ellenborough (1842 – 1844)

Lord Hardinge I (1844 – 1848)

Lord Dalhousie Reforms (1848 – 1856) :

• Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane).

• Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).
• Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852),
Jhansi (1854) and Nagpur (1854) through it.
• Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of the country, which made
communication easier.
• Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and the work on Grand Trunk Road was
started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also developed.

Lord Dalhousie Doctrine of Lapse : The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie.
According to the Doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British East India
Company, as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either
“manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir”.

The company took over the princely states of Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi (1854) and
Awadh (Oudh) (1856) using the Doctrine. The Doctrine is thought to be one of the major driving forces behind the Revolt
of 1857.

• Made Shimla the summer capital.

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• Started Engineering College at Roorkee.

• Encouraged science, forestry, commerce, mineralogy and industry.
• In 1854, “Wood’s Dispatch’ was passed, which provided for the properly articulated system of education from the
primary school to the university.
• Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized by Widow Remarriage Act,
1856).

Revolt of 1857 in India

Causes of Revolt of 1857 :

Political Causes of the revolt of 1857 :

• Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
• The policy of Doctrine of Lapse.

Economic Causes of Revolt of 1857 : Heavy taxation, evictions, discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products and
destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit peasants, artisans and small zamindars.

Military Discrimination :

• Indian soldiers were paid low salaries; they could not rise above the rank of subedar and were racially insulted.
• They were also grieved because of the refusal of British to pay Foreign Service allowance (batta) while fighting in
remote regions such as Punjab and Sindh.

Religious Discrimination :

• British social reforms (widow remarriage, abolition of Sati, education for girls, Christian missionaries).
• The introduction of Enfield rifle, the cartridge of which was greased with animal fat, provided the spark.
• Inventions like railway and telegraphs spread of Western education also promoted the cause.

Outbreak :

• On Mar 29, 1857, a soldier named Mangal Pandey attacked and fired at his senior at Barrackpur in Bengal (in
19th and 34th Native infantry).
• On May 10, there was a mutiny of sepoys’ at Meerut (3rd native cavalry).
• Mutiny spread throughout UP along with some other parts of the country.
• ‘Mar to Delhi’ became the battle cry of the rebels. At Delhi, the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II was proclaimed
the Emperor of India.
• Where the rulers were loyal to the British, the soldiers revolted as in Gwalior and Indore. In some places, the
people revolted before the sepoys did.
• In the beginning, the rebels were successful. Europeans were killed, law courts and police stations were attacked
and revenue records were destroyed. But reverses soon began to occur.

Important Persons :

• Bakht Khan (captured Delhi, was from the Barreily unit of the army).

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• Nana Sahib alias Dhondhu Pant (from Kanpur, along with Tantia Tope and Azimullah) Begum Hazrat Mahal of
Awadh (declared her son as the Nawab of Awadh).

Rani Lakshmi Bai History :

Rani Lakshmi Bai, the queen of Jhansi, represents a symbol of resistance to British rule in India. Affectionately called
Manu, she was married to Raja Gangadhar Rao, the Maharaja of Jhansi in 1842. She gave birth to a son in 1851, but this
child died when he was about four months old. In 1853, the couple was forced to adopt a child as Gangadhar Rao fell very
ill and died.

Lord Dalhousie tried to annex Jhansi under the Doctrine of I.apse. But Rani was determined to defend Jhansi. She fought
valiantly and was even able to acquire Gwalior from the Sindhia rulers, who were British allies. But eventually, the Rani
reached her martyrdom at Kalpi, near Jhansi.

Because of her unprecedented bravery, courage and wisdom, and her progressive views on women’s empowerment, and
dAue to her sacrifices, she became an icon of Indian nationalist movement.

• Rani Lakshmibai, the widowed queen of Raja Gangadhar Rao of Jhansi (Tantia Tope joined her and they
defeated the Scindia of Gwalior, but both were defeated by Sir Hugh Rose. She died on Jun 17, 1858, while
Tantia was later captured and executed).
• Kunwar Singh and Amar Singh (Bihar).
• Maulavi Ahmedullah (First Awadh and then Rohilkhand).
• Devi Singh of Mathura.
• Kadam Singh of Meerut.

Suppression :

• Delhi : By John Nicholson and Hudson

• Kanpur : By Campbell, Havelock
• Lucknow : By Havelock, Outram, James Neill and
• Campbell Jhansi : Hugh Rose
• Banaras : James Neill
• The revolt was completely suppressed by the end of 1858.

Fate of the leaders of Revolt of 1857 in India :

• Bahadur Shah II : Deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. His sons were shot dead.
• Nana Sahib and Begum Hazrat Mahal : Escaped to Nepal.
• Rani Jhansi : Died in the battle field.
• Tantia Tope : Was captured and executed in 1859.

Causes of Failure of 1857 Revolt :

• Scindia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Raja of Jodhpur, the Nawab of Bhopal, the
rulers of Patiala, Sindh and Kashmir and the Rana of Nepal provided active support to the British.
• The military equipment of the rebels was inferior.
• Comparative lack of efficient leadership.

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• The modern intelligent Indians also didn’t support the cause.

Impact of the revolt of 1857 :

• The revolt was mainly feudal in character carrying with it some nationalist elements.
• The control of Indian administration was passed on to the British crown by the Govt, of India Act, 1858. The army
was carefully reorganized to prevent the recurrence of such an event.

Social and Cultural Uprisings

Brahmo Samaj Movement:

• Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828.

• He earlier started Atmiya Sabha in 1814.
• Criticized Sati Pratha, casteism and advocated widow remarriage.
• He gave enthusiastic assistance to David Hare, who founded the famous Hindu College in Calcutta.
• Established a Vedanta College in which courses both in Indian and Western social and physical sciences were
offered.
• He was a gifted linguist. He knew more than dozen languages including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English,
French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
• He was opposed to Sanskrit system of education; because he thought it would keep the country in darkness.
• Other important leaders were Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) and Keshab Chandra Sen.
• Tagore dismissed Keshab Chandra in 1865.
• Keshab started Sangat Sabha, Prarthana Samaj and Brahmo Samaj of India.
• Tagore’s organization came to be known as Tattvabodhini Sabha and Adi Brahmo Samaj.
• Anand Mohan Bose started the Sadharana Brahmo Samaj.
• Justice M.G. Ranade founded the Prarthana Sabha.

Arya Samaj India :

• Founded by Swami Dayanand (or, Moolshankar) in 1875.

• His motto was ‘Go back to the Vedas’ & ‘India for the Indians’. He disregarded Puranas, idol worship, casteism
and untouchability. He advocated widow remarriage.
• Dayanand’s views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash. He also wrote Veda Bhashya Bhumika
and Veda Bhashya.
• Established a large number of educational institutions in India, viz., Gurukuls, DAV schools, etc.
• Also started the ‘Siddhi’ movement to convert non – Hindus to Hinduism.
• Other prominent persons of Arya Samaj were Lala Hans Raj, Pt. Guru Dutt, Lala Lajpat Rai, Swami
Shraddhanand.

History of Ramakrishna Mission :

• Founded by Vivekanand (earlier, Narendranath Dutta) (1863 – 1902) in 1897, 11 years after the death of his guru
Ram Krishna Paramhans.
• Vivekanand attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893.
• He published two papers : Prabhudha Bharat in English and Udbodhana in Bengali.

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• Vivekanand’s Quotes :

• No social progress is possible without improving condition of women, who were most important instrument of
social change.
• So long as millions live in hunger and ignorance I hold every man a traitor who, having been educated at their
expense, pays not the least heed to them.
• All power is within you, you can do anything and everything. Believe in that; do not believe that you are weak. You
can do anything and everything, without even the guidance of any one. All power is there. Stand up and express
the divinity with you. Arise, awake, sleep no more. With each of you there is the power to remove all wants and all
miseries. Believe in this, that power will be manifested.

• Irish woman Margaret Noble (Known as sister Nivedita) popularized Ramakrishna Mission after Vivekanand’s
death.

Young Bengal Movement :

• During the late 1820 and early 1830, there emerged a radical intellectual trend among the youth in Bengal, which
came to be known as the ‘Young Bengal Movement’.
• Founded by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809 – 31). He was a teacher in Hindu College in Calcutta.
• He also edited the papers, Hesperus and Calcutta Literary Gazette and was connected with the India Gazette.
• He urged the students to live and die for truth. He also supported women’s education and their rights.

History of Veda Samaj :

• Called Brahmo Samaj of South. Started by Sridharalu Naidu.

• He translated books of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telegu.

Dharma Sabha :

• Initiated by Radhakant Deb in 1830.

• Was opposed to reforms and protected orthodoxy, but played an active role in promoting western education even
to girls.

Drain of Wealth Theory India :

• R.C. Dutta and Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of wealth theory. Naoroji brought it to light in his book titled
“Poverty and Unbritish Rule in India”. R C Dutt blamed the British policies for economic ills in his book
“Economic History of India”.
• Drain of wealth refers to the portion of national product of India, which was not available for consumption of
Indians.
• Drain of wealth began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey when the Company’s servants began to extort fortunes
from Indian rulers, zamindars, merchants and common people and send home.
• In 1765, the Company acquired the Diwani of Bengal and began to purchase the Indian goods out of the revenue
of Bengal and exported them. These purchases were known as Company’s investments.
• Duty free inland trade provided British merchants a competitive edge over their Indian counterparts.
• The actual drain, as a part of the salaries and other incomes of the English officials and the trading fortunes of
English merchants, was even more.
• The drain of wealth stunted the growth of Indian enterprise and checked and retarded capital formation in India.
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Lokahitawadi :

• Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. Advocated western education and a rational outlook. He advocated female
education for the upliftment of women.
• As a vptary of national self – reliance, he attended Delhi durbar in 1876, wearing handspun khadi cloth.

Indian (National) Social Conference :

• Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao. It held its first session in 1887.
• Its main focus was on abolition of polygamy and kulinism and it encouraged intercaste marriages. It also pledged
to fight child marriages.
• The Conference is sometimes referred as the social reform cell of the Indian National Congress.

Servants of India Society :

• Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915.

• It did notable work in providing famine relief and in improving the condition of the tribal.

Seva Samiti : Hridayanath Kunzru, a member of the Servants of India Society, organized the Samiti at Allahabad in 1914,
to improve the status of the suffering classes, reform criminals and to rescue those suffering in society.

Radhaswami Movement :

• Founded in 1861 by a banker of Agra, Tulsi Ram, popularly known as Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swami Maharaj.
• The sect preached belief in one Supreme Being, the Guru’s supreme position and a simple social life for the
believers (the Satsangis).

Deva Samaj History :

• Founded by Shiv Narain Agnihotri in 1887. it preached high moral and social conduct like, for instance, keeping
oneself away from gambling and intoxicants.
• Deva Shastra tells us about the ideals of Deva Samaj.

Theosophical Society Annie Besant :

• Founded by Westerners who drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture.
• Madam H P Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in US in 1875. Later, Col. M S Olcott of the US Army
joined her.
• In 1882, it was shifted to India at Adyar (Tamil Nadu).
• Annie Besant was elected its President in 1907. She founded the Central Hindu College in 1898, which became
Banaras Hindu University in 1916.
• The society accepted Hindu beliefs like re – incarnation, Karma and draws inspiration from Upanishads, Sankhya,
Yoga and Vedanta schools.

The Aligarh Movement :

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• Started by Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan. He encouraged Muslims to accept the virtues of western education and urged
them to apply the principle of enquiry to religion.
• For a rational and scientific order in society, he founded a scientific society in 1864, an Urdu journal, Tahzib – al –
akhlaq in 1870, and the Aligarh school in 1875. The school was made into the Muhammadan Anglo – Oriental
College in 1877. The college grew into the Aligarh Muslim University.

The Ahmedia Movement in Islam :

• Started by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed in 1889.

• His movement embraced the belief in a universal religion, opposed sacred wars and encouraged fraternal
relations among all.

The Deobandi Movement :

• In 1866, the Deoband School of Islamic Theology was set up at Deoband by Rashid Ahmed Gangohi and
Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi to promote studies in classical Islam and moral and religious regeneration of the
Muslims. The school did not support western education and. culture.
• Its liberal interpretations of Islam earned it a high reputation.

Satyashodhak Samaj :

• Founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873 to fight Brahmanic domination and to liberate low castes by educating them
and teaching them their rights. He advocated the cause of untouchables.
• Jyotiba also started a school for untouchables and an orphanage for widows.
• His books, Ghulamgiri and Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak questioned the traditional customs and beliefs of
society.
• Met the Duke of York as the representative of poverty stricken Indian peasant.

The Justice Party Movement :

• Dr. T.M. Nair, Sir Pitti Theagaraja Chettiar and the Raja of Panagal formed the South Indian Liberal Federation
(SILF) in 1916 to protest against the domination of Brahmins in government service, education and in the political
field.
• The newspaper, Justice, was their main organ for expressing views and opinions.
• The SILF came to be called the Justice Party later on.

Self Respect Movement in Tamil Nadu :

• The radical movement was launched by Periyar or E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Tamil Nadu in 1925, to awaken
non – brahmins for overthrowing Brahmanic superiority.
• The movement organized weddings without involving the Brahmins and temple entry.

Self Respect Movement in India :

• Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar’s movement worked for the upliftment of the untouchables by fighting for their
educational, legal and political rights and encouraging them to throw off the traditional caste duties imposed on
them.

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• Ambedkar founded the Depressed Classes Institute (Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha) in Bombay in 1924, a Marathi
fortnightly Bahishkrit Bharat in 1927 and the Sarnaj Samata Sangha in 1927. He also founded the Independent
Labour Party.
• The Scheduled Caste Federation, a political party, was formed by him in 1942.

Viceroys of India

British Viceroys of India

Lord Canning History (1856 – 1862) :

• The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.

• Mutiny took place in his time.
• On November, 1858, the rule passed on to the crown.
• Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
• The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.
• Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861.

Lord Elgin (1862 – 1863)

Lord Lawrence (1864 – 1869) :

• Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.

• High Courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.
• Expanded canal works and railways.
• Created the Indian Forest department.

Lord Mayo History (1869 – 1872) :

• Started the process of financial decentralization in India.

• Established the Rajkot college at Kathiarwar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian princes.
• For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.
• Organised the Statistical Survey of India.
• Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in the Andamans in 1872.

Lord Northbrook (1872 – 1876) :

Lord Lytton (1876 – 1880) :

• Known as the Viceroy to reverse characters.

• Organised the Grand ‘Delhi Durbar’ in 1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the title of ‘Kaiser I Hind’.
• Arms act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.
• Passed the infamous Vernacular Press act (1878).

Lord Ripon (1880 – 1884) :

• Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.

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• Repeated the Vernacular Press act (1882)

• Passed the local self government act (1882)
• Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William Hunter Commission’s recommendations).
• The I Factory act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour.
• Passed the libert Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district magistrates to try European criminals. But this was
withdrawn later.

Lord Dufferin (1884 – 1888) : Indian National Congress was formed during his tenure.

Lord Lansdowne (1888 – 1894) :

• II Factory act (1891) granted a weekly holiday and stipulated working hours for women and children, although it
failed to address concerns such as work hours for men.
• Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.
• Indian Council act of 1892 was passed.
• Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan.

Lord Elgin II (1894 – 1899) : Great famine of 1896 – 1897. Lyall Commission was appointed.

Lord Curzon (1899 – 1905) :

• Passed the Indian Universities act (1904) in which official control over the Universities was increased.
• Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces Bengal (proper) & East Bengal & Assam.
• Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police administration of every
province.
• The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897 – 98 led him to create the North Western Frontier Province (NWFP).
• Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection act (1904), to restore India’s cultural heritage. Thus the Archaeological
Survey of India was established.
• Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency act (1899) and put India on a gold standard.
• Extended railways to a great extent.

History of Lord Minto (1905 – 1910) :

• There was great political unrest in India. Various acts were passed to curb the revolutionary activities. Extremists
like Lala Laipat Rai and Ajit Singh (in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908) were sent to Mandalay
jail in Burma.
• The Indian Council act of 1909 or the Morley Minto Reforms was passed.

Lord Hardinge (1910 – 1916) :

• Held a durbar in December, 1911 to celebrate the coronation of King George V.

• Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911), capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).
• A bomb was thrown at him; but he escaped unhurt (December 23, 1912).
• Gandhiji came back to India from South Africa (1915).
• Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement.

Lord Chelmsford (1916 – 1921) :

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• August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian government would be gradually transferred to the
Indian people.
• The government of India act in 1919 (Montague Chelmsford reforms) was passed.
• Rowlatt act of 1919; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).
• Non Cooperation Movement.
• An Indian Sir S.P.Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal.
• A Women’s university was founded at Poona in 1916.
• Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 to envisage new educational policy.

Lord Reading (1921 – 1926) :

• Rowlatt act was repeated along with the Press act of 1910.
• Suppressed non – cooperation movement.
• Prince of Wales visited India in November, 1921.
• Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.
• Ahmedabad session of 1921.
• Formation of Swaraj Party.
• Vishwabharati University started functioning in 1922.
• Communist part was founded in 1921 by M.N. Roy.
• Kakory Train Robbery on August 9, 1925.
• Communal riots of 1923 – 25 in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, etc.
• Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy.

Lord Irwin (1926 – 1931) :

• Simon Commission visited India in 1928.

• Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.
• Dandi March (March 12, 1930).
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).
• First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930.
• Gandhi Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobediance Movement was withdrawn.
• Martydorm of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).

Lord Willington (1931 – 1936) :

• Second Round Table conference in London in 1931.

• On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was resumed in January, 1932.
• Communal Awards (August 16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious communities. Gandhiji went on a epic
fast in protest against this division.
• Third Round Table conference in 1932.
• Poona Pact was signed.
• Government of India act (1935) was passed.

Lord Linlithgow (1936 – 1944) :

• Government of India act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces. They
remained in power for about 2 years till October 1939, when they gave up offices on the issue of India having
been dragged into the II World War. The Muslim League observed the days as ‘Deliverance Say’ (22 December)
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• Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and
US, stating to give sovereign rights to those who have been forcibly deprived of them) does not apply to India.
• Outbreak of World War II in 1939.
• Cripps Mission in 1942.
• Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).

Lord Wavell (1944 – 1947) :

• Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian National Congress and Muslim League; failed.
• Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946).
• Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim Government was appointed under Nehru.
• First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on December 9, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (March 1947 – August 1947) :

• Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India.
• Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan.
• Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, by which India became independent
on August 15, 1947.
• Retried in June 1948 and was succeeded by C. Rajagopalachari (the first and the last Indian Governor General of
free India).

Important National Activities

History of Indigo Revolt 1859–60 :

• In this, the peasants were forced to grow indigo in their lands unwillingly by the European factory – owners.
• The anger exploded in Govindpur village of Nadia district (Bengal) under Digambar Biswas & Vishnu Biswas.
• Others who played important role were Harish Chandra Mukherjee (editor of the newspaper Hindu Patriot),
Dinbandhu Mitra (writer of play, Neel Darpari) & Michael Madhusudan Datta (eminent Bengali poet-cum-play
writer, who translated Neel Darpan into English).
• The Govt appointed an Indigo Commission in 1860 and removed some of the abuse of Indigo cultivation.

The Indian National Congress :

• Formed in 1885 by A.O. Hume, an Englishman and a retired civil servant.

• Hume’s main purpose was probably to provide a “safety valve” to the growing discontent among the educated
Indians.
• Other important leaders during foundation were Dadabhai Naoroji, Badrudin Tyabji, Anand Mohan Bose,
R.C.Dutt, Ferozshah Mehta, G.K.Gokhale, G. Subramaniyam Aiyyar, Dinshaw Vacha, Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Mahadev Govind Ranade, Madan Mohan Malviya.
• First session in Bombay under WC.Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it).
• In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and
generosity.
• But the repressive measures of the British gave rise to extremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lai, Bal, Pal), along with Aurobindo Ghosh.

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Partition of Bengal 1905 :

• By Lord Curzon on October 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by
creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
• The government said that it was done to stimulate growth in eastern region.
• Actually, the objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.
• A mighty upsurge swept the country against the partition. National movement found real expression in the
movement against the partition of Bengal in 1905.
• Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song ‘Amar sonar Bangla’ for the occasion which was sung by
people everywhere. This song was adopted as national anthem by Bangladesh in 1971 after liberation
from Pakistan.
• The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was observed on October 16, 1905. Hindus and Muslims tied rakhis on each
other’s wrist showing solidarity.
• The newspapers played a significant role in the movement. The main newspapers were K.K. Mitra’s Sanjeevani,
S.N. Banerjee’s Bengali, Motilal Ghosh’s Amrit Bazar Patrika, B.B. Upadhyaya’s Yugantar, Bipin Chandra Pal’s
New India, Aurobindo Ghosh’s Bande Mataram, Aji Singh’s Bharat Mata, etc.

Swadesh Movement Indian History :

• Had its origin in the anti – partition movement of Bengal. The leaders of Bengal felt that mere demonstrations,
public meetings and resolutions were not enoughand something more concrete was needed and the answer felt
was Swadeshi and Boycott.
• An important aspect of the Swadeshi movement was emphasis placed on self – reliance.
• Lai, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.
• INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K. Gokhale.
• A resolution to boycott British goods was adopted on August 7, 1905 at a meeting of INC at Calcutta.
• Bonfires of foreign goods were conducted at various places.

Muslim League 1906 :

• Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin – ul – Mulk.
• It was a loyalist, communal and conservative political organization which supported the partition of Bengal,
opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special saieguards of its community and a separate electorate for
Muslims.
• Swaraj : In December 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Dadabhai Naorojiadopted ‘Swaraj’ (Self – Government) as
the goal of Indian people.

History of Surat Session of Inc :

• The INC split into two groups -The extremists and The moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremists were
led by Bal, Pal, Lai while the moderates by G.K. Gokhale.
• Controversy rose over the elected president, Ras Bihari Ghosh, as extremists didn’t accept him. Extremists
wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be chosen.
• The government after this launched a massive attack on extremists by suppressing their newspapers and
arresting their leaders.

The Indian Councils act 1909 (or) Minto Morley Reforms 1909 :

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• Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims.

• Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and the Muslims to the Government’s side.

Ghadar Party of India 1913 :

• Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.

• The name was taken from a weekly paper, Ghadar, which had been started on November 1, 1913 to
commemorate the 1857 revolt.
• HQ was at San Francisco.
• The outbreak of the First World War provided the Ghadarites with an opportunity to free India from a Government
which was indifferent to their cause.
• They began to return to India in thousands for a co – ordinated revolt in collaboration with the Bengal
revolutionaries. Their plan was foiled at the last moment due to treachery.

Komagata Maru Incident 1914 :

• Komagata Maru was the name of a ship which carried a shipload of Sikh and Muslim immigrants from Punjab to
Vancouver, Canada.
• But the Canadian immigration authorities turned them back after months of uncertainty.
• The ship finally anchored at Calcutta on September 29, 1914.
• But the inmates refused to board the Punjab bound train and there was a clash with the police in which 22
persons died.
• This incidence fired up the revolutionary activities which sought to avenge the death of the innocents.

Revolutionary Activities

National Revolutionary Movement

• The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar brothers, Damodar and
Balkishan. Their target was Mr. Rand, President of the Plague Commission, but Lt. Ayerst was accidentally shot.
• In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at Stuttgart Congress (of Second
International).
• In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki threw a bomb on the carriage of Kingford, the unpopular judge of
Muzaffarpur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt and Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).
• In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col. William Curzon Whyllie, the political advisor of ‘India Office’ in London.
• In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb at Lord Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy
Case)
• In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur.

• The meeting was attended by old revolutionary leaders like Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Jogesh Chandra. Chatterjee
and Ram Prasad Bismil and some young revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Shiv Verma, Sukhdev, Bhagwati
Charan Vohra and Chandrashekhar Azad.
• They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/ Army (HSRA). Their three objectives were:

• To raise the consciousness of people against the futility of Gandhian movement of non-violence.
• To perform directaction and revolutionto attain complete independence.
• To set up a republic of the United States ofIndia on the federal structure.

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• They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow railway line on Aug 9, 1925. The
conspirators were later arrested and hanged (Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla, Roshan Lai and Rajendra Lahiri).
• Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues shot dead Saunders (Asstt. S.E of Lahore, who ordered lathi charge on Lala
Lajpat Rai) on Dec 17, 1928.
• Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he,
Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on Mar23, 1931 at Lahore Jail (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies
cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur.
• In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest against horrible conditions in jail.
• Meerut Conspiracy Case started in 1929 and continued for four years against 31 communists accused of
conspiracy against the British sovereign. In this, Muzaffar Ahmed received transportation for life.
• Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal. In 1930, he masterminded the
raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933.
• In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.

Revolutionary Organisations found outside India:

Organisation Year Founder Place

India House 1905 Shyamji Krishna Verma London

Abhinav Bharat 1906 V.D. Savarkar London

Indian Independence 1907 Tarak Nath Das USA

League Ghadar Party 1913 Lala Hardayal,Tarak Nath Das & Sohan Singh Bhakna San Francisco

Indian Independence 1914 Lala Hardayal and Birendra Berlin

League Nath Chattopadhyaya Indian Independence 1915 Raja Mahendra Pratap Kabul

League & Government Indian Independence 1942 Ras Behari Bose Tokyo

League Indian National Army 1942 Ras Behari Bose Tokyo

(in 1943, INA was reorganized by Subhash Chandra Bose in Singapore.)

Revolutionay Organisation in India:

Organisation Year Founder Place

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Mitra Mela 1899 Savarkar Brothers Poona

Anushilan Samiti (I) 1902 Gyanendranath Bose Midnapur

Abhinav Bharat 1904 V.D. Savarkar Poona

Swadesh Bandhav 1905 Ashwini Kumar Dutt Barisal

Samiti Anushilan Samiti (II) 1907 Birendra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendra Dutt Dhaka

Bharat Mata Society 1907 Ajit Singh & Amba Prasad Punjab

Hindustan Republican Association 1924 Jogesh Chandra Chatterji, Sachindranath Sanyal Kanpur

Naujavan Sabha 1926 Bhagat Singh Lahore

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association 1928 Chandrashekhar Azad

Indian National Army

History of Indian National Army

• The idea of the Indian National Army (INA) to liberate India was originally conceived by Rasbehari Bose, who had
fled to Japan in 1915 and had become a Japanese citizen, with the help of Mohan Singh, arrindian officer of the
British Indian army in Malaya.
• S.C. Bose secretly escaped from India in Jan 1941, and reached Berlin. In Jul 1943, he joined the INA
atSingapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over the leadership to him.
• The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiers of the British army who had been taken prisoners by the
Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia. Two INA headquarters were Rangoon and Singapore (formed in
Singapore).
• INA had three fighting brigades named after Gandhi, Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigade
was an exclusive women force.
• The INA launched an attack on India and penetrated into the Indian Territory. It annexed Andaman and Nicobar
with Japanese help and named them as ‘Shaheed’ and ‘Swaraj’.
• But, it couldn’t face the British army and surrendered.
In this, S.C.Bose gave the call ‘Dilli Chalo’,

• INA trials were held at Red Fort, Delhi. RK. Sehgal, Shah Nawaz (commander of the INA battalion that had
reached the Indo-Burma front) and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were put on trial.

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• The Congress took up their defence, with Bhulabhai Desai, TejbahadurSapru, Jawaharlal Nehru, K.N. Katju and
Asaf Ali defending them. Muslim League also joined for the countrywide protest.
• Nov 12, 1945 was celebrated as the INA Day.

Wavell Plan 1945 :

• Given by Lord Wayell.

• The plan was that the Viceroy’s Executive Council should be so reconstituted that its members, except the
Governor General and the Commander-in-Chief, were to be Indians (from various parties). Simla conference was
convened in this regard, but was rejected by Jinnah.

The Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 :

• The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM, Lord Attlee,
made a declaration on Mar 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence as
Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander) will visit India.
• The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bring about acceptance of their proposals.

• On May 16, 1946, the mission put forward its proposals:

• Rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting Princely States was
suggested. The union would deal into the following subjects: Foreign affairs, Defence and Communication and
would have the powers to raise the finances required for the above subjects. Full autonomy would be enjoyed by
the provinces in respect of all subjects other than the union subjects.
• There were to be three groups of Provinces: Group A with six Hindu majority provinces (Bombay, United
Province, Bihar, Central Province, Orissa, Madras); Group B with three Muslim majority provinces (Sind,
NWFP, Punjab) and Group C (Assam and Bengal). After the first general elections, a province could come out of
the group and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of the group or union constitution.
• The Union would consist of an executive and a legislature. The legislature would not be directly elected by the
people but by the provincial legislatures on the basis of communal electorates. Members of the Princely States
would be appointed by the rulers of the Princely States.
• Both Congress and Muslim League accepted it.
• The elections of the Constituent Assembly were held in Jul 1946. The Congress got 209 of the total 273 seats.
• Interim Government 1946 : Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress
nominees was formed on Sep 2, 1946. J.L. Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as
its President. Muslim League did not join it initially but finally Wavell succeeded in having five members of the
League join the government on Oct 26, 1946.

History of Jinnah Direct Action Resolution :

• Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally
eclipsed in the constituent assembly.
• Therefore, Muslim League withdraw its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on Jul 29, 1946.
• It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress (Aug 16,
1946).
• It resulted in heavy communal riots.
• Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947.

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Formation of constituent Assembly of India : The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad
was elected as its president.

Mountbatten Plan of June 1947 :

• On Jun 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s political
problem. The outlines of the Plan were:

• India to be divided into India and Pakistan.

• Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held.
• There would be a separate constitutional assembly for Pakistan to frame its constitution.
• The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
• Aug 15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.

• The British govt, passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947 in Jul 1947, which contained the major provisions
put forward by the Mountbatten plan.

National Movement Partition and Independence:

• All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.

• Two Commissions were appointed by the British Government with Sir Cyril Redcliffe as chairman of both to see
through the partition and fix the international boundaries of the two nations-to-be.
• At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely states in India.
• Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in this regard. By Aug 15, 1947, all the States,
with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was
with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.

Constitutional Development in India

India Regulating Act 1773 :

• Subjected the Company’s actions to the supervision of the British Government

• End of Dual government.
• Governor of Bengal to be the Governor – General of British territories of India.
• Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta.
• The servants of the Company were forbidden to engage in private trade, accept presents or bribes, etc.

Pitts Act of 1784 :

• The commercial and political activities of the Company were now separated. Board of Control of six members
(including two cabinet ministers) set – up to guide and supervise the affairs of the Company in India.
• Three members will be there in Governor – General’s Executive Council.
• Secret Committee of three Directors were to look into political and military affairs. [Governor General and the
council were forbidden to declare war and make treaties without the sanction of secret committee].
• Madras and Bombay Presidencies were subordinated to the Governor – General – in – Council of Bengal in all
matters.

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• This act gave the British Government a measure of control over the Company’s affairs. In fact, the Company
became a subordinate department of the State.
• Act of 1786 : Governor General given the power to over – ride the council and was made Commander – in – Chief
also.

Charter Act of 1793 :

• Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years.

• Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian revenue.
• The Governor General and the Governors could now over – ride the decisions of their respective Councils.
• All laws were to be translated in Indian languages.
• It laid the foundation of government, by written laws, interpreted by courts.

Charter Act of 1813 India :

• Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China. This made the Company
more of an administrative body. All Englishmen could trade in India subject to few restrictions.
• A sum of

1 lakh earmarked annually for education of Indians.

• Further, Christian missionaries were also permitted to come to India and preach their religion.

Charter Act of 1833 :

• End of Company’s monopoly even in tea and trade with China. Company was asked to close its commercial
business at the earliest.
• All restrictions on European immigration into India and acquisition of land and property in India by them were
removed, legalizing European colonization of India.
• Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of India; all powers, administrative and financial, were
centralized in the hands of the Governor – General – in – Council. (1st Governor General of India – Lord William
Bentinck).
• President of Board of Control became the minister for Indian affairs.
• A law member (without power to vote) was added to the Executive Council of the Governor General. Macaulay
was the first Law member. This increased the Council’s strength to four, with it began the Indian Legislature.
• A law commission was constituted for codification of laws.
• The Act threw open to ail, irrespective of religion, place of birth, descent and colour, services under the Company.

Charter Act of 1853 :

• The Act renewed the powers of the Company and allowed it to retain the possession of Indian territories in trust
for the British Crown but not for any specified period.
• The number of members of the Court of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 of which 6 were to be nominated by
the Crown.
• The Law member was made a full member of the Governor General’s Executive Council.
• Legislation was treated for the first time as separate from executive functions.
• Questions could be asked and the policy of the Executive Council could be discussed, though the Executive
Council could veto a bill of the Legislative Council.
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• Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competition examination (excluding Indians).

Government of India Act 1858 :

• Rule of Company in India ended and that of the Crown began.

• System of Dual government ended. Court of Directors and Board of Control abolished and substituted them with a
post of Secretary of State (a member of the British cabinet). He was assisted by a 15 – member council (called
Indian Council). He was to exercise the powers of the Crown.
• Secretary of State governed India through the Governor General.
• Governor General received the title of Viceroy. He represented Secretary of State and was assisted by an
Executive Council, which consisted of high officials of the Government.
• A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created.

The Indian Council Act 1861 :

• A fifth member, who was to be a jurist, was added to the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• 6 – 12 additional members to be added to the Executive Council for legislation purpose. This implied that
Viceroy’s Executive Council, which was so long composed of officials, would now include certain additional non –
official members. Some of non – official seats were offered to natives of high ranks. Thus, a minute element of
‘popular’ participation was introduced in the legislative process. The additional members, though, had little
powers.
• The Executive Council was now to be called Central Legislative Council.
• Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency.

Indian Council Act 1892 :

• Two improvements in both the Central and the Provincial Legislative Councils were suggested.
• Though the majority of the official members was retained, the non – official members were to be nominated by the
Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Provincial Legislative Councils. [The non - official members of the Provincial
Councils were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities, district boards, municipalities]. Indian
leaders like G.K. Gokhale, Ashutosh Mukherjee, Ras Bihari Ghosh and S.N. Banerjee found their way in the
Legislative Council.
• The Councils were to have the powers to discuss the annual statement of revenue and expenditure (i.e. the
budget) and of addressing questions to the Executive). They could also put questions, within certain limits, to the
Government on matters of public interest after giving six days notice.

Indian Council Act 1909 Or Morley – Minto Reforms :

• Morley was the Secretary of State, while Minto was the Indian Viceroy.
• Legislative Councils, both at the Centre and in the Provinces, were expanded.
• With regard to Central Government, an Indian member was taken in the Executive Council of the Governor
General.
• The size of the Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged by including elected non – official members so that
the official majority was gone. Their functions were also increased. Now, they could move resolutions on Budget
and on some matters of public matters.
• An element of election was also introduced in the Central Legislative Council, but the official majority was
maintained.

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• The most notable and retrograde change introduced was that Muslims were given separate representation. Thus,
communal representation was introduced.

Government of India Act 1919 Or Montague – Chelmsford Reforms :

• Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. It was considered to be a substantial step towards transfer of power
to the Indians). The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into two categories : Transferred and
Reserved.
• The Transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor with the aid of ministers responsible to the
Legislative Council. The Governor and the Executive Council were to administer the reserved subjects without
any responsibility to the legislature.
• Devolution Rules : Subjects of administration were divided into two categories – Central and Provincial. Subjects
of all India importance (like railways and finance) were brought under the category of Central, while matters
relating to the administration of the provinces were classified as Provincial.
• The Provincial Legislature was to consist of one House only (Legislative Council).
• The number of Indians in the Governor General’s Executive Council was raised to three in a Council of eight. The
Indian members were entrusted with departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health and Industries.
• The Centre was now to have a Bicameral Legislature for the first time. It actually happened after 1935 Act.
• Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christians, Anglo – Indians, etc. Secretary of State to be henceforth
paid salary out of the British revenue.

Government of India Act 1935 :

• Provided for the establishment of All – India Federation consisting of the British provinces and the Princely States.
The joining of Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come into existence.
• Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g., Department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for the
Governor General).
• The other Federal subjects were to be administered by the Governor General with the assistance and advice of a
Council of Ministers to be chosen by him (but to include representatives of Princely States and minorities, and to
be responsible to the Central Legislature). Residuary powers were to be with the Governor General only.
• The Federal Legislature (Central Legislature) was to have two chambers (bicameral) – the Council of State and
the Federal Assembly. The Council of State was to be a permanent body with one – third of its membership being
vacated and renewed triennially. The Federal Assembly’s duration was fixed for five years.
• It made a 3 – fold division of powers: Federal (Central) Legisl1ative List Provincial Legislative List and the
Concurrent Legislative List. Residuary legislative powers were subject to the discretion of the Governor General.
Even if a bill was passed by the Federal Legislature, the Governor General could veto it, while even Acts
assented to by the Governor General could be disallowed by the King – in – Council.
• Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces i.e., the distinction between Reserved and Transferred
subjects was abolished and full responsible government was established, subject to certain safeguards. They
were granted separate legal identity.
• The Governor was the head of the Provincial Executive and was expected to be guided by the advice of the
popular ministries. However, the Act gave arbitrary powers to the Governors to act in their ‘discretion’ in certain
matters.
• The Act also provided for a Federal Court (which was established in 1937), with original and appellate powers) to
interpret the Constitution. A Federal Bank (the Reserve Bank of India) was also established. The Indian Council of
Secretary of State was abolished.
• Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo – Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans.

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• Burma (now Myanmar) and Aden were separated from India and two new provinces Orissa and Sind were
created.

British Educational Policy and Growth of Modern Education

British Educational Policy and Growth of Modern Education

First Phase (1758 – 1812) :

• The British East India Co. showed very little interest in the education of its subjects during this period, the 2 minor
exceptions being :
1. The Calcutta Madrsah set up by Warren Hastings in 1781 for the study and teaching of Muslim law and
subjects.
2. The Sanskrit college at Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan in 1792 for the study of Hindu Law and Philosophy.

• Both were designed to provide a regular supply of qualified Indians to help the administration of law in the courts
of Co.

Second Phase (1813 – 1853) :

• Due to the strong pressure exerted on the Co. by the Christian missionaries and many humanitarians, including
some Indians, to encourage and promote modern education in India, The Charter Act of 1813 required the Co. to
spend rupees 1 lakh annually for encouraging learned Indians and promoting the knowledge of modern sciences
in India.
• Two controversies about the nature of education arose during the part of this phase. They
were :

• Whether to lay emphasis on the promotion of modern western studies or on the expansion of traditional Indian
learning?
• Whether to adopt Indian languages or English as the medium of instruction in modern schools and colleges to
spread western learning?

• These 2 controversies were settled in 1835 when Lord William Bentinck (with the support of R.M. Roy) applied
English medium.
• In 1844, Lord Hardinge decided to give govt, employment to Indians educated in English Schools. The success
was thus assured (of English education). It made good progress in the 3 presidencies of Bengals Bombay and
Madras where the number of schools and colleges increased.
• Three other developments were :
1. A great upsurge in the activities of the missionaries who did pioneer work in quite a few fields of modern
education.
2. Establishment of medical, engineering and law colleges, which marked a beginning in professional
education.
3. Official sanction accorded to education of girls (Lord Dalhousie, in fact, offered the open support of govt.).
• The Govt, policy of opening a few English schools and colleges instead of a large number of elementary schools
led to the neglect of education of masses.

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• To cover up this defect in their policy, the British took recourse to the so – called ‘Downward Filtration Theory’
which meant that education and modern ideas were supposed to filter or radiate downward from the upper
classes.
• This policy continued till the very end of British rule, although it was officially abandoned in 1854.

Third Phase (1854 – 1900) :

• The Educational Dispatch of 1854 was also called Wood’s Dispatch (after Sir Charles Wood, the then President of
Board of Control, who became the first Secretary of State for India).
• It is considered as the Magna Carta of English Education in India (forms a landmark in the history of modern
education in India).
• It rejected the ‘filtration theory’ and laid stress on mass education, female education and improvement of
vernaculars, favoured secularism in Education.
• Creation of Education Departments in the provinces of Bombay, Madras, Bengal, N.W. Provinces and Punjab in
1855; Organizations of Indian Education Service in 1897 to cover the senior most posts.
• Establishment of universities of Calcutta (Jan 1857) Bombay (Jul 1857), Madras (Sep 1857), Punjab (1882) and
Allahabad (1887).
• Lord Ripon appointed Hunter Commission (under Sir WW Hunter) :
1. It recommended that local bodies (distt. boards and municipalities) should be entrusted with the
management of primary schools.
2. Also said that govt, should maintain only a few schools and colleges; others to be left to private hands.

Fourth Phase (1901 – 1920) :

• Lord Curzon appointed a Universities Commission under Thomas Raleigh (Law member of the Viceroy’s
Executive Council) in 1902, and based on his recommendations Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed.
• It enabled the universities to assume teaching functions (hitherto they were mainly examining bodies), periodic
inspection of institutions, speedier transaction of business, strict conditions for affiliation etc.
• Criticized by nationalists for its tightening govt, control over universities.
• In 1910, a separate department of Education was established at the Centre.
• The Saddler Commission was appointed by Lord Chelmsford to review the working of Calcutta University (2
Indians: Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed.). Main recommendations were:
• Secondary Education by a Board of Secondary education and duration of degree course be 3 yrs.
• 7 new universities were opened (Total 12 now). They were : Banaras, Mysore, Patna, Aligarh, Dhaka, Lucknow
and Osmania.
• Kashi Vidyapeeth and Jamia Milia Islamia were established.
• University course divided into pass course and Honours.

Fifth Phase (1921 – 1947) :

• Came under Indian control officially, as it became a provincial subject administered by provincial legislature. Thus,
expansions started everywhere.
• Increase in number of universities (20 in 1947); improvement in the quality of higher education (on
recommendations of Saddler Commission); establishment of an inter – University Board (1924) and beginning of
inter collegiate and inter – university activities.
• Achievement in women’s education and education of backward classes.

Hartog Committee 1929 :

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• Recommended the policy of consolidation and improvement of Primary education.

• Recommended a selective system of admission to universities and diversified courses leading to industrial and
commercial careers.
• Universities should be improved.
• Wardha scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee after Gandhiji published
a series of articles in the HariJan.

Sargeant Plan of Education 1944 :

It envisaged :

• Establishment of elementary schools and high school.

• Universal and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 – 11.
• High schools of 2 types :

• Academic.
• Technical and Vocational.

• Intermediate courses were to be abolished.

Venue, Year and Presidents of Indian National Congress (INC)

Presidents of Indian National Congress (INC)

Year Venue President

1885, 1882 Bombay W.C.Bannerji

1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji

1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji

1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji

1887 Madras Badruddin Tyyabji (first Muslim President)

1888 Allahabad George Yule (first English President)

1889 Bombay Sir William Wedderburn

1890 Calcutta Sir Feroze S.Mehta

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Year Venue President

1895, 1902 Poona, Ahmedabad S.N.Banerjee

Year Venue President

1905 Banaras G.K.Gokhale

1907, Surat, Madras Rasbehari Ghosh

1908

1909 Lahore M.M.Malviya

1916 Lucknow A.C.Majumdar (Re - union of the Congress)

1917 Calcutta Annie Besant (first woman President)

1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru

1920 Calcutta Lala Lajpat Rai

(sp.session)

1921, Ahmedabad, C.R.Das

1922 Gaya

1923 Delhi (sp.session) Abdul Kalam Azad (Youngest President)

1924 Belgaon M.K.Gandhi

1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu (first Indian woman President)

1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru (first All India Youth Congress Formed)

1929 Lahore J.L.Nehru (Poorna Swaraj resolution was passed)

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Year Venue President

1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel (Here, resolution on Fundamental rights and the National Economic Program was passed)

1932, Delhi, Calcutta (Session Banned)

1933

1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad

1936 Lucknow J.L.Nehru

1937 Faizpur J.L.Nehru (first session in a village)

1938 Haripura S.C.Bose (a National Planning Committed set - up under J.L.Nehru).

1939 Tripuri S.C.Bose was re - elected but had to resign due to protest by Gandhiji (as Gandhiji supported Dr.Pattabhi Sitaramayya).
Rajendra Prasad was appointed in his place.

1940 Ramgarh Abdul Kalam Azad

1946 Meerut Acharya J.B.Kriplani

1948 Jaipur Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya

Newspapers and Journals

Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Bengal Gazette (1780) (India's first newspaper) J.K.Hikki

Kesari B.G.Tilak

Maharatta B.G.Tilak

Sudharak G.K.Gokhale

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Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh & Motilal Ghosh

Vande Mataram Aurobindo Ghosh

Native Opinion V.N.Mandalik

Kavivachan Sudha Bhartendu Harishchandra

Rast Goftar (First newspaper in Gujarati) Dadabhai Naoroji

New India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal

Statesman Robert Knight

Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Hindu Vir Raghavacharya and G.S.Aiyar

Sandhya B.B.Upadhyaya

Vichar Lahiri Krishnashastri Chiplunkar

Hindu Patriot Girish Chandra Ghosh (later Harish Chandra Mukherji)

Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Yugantar Bhupendranath Datta and Barinder Kumar Ghosh

Bombay Chronicle Firoze Shah Mehta

Hindustan M.M.Malviya

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Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Mooknayak B.R.Ambedkar

Comrade Mohammed Ali

Tahzib - ul - Akhlaq Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan

Al - Hilal Abdul Kalam Azad

Al - Balagh Abdul Kalam Azad

Independent Motilal Nehru

Punjabi Lala Lajpat Rai

New India (Daily) Annie Besant

Commonweal Annie Besant

Pratap Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi

Essays in Indian Economics M.G.Ranade

Samvad Kaumudi (Bengali) Ram Mohan Roy

Mirat - ul - Akhbar Ram Mohan Roy (first Persian newspaper)

Indian Mirror Devendra Nath Tagore

Nav Jeevan M.K.Gandhi

Young India M.K.Gandhi

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Newspaper / Journal Founder / Editor

Harijan M.K.Gandhi

Prabudha Bharat Swami Vivekananda

Udbodhana Swami Vivekananda

Indian Socialist Shyamji Krishna Verma

Talwar (in Berlin) Birendra Nath Chattopadhyaya

Free Hindustan (in Vancouver) Tarak Nath Das

Hindustan Times K.M.Pannikar

Kranti Mirajkar, Joglekar, Ghate

Books and Authors

Books Authors

Causes of the Indian Mutiny Sir Syyed Ahmed Khan

Ghulam Giri Jyotiba Phule

To all fighters of freedom, Why Socialism? J.P. Narayan

Pakhtoon Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan

Problems of the East Lord Curzon

My Indian Years Lord Hardinge II

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Books Authors

Economic History of India R.C. Dutt

Pather Panchali Bibhuti Bhushan Banerji

The Spirit of Islam Syyed Ameer Ali

Precepts of Jesus Ram Mohan Roy

A Gift of Monotheists Ram Mohan Roy

Satyarth Prakash Swami Dayanand

Books Authors

Anand Math Bankim C. Chatterji

Devi Chaudharani Bankim C. Chatterji

Sitaram Bankim C. Chatterji

The Indian Struggle S.C. Bose

Poverty & Un - British Rule in India Dadabhai Naoroji

A Nation in the Making S.N. Banerji

Unhappy India Lala Lajpat Rai

The Indian War of Independence V.D. Savarkar

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Books Authors

India Divided Rajendra Prasad

The Discovery of India J.L. Nehru

Neel Darpan Dinbandhu Mitra

Hind Swaraj M.K. Gandhi

What Congress and Gandhi have done to the untouchables B.R. Ambedkar

Pre Congress Nationalist Organizations

Organisation Year Place Founder(s)

Landholder's Society Or Zamindary Association 1838 Calcutta Dwarkanath Tagore

British India Society 1839 London William Adams

Bengal British India Society 1843 Calcutta George Thomson

British India Association (Amalgamation of Landholder's Society and 1851 Calcutta Devendranoth Tagore & Rodhakant Deb
Bengal British India Society)

Madras Native Association 1852 Madras -

Bombay Association 1852 Bombay Dadabhai Naoroji & Dinshaw Wacha

East India Association 1866 London Dadabhai Naoroji

London Indian Society 1865 London Feroz Shah Mehta, Badruddin Tyyabji, W.C. Banerji and
Manmohan Ghosh

Indian National Association 1867 London Mary Carpentar

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Organisation Year Place Founder(s)

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha 1867 Poona M.G. Ranade, G.V Joshi and Chiplankar

Indian Society 1872 London Anand Mohan Bose

India League 1875 Calcutta Sisir Kumar Ghosh

Indian Association 1876 Calcutta Anand Mohan Bose and Surendra Nath Banerji

National Conference 1883 - Anand Mohan Bose and Surendra Nath Banerji

Madras Mahajan Sabha 1884 Madras M. Viraghavacharya, G. Subramaniya Aiyar and P. Anand Charlu

Indian National Union 1884 - A.O.Hume

(National Conference and Indian National Union merged to form the Indian National Congress in 1885).

Post Congress Nationalist Organizations :

Organisation Year Founder

Anti - Non Cooperation Association 1920 - 21 Purshottam Das and Thakurdas

Jorhat Sarvajanik Sabha 1893 Ras Behari Ghosh

Raja Mundari Social Reform Association 1878 Virsalingam

Anti - Circular Society - K.K. Mitra

Lok Sewa Mandal - Lala Lajpat Raj

Independent Congress Party 1926 Madan Mohan Malviya

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Organisation Year Founder

United India Patriotic Association - Sayyid Ahmed Khan

British Association of Awadh - Raja Shiv Prasad Sahu

Liberal Association - Sapru, Jayakar and Chintamani

Indian Liberal Federation 1919 S.N. Banerji

Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) 1927 G.D. Birla and Thakurdas

Hindustan Sewa Dal - N.G. Hardikar

Independence of India League 1928 J.L. Nehru and S.C. Bose

Praja Party - Akram Khan, Fazuil Haq and Abdur Rahman

Hindu Association - Annie Besant

South India Federation of Peasants and Agricultural Labour 1935 N.G. Ranga and Namboodiripad

Unionist Party - Fazl Hussain

Rashtriya Swayamsewak Sangh 1925 Hedgewar

All India Untouchability League 1932 M.K. Gandhi

Hindu Mahasabha 1917 Revived by M.M. Malviya

Jana Sangh - Shyama Prasad Mukherji

National Mohammadan Association 1878 Amir Ali

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Organisation Year Founder

Mohammadan Literacy Society 1863 Abdul Latif

Deccan Educational Society - Tilak & Agarkar

Labour and Trade Union Organization

Organization Year Founder

Bombay Mill and Millhands Association 1880 N.M. Lokhanda

Working Men's Club 1870 Sasipada Banerji

Printer's Union 1905 -

Railway Men's Union 1906 -

Kamgar Hitwardhak Sabha 1909 S.K. Bole

Social Service League 1911 -

Madras Labour Union 1918 G.R. Naidu and Chelvupathi

Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants of India 1897 -

Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association 1920 M.K. Gandhi

Organization Year Founder

All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) 1920 N.M. Joshi and Roy Chaudhary

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Organization Year Founder

Bombay Textile Labour Union - N.M. Joshi

All India Trade Union Federation 1929 N.M. Joshi

National Federation of Trade Union - N.M. Joshi

Hindustan Majdoor Sabha 1938 V.B. Patel, Rajendra Prasad and J.B. Kriplani

Indian Federation of Labour 1944 N.M. Roy

Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) 1944 V.B. Patel

Leftist Organizations :

Organisation Year Place Founder

Communist Party of India 1920 Tashkent M.N. Roy

Labour Kisan Party 1923 Madras Singaravelu

Labour Swaraj Party (later renamed as Peasants & Worker's Party) - - Qazi Nazrul and Muzaffar Ahmed

Kirti Kisan Party - - Sohari Singh Josh

Workers and Peasants Party 1927 Bombay S.S. Mirajkar, K.N. Joglekar and S.V. Ghate

Bihar Socialist Party 1931 - J.P. Narayan, Phulan Prasad Verma

Congress Socialist Party 1934 - Nateridra Dev, J.P. Narayan and Minoo Masani

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Organisation Year Place Founder

Forward Block 1939 - S.C. Bose

Congress Labour Party 1926 Bombay -

The Bolshevik Party of India 1939 - N.D. Mazumdar

Radical Democratic Party 1940 - M.N. Roy

Independence Labour Party - - B.R. Ambedkar

Important National Leaders

M.K. Gandhi (1869 – 1948) :

• The ‘Father of the Nation’ was born at Porbandar (Kathiarwar) on October 2, 1869. he was the son of
Karamchand and Putlibai Gandhi. He married Kasturba in 1883.

• Proceeded to England in 1888 to study law and returned to India in 1891.

• He failed as a practicing lawyer both at Rajkot and in Bombay.

• In 1893, he proceeded to Natal, South Africa, as the lawyer of a firm of Porbandar Muslims.

• He was appalled at the racial discrimination by the whites in that country. There he founded a political
organization known as ‘National Indian Congress’ and also started a newspaper called ‘Indian Opinion’. He
formed Phoenix Farm near Durban in 1904.

• Returned to India on Jan 9, 1915.

• In 1916, he founded the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad.

• Champaran Satyagraha (1917) : There the European planters forced the cultivators to cultivate indigo on 3 /
20th of their holdings (called Tinkathia System). But when indigo became unremunarative, the European planters
imposed higher taxes to compensate their losses in the International market.

• Gandhiji, with the help of Rajendra Prasad and others, encouraged the peasants to offer Satyagraha. Gandhiji
was arrested and then made a member of the Enquiry Committee of Jun 1917. The Champaran Agrarian Act
finally abolished the TinKathia system and compensated the peasants for the raised dues imposed on them.

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• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (Mar, 1918) : The dispute was between the mill – owners and the workers over the
‘Plague Bonus’ which the mill – owners wanted to withdraw once the epidemic was over. The workers troubled by
inflation wanted adequate compensation.

• Gandhiji initially persuaded the mill – owners and workers to agree to arbitration by a tribunal but the mill –
owners withdrew after commitment. Here Gandhiji first used the weapon of ‘Hunger Strike’. After this, the mill –
owners were pressurized into accepting the tribunal award of 55 percent increase.

• Kheda Satyagraha (1918) : The peasants were in extreme distress due to the failure of crops and the
government ignored their appeals for die remission of land revenue. The peasants of Kheda were already hard
pressed because of plague, high prices and drought.

• Appeals and petition having failed, Gandhiji advised the withholding of revenue and asked the peasants to fight
unto death. After the Government directed that the revenue should be recovered only from those peasants who
could pay, the movement was withdrawn.

Dadabhai Naoroji History (1825 – 1917) :

• First to demand ‘Swaraj’ from the INC Platform (Calcutta session, 1906).
• Wrote a bock ‘Poverty & Un – British Rule in India’ (in 1901) in which he brought out the connection between the
draining of wealth from India by the British and rampant poverty in India.
• Also known as ‘Indian Gladstone’ and ‘Grand Old Man of India’.
• Selected to ‘House of Commons’ on Liberal Party ticket (First Indian to do so).

Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1886 – 1915) :

• Gandhiji considered him as his political guru.

• He served as the President of the INC at its Banaras session in 1905.
• Laid the foundation of Servants of Indian Society in 1905. (Objective was to train people who would work as
national missionaries).

History of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1857 – 1920) :

• Collaborated with Agarkar, and set up institutions to give cheap education to people.
• First nationalist leader who tried to establish a close contact with the masses.
• Started Akharas, Lathi clubs and anti – cow killing societies to built his rapport.
• Founded two newspapers – The Maharatta (in English) and Kesari (in Marathi).
• First congress leader who went to prison several times. He joined the INC in 1891.
• Formed the Bal, Pal, Lai group of extremists and caused a split in the Surat Congress in 1907.
• Founded the Home Rule League in 1916, and helped in ushering in the Lucknow Pact and the Reforms Act at the
Amritsar Congress in 1919.
• Valentine Shirol described him as the ‘Father of Indian Unrest’.
• In the Nagpur session of 1920, the INC demanded Swaraj (after Tilak’s slogan only).
• An erudite scholar. His books are ‘The Arctic Home of Vedas’ & ‘Gita Rahasya’.

B. R. Ambedkar History (1891 – 1956) :

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• He was a jurist, a statesman, a social reformer and a leader of the depressed classes.
• He was born in Mahar caste in Mahu (M.P) in 1891. He went for higher studies to England and America. He was
the first graduate of Mahar caste.
• He participated in all the three Round Table Conferences. He signed Poona Pact with Gandhiji in 1932.
• From 1942 to 1946, he was in the Executive Council of the Governor General. He organized the Indian Labour
Party, Scheduled Caste Federation and People’s Education Society.
• He was the chairman of the Drafting Committee of our Constitution.
• He also piloted the Hindu Code through the Indian Legislature.
• From 1947 to 1951, he was a law minister in Nehru’s cabinet.
• Towards the end of his life he embraced Buddhism.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad History (1890 – 1958) :

• He was bora in Mecca in 1890. For higher education he went to the Al Azhar University at Cairo.
• He joined the INC during the Swadeshi movement.
• He began two weeklies, Al Hilaland Al – Balagh.
• He was made the President of the Khilafat Committee in 1920. He became the President of the Congress session
of 1923 at Delhi.
• He led the Congress delegation during the Shimla Conference in 1945. He also led the delegation during the
Cabinet Mission Plan.
• He was elected the member of the Constituent Assembly in 1946. He was the Education Minister in the Interim
Government and also Independent India’s first Education Minister.
• He was also instrumental in the foundation of U.G.C. and IIT – Kharagpur.
• His book India Wins Freedom evoked much controversy.

History of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1890 – 1988) :

• Popularly known as Frontier Gandhi, Badshah Khan or Sarhadi Gandhi.

• Founded an organization Khudai Khidmatgars. It was an organization of non – violent revolutionaries which was
also known as ‘Red Shirts’.
• He also published a newspaper, Pakhtoon.
• Ghaffar Khan vehemently opposed partition.
• He was awarded Bharat Ratna in 1987 by the Government of India.

Subhash Chandra Bose History (1897 – 1945) :

• Popularly known as Netaji, was born on Jan 23, 1897 at Cuttack.

• He passed the Indian Civil Services Examination in 1920, but left it on the Gandhiji’s call of Non – Cooperation
Movement.
• He founded the Independence for India League with Jawahar Lai Nehru.
• In 1938, he was elected the President of the INC ai its Ilaripura session and in 1939, he was elected President of
its Tripuri session. But he had to resign from Tripuri due to differences with Gandhiji.
• He founded the Forward Block in 1939.
• In 1941, he escaped to Berlin and met Hitler. In 1943, he took charge of Indian National Army in Singapore and
set up the Indian Provisional Government there. He gave the war cry of ‘Dilli Chalo’.
• He addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the Father of the Nation; He gave the slogan of ‘Jai Hind’. He wrote his
autobiography ‘The Indian Struggle’.
• He supposedly died in a plane crash on Aug 18, 1945.
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History of Jawaharlal Nehru (1889 – 1964) :

• He was the first Prime Minister of Independent India and is known as the architect of Modern India.
• He was born in Allahabad on Nov 14, 1889.
• In 1928, he became the General Secretary of the INC and in 1929 its President. At the Lahore session, under his
President ship was passed the Independence resolution.
• He was the Prime Minister of India from 1947 to 1964.
• He was the author of the Doctrine of Panchsheel, and believed in the policy of non – alignment.
• He was an author of international fame.
• His works include The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World Histoty, A Bunch of Old Letters, The Unity of India,
Independence and After, India and the World, etc. His autobiography, entitied Autobiography, is one of his most
famous works.

Indian Freedom Movement Struggle

Timeline of Indian Freedom Struggle

Year Indian Freedom Struggle Events

1905 Partition of Bengal announced to come in force fom Oct 16, 1906.

31 Dec, 1906 Muslim League founded at Decca.

30 Apr, 1908 Khudiram Bose executed.

22 Jul, 1908 Tilak sentenced to six years on charges of seditior.

21 May, 1909 Minto-Morley Reforms of Indian Councils Act, 1909.

1911 The coronation or Delhi durbar held at Delhi in which the Partition of Bengal is cancelled.

1912 Delhi becomes the new capital of India

23 Dec, 1912 Bomb thrown on Lord Hardinge on his state entry into Delhi.

1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

16 Jun, 1914 B.G. Tilak released from jail.

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

4 Aug, 1914 Outbreak of the 1st World War.

29 Sep, Komagatamaru ship reaches Budge Budge (Calcutta port).

1914

9 Jan, 1915 Gandhiji arrives in India.

19 Feb, 1915 Death of Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

28 Apr, 1916 B.G. Tilak founds Indian Home Rule League with its headquarters at Poona.

25 Sep, Another Home Rule League started by Annie Besant.

1916

Apr 1917 Mahatma Gandhi launches the Champaran campaign in Bihar to focus attention on the grievances of indigo planters.

20 Aug, The Secretary of State for India, Montague, declares that the goal of the British government in India is the introduction of Responsible
1917 Government.

1918 Beginning of trade union movement in India.

Apr, 1918 Rowlatt (Sedition) Committee submits its report. Rowlatt Bill introduced on Feb 16, 1919.

13 Apr, 1919 Jallianwala Bagh tragedy

5 Dec, 1919 The House of Commons passes the Montague Chelmsford Reforms or the Government of India Act, 1919. The new reforms under this
Act came into operation in 1921.

1920 First meeting of the All India Trade Union Congress, (under Narain Malhar Joshi).

Dec, 1920 The Indian National Congress (INC) adopts the Non-Co-operation Resolution

1920 - 22 Non-Co-operation Movement, suspended on Feb 12, 1922 after the violent incidents at Chauri Chaura on Feb 5, 1922.

Aug, 1922 Moplah rebellion on the Malabar coast.

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

1 Jan, 1923 Swarajist Party formed by Motilal Nehru and others.

1924 The Communist Party of India starts its activities at Kanpur.

Aug, 1925 Kakori Train Conspiracy case.

8 Nov, 1927 The British Prime Minister announces the appointment of the Simon Commission to suggest future constitutional reforms in India. Simon
Commission arrives in Bombay on Feb 3, 1928 and all-India 3 hartal. Lala Lajpat Rai assaulted by police at Lahore.

1928 Nehru Report recommends principles for the new Constitution of India. All parties conference considers the Nehru Report, Aug 28-31,
1928.

17 Nov, Death of Lala Lajpat Rai.

1928

1929 Sarda Act passed prohibiting marriage of girls below 14 and boys below 18 years of age with effect from 1930.

9 Mar, 1929 All Parties Muslim Conference formulates the 'Fourteen Points' under the leadership of Jinnah.

8 Apr, 1929 Bhagot Singh and Batukeshwai Dutt throw bomb in the Central Legislative Assen.

31 Oct, 1929 Lord Irwin's announcement that the goal of British policy in India was the grant of the Dominion status.

31 Dec, The Lahore session of the INC adopts the goal of complete independence poorna swarajya for India; Jawaharlal Nehru hoists the
1929 tricolour of Indian Independence on the banks of the Ravi at Lahore.

26 Jan, 1930 First Independence Day observed.

14 Feb, 1930 The Working Committee of the INC meets at Sabarmati and passes the Civil Disobedience resolution.

12 Mar, 1930 Mahatma Gandhi launches the Civil Disobedience movement with his epic Dandi Mar (Mar 12 to Apr 6). First phase of the Civil
Disobedience movement: Mar 12, 1930 to Mar 5, 1931.

30 Nov, First Round Table Conference begins in London to consider the report of the Simon Commission.
1930

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

5 Mar, 1931 Gandhi lrwin pact signed. Civil Disobedience movement suspended.

23 Mar, 1931 Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Rajguru executed.

7 Sep, 1931 Second Round Table Conference.

28 Dec, Gandhiji returns from London after the deadlock in llnd RTC. Launches Civil Disobedience Movement. The INC declared illegal.
1931

4 Jan, 1932 Gandhiji arrested and imprisoned without trial.

16 Aug, British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald announces the infamous "Communal Award".
1932

20 Sep, Gandhiji in jail, begins his epic "fast unto death" against the Communal Award and ends the fast on Sep 26 after the Poona Pact.
1932

17 Nov, The Third Round Table Conference begins in London (Nov 17 to Dec 24)
1932

9 May, 1933 Gandhiji released from prison as he begins fast for self-purification. INC suspends Civil Disobedience movement but authorizes
Satyagraha by individuals.

1934 Gandhiji withdraws from active politics and devotes himself to constructive programmes (1934-39).

4 Aug, 1935 The Government of India Act 1935 passed.

1937 Elections held in India under the Act of 1935 (Feb 1937). The INC contests election and forms ministries in several provinces (Jul 1937).

19 - 20 Feb, Haripura session of INC. Subhash Chandra Boss elected Congress president.
1938

10 - 12 Mar, Tripuri session of the INC.

1939

Apr, 1939 Subhash Chandra Bose resigns as the president of the INC.

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

3 Sep, 1939 Second World War (Sep 1). Great Britain declares war on Germany; the Viceroy declares that India too is at war.

27 Oct - 5 The Congress ministries in the provinces resign in protest against the war policy of the British government.
Nov, 1939

22 Dec, The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries as ‘Deliverance Day’
1939

Mar, 1940 Lahore session of ihe Muslim League passes the Pakistan Resolution.

10 Aug, Viceroy Linlithgow announces-August Offer.

1940

18 - 22 Aug, Congress Working Committee rejects the 'August Offer'.

1940

17 Oct, 1940 Congress launches Individual Satyagraha movement.

17 Jan, 1941 Subhash Chandra Bose escapes from India; arrives in Berlin (Mar 28).

11 Mar, 1942 Churchill announces the Cripps Mission.

7 - 8 Aug, The INC meets in Bombay; adopts 'Quit India' resolution

1942

9 Aug, 1942 Gandhiji and other Congress leaders arrested.

11 Aug, Quit India movement begins; the Great Aug Uprising.

1942

1 Sep, 1942 Subhash Chandra Bose establish the Indian National Army 'Azad Hind Fauj

21 Oct, 1943 Subhash Chandra Bose proclaims the formation of the Provisonal Government of Free India.

Dec, 1943 Karachi session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan Divide arc

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1 Nov, 1914 Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.

25 Jan, 1944 Wavell calls Simla Conference in a bid to form the Executive Council at Indian political leaders.

18 Feb, 1946 Mutiny of the Indian naval ratings in Bombay.

15 Mar, 1946 British Prime Minister Attlee announces Cabinet Mission ro propose new solution to the Indian deadlock; Cabinet Mission arrives in New
Delhi (Mar 14); issues proposal (May 16).

6 Jul, 1946 Jawaharlal Nehru takes over as Congress president.

6 Aug, 1946 Wavell invites Nehru to form an interim government; Interim Government takes office (Sep 2).

9 Dec, 1946 First session of the Constituent Assembly of India starts. Muslim League boycotts it.

20 Feb, 1947 British Prime Minister Attlee declares that the British government would leave India not later than Jun 1948.

24 Mar, 1947 Lord Mountbatten, the last British Viceroy and Governor General of India, sworn in (Mar 24, 1947 to Jun 21, 1948)

3 Jun, 1947 Mountbatten Plan for the partion of India and the announcement (Jun 4 that transfer to power will take place on Aug 15.

15 Aug, India wins freedom

1947

Where They Rest:

Famous Personality of India Place

Mahatma Gandhi Raj Ghat

J.L.Nehru Shantivan

B.R. Ambedkar Chaithrabhoomi

Indira Gandhi Shaktisthal

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Famous Personality of India Place

Charan Singh Kisan Ghat

Zail Singh Ektasthal

Rajiv Gandhi Virbhoomi

Morarji Desai Abhay Ghat

Gulzari Lai Nanda Narayan Ghat

Jagjivan Ram Samatasthal

L.B. Shastri Vijay Ghat

Important Dates of Indian History

Timeline of Historical Events in India :

Year Historical Events

B.C.

2500-1800 Indus valley civilization

599 Birth of Mahavir; Nirvana in 523 B.C

563 Birth of Gautam Buddha; Nirvana in 483 B.C

327-26 Alexander's invasion of India and the opening of land route between India and Europe.

269-232 Ashoka's reign

261 Battle of Kalinga

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Year Historical Events

57 Beginning of Vikrama era

30 Satvahana dynasty in Deccon. Pandyan Empire in for south

A.D.

78 Beginning of Saka era

320 Beginning of Gupta era

360 Samudragupta conquers the whole of N.India and much of the Deccan.

380- Rule of Chandragupta Vikramaditya, age of Kalidasa, renewal of Hinduism

413

606- Rule of Harshavardhana

647

645 Hieun Tsang's visit in India

622 Beginning of Hijra era

712 Arab invasion of Sind by Mohd. bin Qasim

1001- Repeated attacks of Mehmud Ghazni

27

1025 Sacking of Somnath temple by Mehmud

1191 First battle of Tarain in which Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Mohammed Ghori.

1192 Second battle of Tarain in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.

1206 Qutubuddin Aibak founded the llbari/Slave dynasty.

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78 Beginning of Saka era

1290 Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji established Khilji dynasty.

1290 Marco Polo visited India.

1320 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded the Tughlaq dynasty.

1333 Ibn Batuta arrived in India.

1336 Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijaynagar empire

1347 Bahmani kingdom founded.

1398 Timur invades India.

1451 Lodi dynasty comes in power in Delhi Sultanate.

1469 Birth of Guru Nanak Dev

1498 Vasco da Gama lands at Calicut.

1510 Portuguese capture Goa-Albuquerque Governor.

1526 First Battle of Panipat in which Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and established the Mughal dynasty.

1556 Second battle of Panipat in which Akbar defeated Hemu.

1565 Battle of Talikota in which Vijaynagar Empire is defeated.

1571 Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri by Akbar.

1576 Battle of Haldighati in which Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap.

1582 Akbar started Din-i-llahi.

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78 Beginning of Saka era

1600 English East India Company established.

1604 Compilation of Adi Granth.

1605 Death of Akbar.

1611 The English built a factory at Masulipatnam.

1627 Birth of Shivaji

1631 Death of Shah Jahan's wife Mumtaz Mahal. The building of Taj Mahal.

1658 Aurangzeb became Emperor of Delhi.

1666 Birth of Guru Gobind Singh.

1699 Guru Gobind Singh creates 'Khalsa'.

1707 Death of Aurangzeb, fall of Mughal empire begins.

1739 Nadir Shah invaded India; the peacock throne and the Kohinoor Diamond taken away from India.

1757 Battle of Plassey in which the English defeated Siraj-ud- daula, Nawab of Bengal.

1760 Battle of Wandiwash, end of French power in India.

1761 Third Battle of Panipat in which Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas.

1764 Battle of Buxar in which the English defeated the triple alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh and Mughal
emperor Shah Alam.

1793 Permanent settlement in Bengal.

1799 Fourth Anglo Mysore War, death of Tipu Sultan, Ranjit Singh occupied Lahore and made it his capital.

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78 Beginning of Saka era

1817- Marathas finally crushed.

19

1828 Lord William Bentick becomes Governor General; Era of social reforms; Prohibition of Sati (1829), Suppression of thugs (1830)

1835 Introduction of English as medium of instruction.

1853 First Indian railway from Bombay to Thane.

1857- First war of Indian Independence.

58

1858 British crown takes over the Indian Government; End of East India Company's rule.

1861 Birth of Rabindra Nath Tagore.

1869 Birth of M.K.Gandhi.

1885 Formation of Indian National Congress.

1905 Partition of Bengal by Lord Curzon.

1906 Formation of All India Muslim League.

1909 Minto-Morley Reforms.

1911 Delhi durbar held, partition of Bengal cancelled, capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

1914 World War I started.

1918 End of World War I.

1919 Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Montague-Chelmsford reforms.

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78 Beginning of Saka era

1920 Non-cooperation Movement launched.

1921 Moplah rebellion in Malabar; visit of Prince of Wales.

1922 Chauri-Chaura incidence

1923 Swaraj party formed.

1927 Simon Commission appointed.

1928 Visit of Simon Commission to India, death of Lala Lajpat Rai.

1929 Congress demanded 'Poorna Swaraj' in Lahore session.

1930 January 26 celebrated as Independence Day throughout India, Dandi Salt Satyagraha, First Round Table conference.

1931 Gandhi-lrvin Pact, Second Round Table Conference.

1932 Suppression of Congress Movement, Third Round Table Conference, Communal Award, Poona Pact.

1935 Government of India Act.

1937 Inauguration of Provincial Autonomy. Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces.

1939 Resignation of Congress ministries, beginning of World War II.

1942 Cripps Mission Plan, Quit India Movement, Formation of Indian National Army by S.C. Bose.

1945 Simla conference held and the failure of Wavell Plan, INA trials at Red Fort, Delhi.

1946 Cabinet Mission Plan, Formation of Interim Government, Direct Action Resolution by Muslim League.

1947 Mountbatten Plan of June 3 in which partition of India resolution is proposed, India divided, Pakistan created, both achieve independence,
Jawarhar Lai Nehru becomes the I Prime Minister of India.

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Important Battles in Indian History

Famous Battles in Indian History :

B.C.

326 Alexander defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspas

261 Ashoka defeated Kalinga in the Kalinga War

A.D.

712 Invasion of Sind by Mohammed-bin-Qasim

1191 First Battle of Tarain in which Prithviraj Chauhon defeated Mohammed Ghori

1192 Second Battle of Tarain in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.

1194 Battle of Chhandwar in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Jaichandra of Kannauj.

1526 First Battle of Panipat in which Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi.

1527 Battle of Khanua in which Babar defeated Rana Sanga.

1529 Battle of Ghaghara in which Babar defeated the Afghans.

1539 Battle of Chausa in which Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun.

1540 Battle of Kannauj (or Bilgram) in which Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun and forced him to flee.

1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1565 Battle of Talikota (or Banihatti) in which an alliance of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and Bidar defeated the Vijaynagar empire (represented
by Sadasiva).

1576 Battle of Haldighati in which Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap.

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1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1615 Mewar submitted to the Mughals. A treaty of peace was signed between Jahangiri and Rana Amar Singh of Mewar.

1649 Kandahar was lost to Persia forever by the Mughals.

1658 Battle of Dharmatt and Samugarh in which Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh.

1665 Raja Jai Singh defeated Shivaji and the Treaty of Purandar signed.

1708 Battle of Khed in which Shahu defeated Tara Bai.

1737 Battle of Bhopal in which Baji Rao defeated Mohammed Shah.

1739 Battle of Karnal in which Nadir Shah defeated Mohammed Shah.

1757 Battle of Plassey in which the English forces (under Robert Cive) defeated Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal.

1760 Battle of Wandiwash in which the English forces defeated the French forces.

1761 Third Battle of Panipat in which Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas.

1764 Battle of Buxar in which the English under Munro defeated the alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh and
Mughal emperor Shah Alam.

1767- First Anglo Mysore War in which Hyder Ali defeated the English forces.
69

1766- First Anglo Maratha War in which the British were defeated.
69

1770 Battle of Udgir in which the Marathas defeated the Nizam.

1780- Second Anglo Mysore War. Hyder Ali died during the battle (1782) and the field was taken by his son Tipu Sultan. The war concluded with the
84 Treaty of Mangalore (1784).

1789- Third Anglo Mysore War in which Tipu Sultan was defeated. The Treaty of Serirangapatnam followed.
92

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1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1799 Fourth Anglo Mysore War in which Tipu was defeated and killed.

1803- Second Anglo Maratha War in which the British defeated the Marathas.
06

1817- Third Anglo Maratha War in which the British defeated the Marathas badly.
19

1824- First Anglo Burmese War in which the British defeated the Burmese.
26

1839- First Anglo Afghan War in which the British defeated the Afghan ruler Dost Mohammad.
42

1845- First Anglo Sikh War in which the Sikhs were defeated.
46

1848- Second Anglo Sikh War in which the Sikhs were defeated and Punjab was annexed by the British.
49

1852 Second Anglo Burmese War in which the British won.

1865 Third Angio Burmese War in which the British won & annexed Burma.

1868- Second Anglo Afghan War in which the English suffered losses.
80

1919- Third Anglo Afghan War in which the English, though victorious, did not benefit from the war.
21

Important Battles in Indian History

B.C.

326 Alexander defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspas

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261 Ashoka defeated Kalinga in the Kalinga War

A.D.

712 Invasion of Sind by Mohammed-bin-Qasim

1191 First Battle of Tarain in which Prithviraj Chauhon defeated Mohammed Ghori

1192 Second Battle of Tarain in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.

1194 Battle of Chhandwar in which Mohd. Ghori defeated Jaichandra of Kannauj.

1526 First Battle of Panipat in which Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi.

1527 Battle of Khanua in which Babar defeated Rana Sanga.

1529 Battle of Ghaghara in which Babar defeated the Afghans.

1539 Battle of Chausa in which Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun.

1540 Battle of Kannauj (or Bilgram) in which Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun and forced him to flee.

1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1565 Battle of Talikota (or Banihatti) in which an alliance of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and Bidar defeated the Vijaynagar empire (represented
by Sadasiva).

1576 Battle of Haldighati in which Akbar defeated Maharana Pratap.

1615 Mewar submitted to the Mughals. A treaty of peace was signed between Jahangiri and Rana Amar Singh of Mewar.

1649 Kandahar was lost to Persia forever by the Mughals.

1658 Battle of Dharmatt and Samugarh in which Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh.

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1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1665 Raja Jai Singh defeated Shivaji and the Treaty of Purandar signed.

1708 Battle of Khed in which Shahu defeated Tara Bai.

1737 Battle of Bhopal in which Baji Rao defeated Mohammed Shah.

1739 Battle of Karnal in which Nadir Shah defeated Mohammed Shah.

1757 Battle of Plassey in which the English forces (under Robert Cive) defeated Siraj-ud-daula, the Nawab of Bengal.

1760 Battle of Wandiwash in which the English forces defeated the French forces.

1761 Third Battle of Panipat in which Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas.

1764 Battle of Buxar in which the English under Munro defeated the alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh and
Mughal emperor Shah Alam.

1767- First Anglo Mysore War in which Hyder Ali defeated the English forces.
69

1766- First Anglo Maratha War in which the British were defeated.
69

1770 Battle of Udgir in which the Marathas defeated the Nizam.

1780- Second Anglo Mysore War. Hyder Ali died during the battle (1782) and the field was taken by his son Tipu Sultan. The war concluded with the
84 Treaty of Mangalore (1784).

1789- Third Anglo Mysore War in which Tipu Sultan was defeated. The Treaty of Serirangapatnam followed.
92

1799 Fourth Anglo Mysore War in which Tipu was defeated and killed.

1803- Second Anglo Maratha War in which the British defeated the Marathas.
06

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1556 Second Battle of Panipat in which Bairam Khan (representing Akbar) defeated Hemu.

1817- Third Anglo Maratha War in which the British defeated the Marathas badly.
19

1824- First Anglo Burmese War in which the British defeated the Burmese.
26

1839- First Anglo Afghan War in which the British defeated the Afghan ruler Dost Mohammad.
42

1845- First Anglo Sikh War in which the Sikhs were defeated.
46

1848- Second Anglo Sikh War in which the Sikhs were defeated and Punjab was annexed by the British.
49

1852 Second Anglo Burmese War in which the British won.

1865 Third Angio Burmese War in which the British won & annexed Burma.

1868- Second Anglo Afghan War in which the English suffered losses.
80

1919- Third Anglo Afghan War in which the English, though victorious, did not benefit from the war.
21

Important Wars in 20th Century

20th Century Wars :

Russo – Japanese War Summary (1904 – 05) :

The conflict arising from the rivalry of Russia and Japan for control of Manchuria and Korea. Russia was forced to
surrender Korea, the Liaotung Peninsula and Sakhalin to Japan.

History of First World War (1914 – 18) :

• International conflict began between Austria and Serbia. The chief contestants were the Central Powers
(Germany and Austria) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia). Many other countries joined as the
war began.

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• The naval blockade of Germany caused severe food shortages and helped to end the war. An armistice was
agreed in November 1918 and peace treaties were signed at Versailles (1919).

Sino – Japanese War Summary (1931 – 1933) :

Two wars between China and Japan, marking the beginning and the end of Japanese imperial expansion on the Asian
mainland. The first war in 1894-95 arose from rivalry for control of Korea. The second war in 1937-45 developed from
Japan’s seizure of Manchuria and the conflict merged into World War II, ending with the final defeat of Japan in 1945.

History of Second World War (1939 – 45) :

• International conflict arising from disputes provoked by the expansionist policies of Germany in Europe and Japan
in the Far East. The axis powers – Germany, Italy and (after September 1940) Japan – controlled most of Europe
and much of northern Africa, China and Asia.
• The United States stayed out of the war until December 7, 1941, when Japan attached Pearl Harbor, and the
United States joined the Allies in fighting not only Japan but the other Axis powers as well. The war ended when
the U. S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.

Arab – Israeli War Timeline (1948 – 49, 1956, 1967, 1973 – 74) :

• Conflict between Israel and the Arab states. After the creation of the state of Israel (May 14, 1948), troops from
Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Trans Jordan (Modern Jordan) invaded the new nation.
• Simmering Arab – Israeli hostilities exploded into war in 1967, when Israel, assailed by Palestinian guerillas,
launched a massive primitive strike against Egypt, the Arab world’s leading state. In the six day war, Israel
captured the Sinai Peninsula, the old city of Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights.

History of Korean War (1950 – 53) :

Conflict between North Korea, supported by China and South Korea supported by UN forces dominated by the USA.
Negotiations continued for two years before a truce was agreed in Jul 1953.

History of Vietnam War (1954 – 75) :

Conflict between US backed South Vietnam and the Viet Cong, who had the support of communist North Vietnam. It
followed to the partition of Vietnam. In 1975 South Vietnam was overrun by North Vietnamese forces, and the country was
united under Communist rule.

Falkland War Timeline (Apr – Jun, 1982) :

Military conflict between Great Britain and Argentina on the question of sovereignty over the Falkland Islands. Britain won
the war.

Iran-Iraq War Summary (1980 – 90) :

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War began shortly after the Iranian Revolution of 1979. Iraq wanted control over oil – rich Iranian border territory. Iraq
expressed readiness to negotiate peace, after it lost ground. In 1988, Iran agreed to a ceasefire. Iraq invaded Kuwait in
1990.

History of Gulf War (16 Jan, 1991 – 28 Feb, 1991) :

Military action by a US led coalition to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Kuwait was liberated (Feb 26, 1991), and a
ceasefire was declared on Feb 28.

History of Bosnian War (1992 – 1998) :

Ethnically rooted war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a republic of Yugoslavia with a multiethnic population – Muslims, Serbs
and Croats. The Dayton peace agreement was signed in 1995. Bosnia Herzegovina became a single state.

US – Afghan War (2001) :

Military action by US against the Taliban government of Afghanistan in protest against the Sept 11 attack on WTC
Towers. US claimed that Afghanistan was the breeding ground of terrorists and had given refuge to Osama bin Laden.

Gulf War II Timeline (2003) :

Military action by a US led coalition to oust Saddam Hussain from power in Iraq. It was conducted on the pretext of Iraq
possessing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).

GEOGRAPHY
Indian Geography
Geographical Location of India

Indian Geographical Location

• Lying between latitude 4′ N to 37°6′ N and from longitude 68°7′ E to 97°25′ E, the country is divided into almost
equal parts by the Tropic of Cancer (passes from Jabalpur in MP).
• The southernmost point in Indian Territory, (in Great Nicobar Island) is the Indira Point (6°45′), while
Kanyakumari, also known as Cape Comorin, is the southernmost point of Indian mainland. The country thus lies
wholly in the northern and eastern hemispheres.
• The 82°30′ E longitude is taken as the Standard Time Meridian of India, as it passes through the middle of India
(from Naini, near Allahabad).

Area Geography & Boundaries Geography

1. India stretches 3,214 km from North to South & 2,933 km from East to West.

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2. Geography Area of India : 32,87,263 sq. km. Accounts for 2.4% of the total world area and
roughly 16% of the world population.
3. Mainland India has a coastline of 6,100 km. Including the Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the
coastline measures about 7516.6 km.
4. In India, of the total land mass:
• Plains Geography: 43.3%
• Plateaus: 27.7%
• Hills: 18.6%
• Mountains Geography: 10.7%
5. In the South, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar & the Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka.
6. Total land neighbours: 7 (Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar).
7. India’s Islands include the Andaman & Nicobar Islands in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep, Minicoy & Amindive
Islands in the Arabian Sea.

Physiography of India

Indian Physiography

Physiographically, India can be divided into 3 units:

1. Mountains in the North

2. Plains in the Northern India & the Coast
3. Plateau region of the South

To these can be added the fourth, namely, the coasts and islands

Mountains in North India

The Himalayas in India

Means ‘Abode of Snow’. They are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in the world and comprise mainly
sedimentary rocks.

They stretch from the Indus River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east. Total length is about 5000 km. The
width of the Himalayas varies from 500 km in Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. Their average height is 2000m.

The Eastern Himalayas-made up of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills and the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills-are also
known as Purvanchal.

The Pamir, popularly known as the Roof of the World, is the connecting link between the Himalayas and the high ranges
of Central Asia.

Can be divided into 3 parallel or longitudinal zones, each with separate features.

The Great Himalayas or The Himadri

• Average elevation extends upto 6000m & some of the world’s highest peaks are here :

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Mt Everest (or Sagarmatha or Chomo Langma) 8850 m (in Nepal)

Mt Kanchenjunqa 8598 m (in India)

Mt Makalu 8481 m (in Nepal)

Mt Dhaulaqiri 81 72 m (in Nepal)

Mt Cho Oyu 8153m (in Nepal)

Mt Nanga Parbat 8126m (in India)

Mt Annapurna 8078 m (in Nepal)

Mt Nando Devi 7817 m (in India)

• There are few passes and almost all of them have a height above 4,500 m. they include Shipki La and Bara
Lapcha La in Himachal Pradesh, Burzil and Zozi La in Kashmir, Niti, Lipulekh and Thag La in Uttarankhand, and
Jelep La and Nathu La in Sikkim.

Lesser Himalayas or The Himachal

• Average height of mountains is 3700 – 4500 m.

• Mountains and valleys are disposed in all direction (mountains rising to 5000 m and the valleys touching 1000 m).

• Its important ranges are : Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, Nag Tibba, Mussoorie.

• Important hill resorts are : Shimla, Chhail, Ranikhet, Chakrata, Mussoorie, Nainital, Almora, Darjeeling.

Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks

• Lowest range (average elevation is 900-1200 m).

• Forms the foothills and lies between the Lesser Himalayas and the plains. It is the newest range.

Trans – Himalayan Zone

• This range lies to the north of the Great Himalayas. It has some important ranges like Karakoram, Laddakh,
Zanskar, etc. the highest peak in this region is K2 or Godwin Austin (8611m, in Pak occupied Kashmir). Other
high peaks are Hidden Peak (8068 m), Broad Peak (8047 m) and Gasherbrum II (8035 m).

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• The longest glacier is Siachin in the Nubra valley, which is more than 72 km long (biggest glacier in the world).
Biafo, Baltaro, Batura, Hispar are the other important glaciers in this region.

• This area is the largest snow-field outside the Polar Regions.

Peninsular Mountains

• While the Himalayas are Fold Mountains, they are not.

• The Aravalli Mountains (Rajasthan) : World’s oldest. Guru Shikhar is the highest peak on which Mount Abu
(1,722 m) is situated.

• The Vindhya Mountains

• The Satpura Mountains (highest point at Dhupgarh [1,350 m] near Pachmarhi)

• The Western Ghats or Sahyadris : Average height 1200mtrs, 1600km long. Its southern part is separated from
the main Sahyadri range by Palghat Gap (link between Tamil Nadu & Kerala). Other passes are Thalghat
(connects Nasik to Mumbai) and Bhorghat (connects Pune to Mumbai).

• The Eastern Ghats (Highest peak : Mahendra Giri (1501 m)).

• The Nilgiris or The Blue Mountains : Meeting place of the Western and the Eastern Ghats. Two highest peaks
are Dodda Betta and Makurti.

• The highest peak of Peninsular India is Anaimudi (2695 m) in Anaimalai Hills.

• Cardamom hills or Ealaimalai is the southernmost mountain range of India.

Facts about position of states

• UP borders the maximum number of States-8 (Uttarakhand, HP, Haryana, Rajasthan, MP,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar). After UP is Assam, which touches the border of 7 States.

• Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States : Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, WB, Tripuro,
Mizoram.

• Indian Standard Meridian passes through 5 States : UP, MP, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, AP.

• 9 States form the coast of India. They are : Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu. Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal.

• 2 Union Territories, viz. Daman & Diu and Pondicherry are also on the coast.

• The Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep are made up of islands only.

The Plains of India

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• To the south of the Himalayas and to the north of the Peninsula lies the great plains of North India. They are
formed by the depositional works of three major river systems, Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. The vast plains of
north India are alluvial in nature and the westernmost portion is occupied by the Thar Desert.

• The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Ganga plains and minimum in the Western Plains.

• In the Kerala plains are the backwaters or ‘Kayak’, which are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying
parallel to the coastline. The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake.

• The plains consist of four divisions:

• Bhabar : Along the foothills of Shiwaliks. Highly porous

• Tarai : Re-emergence of streams. Zone of excessive dampness
• Bhangar : Older alluvium of the plains. Studded with calcareous formations called ‘kankar’
• Khadar : New alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.

Peninsular Plateau of India

• Spreads south of the Indo-Gangetic plains flanked by sea on three sides. This plateau is shaped like a triangle
with its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats constitute its eastern and western
boundaries, respectively.

• Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the region into two parts: The Malwa Plateau in the north & the
Deccan Plateau in the south.

• Most of the rocks are of the igneous type.

• Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau.

• Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin, the largest and most typical part of which is the Ranchi
plateau.

• The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is made up of lava flows in the Cretaceous-Eocene era
through the fissure eruptions.

Islands of India

• Total coastline of India : 7516 km. Longest coastline: Gujarat (Second longest is of Andhra Pradesh).

• Indian territorial limits include 248 islands:

The Andaman and Nicobar Group

• Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the largest is Middle Andaman.

• The Andamans are believed to be extensions of mountains system in the N.E. part of the country.

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• Saddle Peak (737 m) in N.Andaman is the highest peak.

• The Nicobars is a group of 19 islands of which the largest is Great Nicobar. Most of them are volcanic in nature.

• Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only 147 km away from Sumatra island of Indonesia.

• Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam Islands. Barren is in the process of eruption these days after lying
dormant for 200 years.

The Arabian Sea Group

• All the islands in the Arabian Sea (Total 25) are coral islands and are surrounded by Fringing Reefs (North :
Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy).

Note :

• Ten Degree Channel separates Andamans from Nicobars (Little Andaman from Car Nicobar)

• Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and Little Andaman.

• Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from Minicoy Island.

• Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island (India) from Maldives.

Rivers of India

In India, the rivers can be divided into two main groups:

1. Himalayan Rivers
2. Peninsular Rivers

Himalayan Rivers of India

In this three major river systems are there:

The Indus System

• It has a total length of 2880 km (709 km in India). Rises in Tibet (China) near Mansarovar Lake.
• In Jammu and Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries are: Zanskar, Dras, Gartang, Shyok, Shigar, Nubra, Gilgit, etc.
• Its most important tributaries, which join Indus at various places, are: Jhelum (725 km), Chenab (1800 km), Ravi
(720 km), Beas (470 km) & Sutlej (1050 km).
• Sources: Jhelum from Verinag (SE Kashmir), Chenab from Bara Lacha Pass (Lahaul-Spiti, H.R), Ravi from Kullu
Hills near Rohtang Pass in H. R, Beas from a place near Rohtang Pass in H.E and Satluj from Mansarovar –
Rakas lakes in W. Tibet.

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• In Nari Khorsan province of Tibet, Satluj has created an extraordinary canyon, comparable to the Grand Canyon
of Colorado (US).
• According to the Indus Water Treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, India can utilize only 20% of the
total discharge of Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.

The Ganga System

• It is 2525 km long of which 1450 km is in Uttarakhand and UP, 445 km in Bihar and 520 km in West Bengal.
• The Ganga, the head stream is constituted of two main rivers – Bhagirthi and Alaknanda, which combine at
Devprayag to form Ganga.
• Before Alaknanda meets Bhagirthi at Devprayag, Mandakini meets Alaknanda at Rudraprayag.
• Sources: Bhagirthi from Gaumukh, Alaknanda from Badrinath, Mandakini from Kedarnath (all from Uttarakhand).
• Yamuna (1375 km) is its most important tributary (on right bank). It rises at the Yamunotri glacier in Uttarakhand.
It runs parallel to Ganga for 800km and joins it at Allahabad. Important tributaries of Yamuna are Chambal (1050
km), Sind, Betwa (480 km) and Ken (all from south).
• Apart from Yamuna, other tributaries of Ganga are Ghaghra (1080 km), Son (780 km), Gandak (425 km), Kosi
(730 km), Gomti (805 km), Damodar (541 km). Kosi is infamous as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’, while Damodar gets the
name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ as these cause floods in these regions.
• Hooghli is a distributory of Ganga flowing through Kolkata.

The Brahmaputra system

• It has a total length of 2900 km. It rises in Tibet (from Chemayungdung glacier), where it is called Tsangpo, and
enters the Indian territory (in Arunachal Pradesh) under the name Dihang.
• Important Tributaries: Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Manas, Teesta.
• In Bangladesh, Brahmaputra is known by the name of Jamuna while Ganga gets the name Padma. Their
combined stream is known as Padma only. Meghna is the most important distributory before it enters the Bay of
Bengal.
• The combined stream of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the biggest delta in the world, the Sundarbans, covering
an area of 58,752 sq. km. Its major part is in Bangladesh.
• On Brahmaputra is the river island, Majuli in Assam, the biggest river island in the world.
• Brahmaputra, or the Red River, is navigable for a distance of 1384 km up to Dibrugarh and serves as an excellent
inland water transport route.

Rivers of the Peninsula in India

• Different from the Himalayan rivers because they are seasonable in their flow (while Himalayan rivers are
perennial).

• They can be divided into two groups:

A. East Flowing Rivers of India (or Delta forming rivers)

• Mahanadi River (858 km) : Rises in Raipur distt. in Chhatisgarh. Main tributaries: lb, Seonath, Hasdo, Mand,
Jonk, Tel, etc.

• Godavari River (1465 km) : Also called Vriddha Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. It is the longest peninsular river.
Rises in Nasik. Main tributaries: Manjra, Penganga, Wardha, Indravati, Wainganga, Sabari, etc.
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• Krishna River (1327 km) : Rises in Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar. Main tributaries: Koyna, Dudhganga,
Panchganga, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, Bhima, Tungabhadra, Musi, etc.

• Cauvery River (805 km) : It is the largest peninsular river (maximum amount of water). Infact, it is the only
peninsular river which flows almost throughout the year. Known as the ‘Ganga of the South’. It rises from the
Brahmagir range of Western Ghats. Main tributaries: Hemavati, Lokpawni, Shimsa. It is less seasonal than others
as its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the S.W monsoon and the lower catchment area
during winter season by the retreating N.E. monsoon. Its 90% – 95% irrigation and power production potential is
already being harnessed.

• Swarnarekha River (395 km) and Brahmani (705 km) : Rises from Ranchi Plateau.

B. West Flowing Rivers in India

• Narmada River (1057 km) : Has only l/10th part in Gujarat. Rises in Amarkantak Plateau and flows into Gulf of
Khambat. It forms the famous Dhuan Dhar Falls near Jabalpur. Main tributaries: Hiran, Burhner, Banjar, Shar,
Shakkar, Tawa, etc.

• Tapti River (724 km) : Rises from Betul distt in MR Also known as twin or handmaid of Narmada. Main
tributaries: Purna, Betul, Arunavati, Ganjal, etc.

• Sabarmati River (416 km) : Rises from Aravallis in Rajasthan.

• Mahi River (560 km) : Rises from Vindhyas in MR

• Luni River (450 km) : Rises from Aravallis. Also called Salt River. It is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the
head of the Rann of Kuchchh.

• Sharavati is a west flowing river of the Sahyadris. It forms the famous Jog or Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi Falls
(289 m), which is the highest waterfall in India.

Inland Drainage

• Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage. Ghaggar (494 km) is the most
important of such drainage.
• It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and gets lost in the dry sands of
Rajasthan near Hanumangarh. It is considered the old Saraswati of the Vedic times.

Note:

• The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar Lake, which is the reservoir of Sardar Sarovar Project,
Onkareshwar Project and Maheshwar Project in Gujarat-MP.

• Chilka Lake (Orissa) is the largest brackish water lake of India. Otherwise also, it is the largest lake of India.

• Wular Lake (J & K) is the largest fresh water lake of India. Dul Lake is also there in J & K.

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• From Sambhar and Didwana Lake (Rajasthan), salt is produced.

• Other important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala and Kolleru & Pulicat in AP.

• The three important Gulfs in the Indian Territory are:

• Gulf of Kuchch (west of Gujarat) : Region with highest potential of tidal energy generation

• Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat (Gujarat) : Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmati drain into it.

• Gulf of Mannar (south east of Tamil Nadu) : Asia’s first marine biosphere reserve.

Important River Valley Projects of India

Bhukra Nangal Project On Satluj in Punjab. Highest in India. Ht 226 m. Reservoir is called Gobind Sagar Lake

Mandi Project On Beas in H.P

Chambal Valley Project On Chambal in M.P & Rajasthan. 3 dams are there: Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana Pratap sagar Dam and Jawahar Sagar dam

Damodar Valley Project On Damodar in Bihar. Based on Tennessee Valley Project, USA

Hirakud On Mahanadi in Orissa. World's longest dam: 4801 m

Rihand On Son in Mirzapur. Reservoir is called Govind Vallabh Pant reservoir

Kosi Project On Kosi in N. Bihar

Mayurkashi Project On Mayurkashi in W.B

Kakrapara Project On Tapi in Gujarat

Nizamsagar Project On Manjra in A.P

Nagarjuna Sagar Project On Krishna in A.P

Tungabhadra On Tungabhadra in A.P & Karnataka

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Shivasamudram Project On Cauvery in Karnataka

Tata Hydel Scheme On Bhima in Maharashtra

Sharavathi Hydel Project On Jog Falls in Karnataka

Kundah & Periyar Project In TN

Farakka Project On Ganga in W.B. Apart from power and irrigation it helps to remove silt for easy navigation

Ukai Project On Tapti in Gujarat

Mahi Project On Mahi in Gujarat

Salal Project On Chenab in J & K

Mata Tila Multipurpose Project On Betwa in U.P & M.P

Thein Project On Ravi, Punjab

Pong Dam On Beos, Punjab

The Climate of India

India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced by the presence of the Himalayas in the north as
they block the cold the cold air masses from Central Asia. It is because of them only that the monsoons have a
watershed in India.

• The Tropic of Cancer divides India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely, the northern zone and the
southern zone. The warm temperate or the subtropical climate of the northern zone gives it cold winter seasons
and the hot summer seasons.
• The southern tropical climatic zone is warmer than the north and does not have a clear-cut winter season.
• The northern zone does not have the midday sun vertically overhead during any part of the year; the southern
zone has the midday sun almost vertically overhead at least twice every year.

Climate Seasons in India

• In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, resulting from the monsoons which occur mainly due to the
differential heating of land and movement of the sun’s vertical rays.

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• The vertical rays of the sun advance towards Tropic of Cancer from mid-March, due to which hot and dry weather
arrives. As temperatures rise over most of northern and Central India, a vast trough of low pressure is created.
The highest temperature experienced in South is in April while in North it is in May and June.

• This part of the year is marked by a dry spell and the north-western parts of the country experience hot, dry
winds, called loo. In this period, the country also experience storms / dust storms at various places.

1. Tornado like dust storms in Punjab and Haryana, called ‘Andhis’ in UP and ‘Kalbaisakhis’ in West Bengal.
They involve strong convectional movements causing some precipitation.
2. The ‘Norwesters’ originate over the Chhotanagpur Plateau and blow in the north-east direction which brings
about 50 cm of rainfall in Assam and about 10 cm rainfall in West Bengal and Orissa. This rainfall is very
useful for Assam tea and spring rice crops of West Bengal.
3. Similarly, ‘Cherry Blossoms’ are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee plantation and
‘Mango showers’ in elsewhere South India, which are beneficial to mango crops.

• This weather is followed by hot, wet weather from June to September. In May, the south – west monsoon sets in.
The normal dates of onset of the monsoon are May 20 in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, June 3 in the
Konkan, June 15 in Kolkata and June 29 in Delhi.

• The south – west monsoon enters the country in two currents, one blowing over the Bay of Bengal and the other
over the Arabian Sea. This monsoon causes rainfall over most of the country (except Tamil Nadu and Thar Desert
area). The S.W monsoon entering from Western Ghats causes heavy rainfall over Kerala coast, but Tamil Nadu
falls on the leeward side. In the Thar area, the winds blow parallel to the Aravallis and do not cause rain. The Bay
of Bengal current causes heavy rainfall in the north east parts of the country and a part of it turns west along the
Himalayas over the Indo-Gangetic plains causing rainfall in this region. But the Bay of Bengal current, by the time
it reaches W Rajasthan, runs out of moisture.

• The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region enters the Khasi valley in Meghalaya and gets
entrapped in it due to funnel shape of the region. It strikes Cherrapunji in a perpendicular direction causing
heavies rainfall in Mawsinram (Approx. 1400 cm).

• From mid-Sept to mid-Dec, the monsoon retreats. As the sun’s vertical rays start shifting towards the Tropic of
Capricorn, the low pressure area starts moving south and winds finally start blowing from land to sea. This is
called north-east monsoon. The withdrawal of monsoon is a much more gradual process than its onset. It causes
rainfall in Tamil Nadu as the winds pick some moisture from Bay of Bengal. This explains the phenomenon why
Tamil Nadu remains dry when the entire country receives rain and why it gets rain when practically the entire
country is dry.

• The cold and dry weather starts in early December. In this, the average temperature in south is 24-25c, and while
in the north is 10-15c. In the latter part of December and in January, the dry spell is broken by the westerly
depressions (temperate cyclones) from Mediterranean Sea, which causes some rain in north-west India.

• Almost all the precipitation in India is caused by the monsoons and it is primarily orographic in nature. Cyclonic
storms provide only a little rain, mainly in the north.

Climatic Regions of India

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India can be divided into a number of climatic regions.

• Tropical Rain Forests in India : Found in the west coastal plains, the Western Ghats and parts of Assam.
Characterized by high temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall, though seasonal, is heavy- about 200 cm
annually during May-November.

• Tropical Savanna Climate : In most of the peninsula region except the semi-arid zone in the leeward side of the
Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry weather throughout winter and early summer and high temperature
(above 18.2c); annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in the west to 150 cm in the east.

• Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate : It prevails in the rain-shadow belt running southward from
Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. It is
characterized by low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high temperature between 20 and 30.

• Tropical and Subtropical Steppes : Large areas in Punjab, Haryana and Kutch region. Temperature varies from
12-35c. The maximum temperature reaches up to 49c. The annual rainfall, varying from 30.5-63.5 cm, is also
highly erratic.

• Tropical desert : This climate extends over the western parts of Banner, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of
Rajasthan and parts of Kutch. It is characterized by scanty rainfall (30.5 cm), which is highly erratic. Rains are
mostly in the form of cloud-burst. Mean monthly temperature is uniformly high (about 35c).

• Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters : This area includes south of the Himalayas, east of the tropical
and subtropical steppes and north of tropical savannah. Winters are mild to severe while summers are extremely
hot. The annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than 254 cm, most of it received during the south west
monsoon season.
• Mountain Climate : Such type of climate is seen in mountainous regions which rise above 6,000 m or more such
as the Himalayas and the Karakoram Range.

Soils in India

Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major groups:

Alluvial Soil in India

• They are by far the largest and the most important soil group of India. They are composed of sediments deposited
by rivers and the waves. Their chemical composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world. Usually
deficient in nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed).
• Occupy the plains (from Punjab to Assam) and also occur in the valleys of Narmada and Tapti in M.P. & Gujarat,
Mahanadi in the MP and Orissa, Godawari in A.R and Cauvery in T.N.
• Can be divided into Khadar (new) and Bhangar (older, more clayey and kankary) alluvium.

Black Soil in India

• Also called Regur and is ideal for cotton crop. These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava
spread over large areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of years ago.

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• They are black due to compounds of iron and aluminium (also because of titaniferous magnetite).

• Mainly found in Deccan Plateau – Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.

• Apart from cotton cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing cereals, oilseeds, citrus fruits and
vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane.

• They have high moisture retention level.

• Lack in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter.

Red Soil in India

• They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks like granites and gneisses and from
rock types rich in minerals such as iron and magnesium. The term ‘red soil’ is due to the wide diffusion of iron
oxides through the materials of the soil.

• Covers almost the whole of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, S.E. Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh, parts of
Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand.

• Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in potash.

• Suitable for rice, millets, tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and potatoes at higher
elevations).

Laterite Soil in India

• Found in typical monsoon conditions – under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet
and dry periods. The alterations of wet and dry season leads to the leaching away of siliceous matter and lime of
the rocks and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.

• Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, West
Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, etc.

• Poor in nitrogen and minerals.

• Best for tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut and suitable for rice and millet cultivation if manured.

Forest and Mountain Soils

• Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests. The formation of these soils is mainly governed
by the characteristic deposition of organic matter derived from forest growth.

• In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins, depressions and less steeply inclined
slopes. Apart from the Himalayan region, the forest soils occur in higher hills in south and the peninsular region.

• Very rich in humus but are deficient in Potash, phosphorous and lime and needs fertilizers.

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• Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.

Arid and Desert Soils

• A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana lying
between the Indus and the Aravallis receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall is affected by desert conditions.

• This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth.

• The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils. Nitrogen is originally low but its
deficiency is made up to some extent by the availability of nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Thus the presence of
phosphates and nitrates make them fertile soils wherever moisture is available.

• The changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area are a living example of the utility
of the desert soils.

Saline and Alkaline Soils

• In the drier parts of Bihar, Up Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, are the salt-impregnated or alkaline
soils. Known by different names: Reh, kallar, USAR, etc.

• Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals, which percolates in the sub-soils of the
plains.

• The accumulation of salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.

Peaty and Marshy Soils

• Originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic matter in the soil. They
contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10 – 40% of organic matter.

• Peaty soils are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is called Kari.

• Marshy soils, high in vegetable matter, are found in northern Bihar, coastal parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West
Bengal and parts of UP

Soil Erosion in India

• Acute in hilly and dry regions

• Causes – depletion of forests, wrong use of lands such as cultivation on very steep slopes, cattle rearing. It
ultimately leads to Badland Topography.

• Remedy – Afforestation, contour cultivation etc.

Natural Vegetation in India

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Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests

In areas over 250cm rainfall. In Western Ghats, hilly areas in N.E. India and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Trees are rosewood, shisham, ebony, ironwood, etc.

Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests

• In areas having rainfall between 100 – 200 cm. In peninsular region and along the foothills of Himalayas in
Shivaliks, Bhabhar and Tarai.
• The trees of these forests drop their leaves for about 6-8 weeks during the spring and early summer when
sufficient moisture isn’t available.
• Trees are teak, sal, bamboo, sandalwood, rosewood, etc.

Thorn Forests

• In areas having rainfall between 25 and 80cm. In arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat.

• Trees are palm, acacia, etc.

Hill Forests

• In hills of S.India and the Himalayas.

• The type of trees depends upon the height of the mountain : Sal and bamboo below 1000 m; oaks, chestnuts
and other fruit trees, and chir forests between 1000 and 2000 m; pine, deodar, silver fern and spruce between
1600 and 3300 m; above 3600 m alpine forests with trees like silver firs, pines, birches, etc. Alpine forests give
way to Alpine grasslands and scrubs as we move up further.

Tidal or Mangrove Forests

• Also known as Littoral or Swamp Forests.

• Occur along the sea coast and in the estuaries of rivers, especially in Sunderbans and the Andamans.

• Most important tree is Sundari. It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction and building
purposes as well as for making boats.

Note :

• According to the National Forest Policy, the minimum desired area which is considered safe for a tropical country
like India is about 33%.

• Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forests followed by Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and
Arunachal Pradesh.

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• As per percentage of forest area to total area, first is Andaman and Nicobar Islands, followed by Mizoram,
Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and Nagaland. They are in a very comfortable position
as more than half of their area is under forests.

• Arunachal Pradesh has the highest per capita forest area.

• In Mangrove forests, West Bengal holds the first position, followed by Gujarat and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• The lowest forest percentage is in Haryana and Punjab, because of the extensive agriculture.

Biosphere Reserves in India

• The biosphere reserve program was launched by the UNESCO in 1971 under the aegis of its Man and Biosphere
(MAB) Program, to provide a global network of protected areas for conserving natural communities.

• In India, the first biosphere reserve – Nilgiri biosphere reserve – came into being in 1986. So far, 14 biosphere
reserves have been set up in the country.

Nilgiri (Western Ghats) Similipal (Orissa)

Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand) Dibru-Daikhowa (Asom)

Nokrek (Meghalaya) Dehong Dabang (Arunachal Pradesh)

Manas (Asom) Panchmarhi (MP)

Sunderbans (West Bengal) Kanchanjunga (Sikkim)

Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) Agastyamalai (Kerala)

Great Nicobar (Andaman and Nicobar Islands) Achaanak maar-Amarkantak (Madhya Pradesh)

Note :

• Out of these 14, Nilgiri, Sunderbans, Manas and Gulf of Mannar have been recognized on World Network of
Biosphere Reserves by UNESCO.

Project Tiger

• It was launched on April 1, 1973 to ensure maintenance of viable population of the tigers in India.

• There are 29 tiger reserves in the country:

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Name of Tiger Reserve State

Bandipur Karnataka

Corbett Uttarakhand

Kanha Madhya Pradesh

Manas Asom

Melghat Maharashtra

Palamau Jharkhand

Ranthambhore Rajasthan

Similipal Orissa

Sunderbans West Bengal

Periyar Kerala

Sariska Rajasthan

Buxa West Bengal

Indravati Chattisgarh

Nagariunsagar Andhra Pradesh

Namdapha Arunachal Pradesh

Dudhwa Uttar Pradesh

Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tamil Nadu

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Valmiki Bihar

Pencil Madhya Pradesh

Tadoba-Andhari Maharashtra

Bandhavgarh Madhya Pradesh

Panna Madhya Pradesh

Dampha Mizoram

Bhadra Karnataka

Pench Maharashtra

Pakhui-Nameri Arunachal Pradesh-Asom

Bori, Satpura, Pachmari Madhya Pradesh

Nagarhole Karnataka

Katarniaghat Uttar Pradesh

Nameri Asom

Kaziranga Asom

Note :

• Nagarjunasagar Tiger Reserve in AP is the largest, while Pench in Maharashtra is the smallest. Bandipur
in Karnataka was the first (1973-74), while Kaziranga is the latest (2006).

Project Elephant

• It was launched in February 1992, to assist States having wild elephants to ensure long term survival of identified
viable populations of elephants in their natural habitat.

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• There are 14 Elephant Reserves in India.

Agriculture in India

Cropping Seasons in India

Kharif Crops of India

• Sown in summers between May and July, and harvested after the rains, in September and October.

• Eg: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Groundnut, Pulses, etc.

Rabi Crops of India

• Sown at the beginning of winter and harvested before the onset of the summer season, between Feb and April.

• Eg: Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram, potatoes, etc.

Zayad Crops

• They are raised between April and June.

• E.g. : Melon, watermelon, cucumber, toris, leafy and other vegetables.

Cash Crops of India (Commercial Crops)

• Grown mainly for the market, only a small portion of the product is consumed by the farmers themselves (cotton,
sugarcane etc.)

Mineral Resources of India

Coal Resources in India

West Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulio, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling), Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih,
Kharhawadi, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Kamapura, Rampur, Palamau), Orissa (Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher, Sambal), Madbyo
Pradesh and Chhatisgarh (Rewa, Pench valley, Umaria, Korba, Sohagpur, Mand river area, Kanha valley, Betul), etc.
Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India followed by steel industry, cement industry, etc.

Manganese

Orissa, Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindawara), Karnataka(Keonjhar,
Bonai, Kalahandi), Andhra Pradesh (Kadur, Garibadi).

Copper Minerals

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Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg,
Hassan).

Mica Minerals

Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma), Bihar (Goya, Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool),
Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur).

Petroleum Resources in India

Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat, (Ankleshwar, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai High,
Bassein (south of Mumbai High), etc. Recently oil has been discovered in Cauvery basin, Krishna and Godavary basin,
Khambat basin, etc.

Iron Resources

• India possesses Haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. In Madhya Pradesh (Bailadila, Jabalpur), Goa (North
Goa), Karnataka (Bababudan hills, Chikmagalur, Hospet), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Naomundi), Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa.
• India is the fifth largest exporter of iron ore in the world. Japan is the biggest buyer accounting for about 3/4th of
India’s total exports. Major ports handling iron ore export are Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Marmagao and
Mangalore.

Bauxite Resources

Chief ore for producing aluminium. In Orissa (Kalahandi, Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir, Sambalpur), Jharkhand
(Lohardaga, Gumla), Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur, Mandla, Shahdol, Kami, Balaghat), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu.

Gold Resources in India

Karnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittor and Anantapur
districts).

Silver, Zinc & Lead

Rajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh (Mysore, Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines).

Uranium Resources in India

Jharkhand (Jaduguda), Rajasthan (Ajmer), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Karnataka (Gulbarga).

Thorium Resources in India

Kerala coast (From Monazite sand), rocks of Aravallis in Rajasthan.

Oil Refineries

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There are 19 refineries in India, 16 in public sector, one in joint sector and two in private sector. Public sector refineries
are located at Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni, Haldia, Koyali, Mathura, Kochi, Chennai, Vishakhapatnam,
Mumbai (2), Panipat, Narimanam, Numanigarh and Tatipaka. Joint sector refinery is at Mangalore. The private sector
refinery of Reliance Limited is at Jamnagar, Gujarat and Essar Refinery at Vadinar, Gujarat.

1. Haldia Refinery (IOC)

2. Mumbai Refinery (HPCL)
3. Panipat Refinery (IOC)
4. Vishakhapatnam Refinery (HPCL)
5. Digboi Refinery (IOC)
6. Mumbai Refinery Mahaul (BPCL)
7. Gujarat Refinery (IOC)
8. Nagapattnam Refinery (CPCL)
9. Barauni Refinery (IOC)
10. Kochi Refinery (Kochi Refineries Ltd)
11. Guwahati Refinery (IOC)
12. Numaligarh Refinery (NRL)
13. Mathura Refinery (IOC)
14. Mangalore Refinery (MRPL)
15. Bongaigaon Refinery (IOC)
16. Tatipaka Refinery (ONGC)
17. Manali Refinery (IOC)
18. Essar Refinery (Essar)
19. Jamnagar Refinery (Reliance Petroleum)

Industries in India

Cotton Textile Industry in India

Most important industry in terms of employment and production of export goods. In Maharashtra (Mumbai, Sholapur,
Pune, Kolhapur, Satara, Wardha, Hajipur), Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Vododara, Rajkot, Surat, Bhavnagar),Tamil
Nadu (Coimbatore-Manchester of South India). Tamil Nadu has the largest number of cotton textile mills in India.

Silk Textile Industry in India

The location of silk industry is governed by two factors- prevalence of sericulture practices and availability of skilled
labour. Karnataka is the leading producer, followed by West Bengal, Bihar, etc.

Woolen Textile Industries

In Punjab (Dhariwai, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Ferozpur), Maharashtra (Mumbai), UP (Kanpur, Mirzapur, Agra, Tanakpur), etc.

Jute Industries India

India manufactures the largest quantity of jute goods in the world. Mainly located in West Bengal, followed by Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, UP, MP.

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Iron and Steel Industries

Located near the sources of raw materials and fuel (coal). In Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Durgapur, Burnpur (W.B.),
Bhadrawati (Karnataka), Bokaro (Jharkhand), Rourkela (Orissa), Bhilai (Chhatisgarh), Salem (T.N.), Vishakhapatnam
(A.P.).

Aluminium Smelting in India

Located mainly near the sources of raw materials, means of transport and cheap electricity. In Hirakud, Koraput (Orissa),
Renukoot (UP), Korba (MP), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Mettur (TN), Alwaye

Copper Smelting Industry

In Khetri, Alwar, Jhunjhunu (Rajasthan), Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Agnigundala (A.P.).

Heavy Machinery Industry

In Ranchi, Vishakapatnam, Durgapur, Tiruchirapalli, Mumbai, Kami.

Machine Tools Industry

It forms the basis for the manufacturing of industrial, defence equipments, automobiles, railway engines and electrical
machinery.

In Bangalore, Pinjore (Haryana), Kalamassery (Kerala), Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Srinagar, Ajmer.

Heavy Electrical Equipments

Power generation equipments. In Bhopal, Tiruchirapalli, Jammu, Ramchandrapuram (Hyderabad), Hardwar, Bangalore
and Jogdishpur (UP).

Railway Equipments

Locomotives in Indian Railways: In Chittaranjan (WB), Varanasi, Jamshedpur, Bhopal. Coaches: Perambur (TN),
Kapurthala (Punjab), also at Bangalore and Kolkata.

Ship Building India

Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam, Cochin Shipyard, Mumuai (Mazgaon Dock) and Kolkata (Garden Reach
Workshop). For Indian Navy, only at Mazgaon.

Cycles India

In Mumbai, Asansol, Sonepat, Delhi, Chennai, Jalandhar and Ludhiana.

Tractors in India

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At Faridabad, Pinjore, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai.

Fertilizers in India

• The location of fertilizer industry is closely related to petro-chemicals. About 70% of the plants producing
nitrogenous fertilizers use naphtha as raw material.
• Naphtha is a by-product of oil refineries. Phosphate plants are dependent on mineral phosphate found in UP and
MP. Now natural gas based fertilizer plants are also being set up.
• The Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCL) was set up in 1961. National Fertilizer Limited (NFL) was set up in 1974.
• In Sindri (Bihar), Nangal, Trombay, Gorakhpur, Durgapur, Namrup, Cochin, Rourkela, Neyveli, Varanasi,
Vadodara, Vishakhapatinam, Kota and Kanpur.

Pharmaceuticals and Drugs

Antibiotics are prepared at Pimpri and Rishikesh. The Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited has 5 plants at
Hyderabad, Rishikesh, Chennai, Gurgaon and Muzaffarpur. A number of other units are concentrated in Mumbai, Baroda,
Delhi, Kolkata and Kanpur.

Pesticides in India

Delhi and Alwaye

Sugar Industry

JP, Maharashtra, AP, TN, Karnataka and Bihar.

Aircraft Industry in India

Hindustan Aeronautics India Ltd. was formed by merging two aircraft factories at Bangalore and Kanpur. Four other
factories are at Nasik, Hyderabad, Koraput (Orissa), Lucknow.

Rubber Industry in India

Bareilly (UP), Baroda (Gujarat Synthetic Rubber Units, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Amritsar-Reclaimed Rubber Units.

Nuclear Power Stations in India

Tarapur Maharastra

Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu, called Indra Gandhi Nuclear Power Station

Narora UP

Rawatbhata Kota, Rajasthan

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Kaiga Karnataka

Kakrapara Gujarat

Kundnkulam (TN) Under construction with the assistance of Russia.

Major Thermal Power Plants

Neyveli Tamil Nadu

Korba Chhatisgarh

Obra UP

Harduaganj UP

Rihand UP

Singrauli UP

Parichha UP

Talcher Orissa

Farakka West Bengal

Satpura MP

Ramagundam AP

Vindhyanchal MP

Railways in India

Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and the fourth largest in the world. It is the biggest departmental public
undertaking in the country.

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• The first train ran in India between Bombay and Thane, a stretch of 34 km. on April 16 1853.
• The Indian Railways celebrated its 150th anniversary on April 16, 2003. To commemorate the occasion, 16
January – Shatabadi inter – city express trains were announced to be inducted.
• The second train ran between Howrah and Hooghly in 1854.
• The headquarters of Indian Railway is in New Delhi.
• The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Queen’. It was introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Poona.
• Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified system in the world after Russia.
• The fastest train in India is the Shatabadi Express whose maximum speed is 140 km/hr.
• The total route covered is approx 63,000 km.
• The total number of railway stations in India is 7,100.
• The longest railway platform in India is at Kharagpur (W.B.).
• Mumbai is the destination where maximum number of trains in India head for.
• The longest train route is of ‘Himsagar Express’ from Jammu Tavi to Kanyakumari. It covers a distance of 3,726
km and passes through ten states.
• The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata (W.Bengal) on October 24, 1984. The two stations connected were
Dumdum and Belgachhia.
• The Indian Railways operate in three different gauges :

1. Broad Gauge Railway (Distance between rails is 1.67 m).

2. Metre Gauge Railways (Distance between rails is 1.00 m).
3. Narrow Gauge Railways India (Distance between rails is 0.762 or 0.610 m).

The broad gauge accounts for nearly 50% route followed by metre gauge (43%) and the remaining by narrow gauge.

Indian railways are divided into 16 zones, headed by a General Manager who is responsible to the Railway Board, for all
matters.

Railway Zones Head Quarters

Central Mumbai VT

Eastern Kolkata

Northern New Delhi

North Eastern Gorakhpur

North-East Frontier Maligaon-Guwahati

Southern Chennai

South Central Secunderabad

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South Eastern Kolkata

Western Mumbai Churchgate

East Coast Bhubaneshwar

East Central Hajipur

North Central Allahabad

North Western Jaipur

South Western Bangalore (Hubli)

West Central Jabalpur

South-East Central Bilaspur

• Northern Railway (NR) is the largest railway zone having length of 10,995 km.

• North – East Frontier (NEF) is the smallest railway zone having just 3,860 km route length.

• Konkan Railways India : It is a project to shorten the distance between Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka. The
total route length is 786 km between Apta (Maharashtra) and Mangalore (Karnataka).

Railway Manufacturing Units :

• Chittaranjan Locomotive Works : Located in Chittaranjan (W.B) and manufactures electric engines.

• Diesel Locomotive Works : Located in Varanasi (U.P) and manufactures diesel engines.

• Integral Coach Factory in India : Located in Perambur (TN) and manufactures rail coaches.

• Wheel and Axle Plant : Locatedat Yalahaka (Bangalore, Karnataka) and manufactures wheels and axles.

• Diesel Component Works : Locatedat Patiala (Punjab) and manufactures components of diesel engines.

• Rail Coach Factory in India : Located at Kapurthala (Punjab) and manufactures rail coaches.

Road Transport in India

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India’s road network is one of the largest in the world. The total length of roads is more than 33 lakh km.

• For the purpose of maintenance and construction, roads are classified into National Highways, State Highways,
District Highways, Village Roads, Border Roads, etc.
• National highways are maintained by the Central Government, State highways by the respective state
government while District highways by the respective District Board. Border roads and International highways are
also die responsibility of Central Government.
• The present length of the National Highways in India is approx. 45,000 km. They constitute only 2% of the total
road length and carries nearly 40% of the road traffic.

Some of the Important National Highways are:

• NH 1: New Delhi – Ambala – Jalandhar – Amritsar.

• NH 2: Delhi – Mathura – Agara – Kanpur – Allahabad – Varanasi – Kolkata.
• NH 3: Agra – Gwalior – Nasik – Mumbai
• NH 4: Thane and Chennai via Pune and Belgaun.
• NH 5: Kolkata – Chennai
• NH 6: Kolkata – Dhule
• NH 7: Varanasi – Kanyakumari
• NH 8: Delhi – Mumbai (via Jaipur, Baroda and Ahmedabad)
• NH 9: Mumbai – Vijaywada
• NH 10: Delhi – Fazilka
• NH 11: Agra – Bikaner
• NH 12: Jabalpur – Jaipur
• NH 24: Delhi – Lucknow
• NH 27: Allahabad – Varanasi
• NH 28: Barauni – Lucknow
• NH 29: Gorakhpur – Varanasi
• NH 56: Lucknow – Varanasi
• NH – 7 is the longest highway of India.

Note:

The Golden Quadrilateral Project connecting the four Metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata
covering a total distance of 5846 km is currently being processed. It is the first phase of the National Highways
Development Project (NHDP). Total cost of the project is Rs 300 billion, funded largely by the government’s
special petroleum product tax revenues and government borrowing. As of June ’08, 5669 km of the intended road
has been 4-laned.

• The North South – East West Corridor (NS-EW) is the largest ongoing expressway project in India. It is the
second phase of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP), and consists of building 7300 kilometers of
four/six lane expressways connecting Srinagar, Kanyakumari, Porbandar and Silchar. The final completion date of
the project has been set as December 2009.

• Maharashtra has the maximum length of surfaced roads in India.

Air Transport in India

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J.R.D. Tata was the first person to make a solo flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931.

1. In 1935, the ‘Tata Air Lines’ started its operation between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937 between
Mumbai and Delhi.
2. In 1953, all the private Airline companies were nationalised and Indian Airlines and Air India came into existence.
3. Air India administers international flights while Indian Airlines caters to the domestic circuit.
4. Indian Airlines is now known by the name of ‘Indian’.
5. Vayudoot Limited started in 1981 as a private air carrier and later on it merged with Indian Airlines.
6. Pawan Hans Limited operates helicopter support services to oil sector, hill stations and remote areas.
7. A number of private airlines also operates is India. They are Jet Airways, Sahara, etc.
8. The Civil Aviation Centre in Fursatgarh near Allahabad provided, among other things, ground
training to the pilots.

Airports in India :

There are 12 International Airports in India :

• Begumpet Airport, Hyderabad

• Calicut International Airport, Calicut
• Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Mumbai
• Chennai International Airport, Chennai
• HAL Airport, Bangalore
• Goa Airport in Vasco da Gama city, Goa
• Lokpriya Gopinath Bordolio International Airport, Guwahati
• Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi
• Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport, Kolkata
• Rja Sansi International Airport, Amritsar
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport, Ahmedabad
• Thiruvananathapuram International Airport, Thiruvananathapuram

The Indira Gandhi International Airport and the Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport handle more than half of the air
traffic in South Asia. Besides these airports several other domestic airports are located in India.

In total, there are more than 334 civilian airports in India – 238 with paved runways and 108 with unpaved runways.

Water Transport in India

Most efficient, least costly and environment friendly means of transportation. The total length of navigable waterways in
Indian comprising rivers, canals, backwaters, etc, is 14,500 km out of which 3700 km is navigable by mechanised boats.

The government has recognised the following National Waterways of India:

• NW 1: Allahabad to Haldia – 1,629 km

• NW 2: Sadia to Dhubari (on Brahmaputra river) – 819 km
• NW 3: Kollam to Kottapuram – 186 km
• NW 4: Kakinada to Marakkanam (Along Godawari and Krishna river) – 1,100 km

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Ports in India

• The Waterways Authority in India divides Indian ports into three categories, major, minor and intermediate.
• India has about 190 ports in all, with 12 major and the rest intermediate and minor.
• The 12 Major Ports are:

Port State

Kolkata (including Haldia) West Bengal

Paradip Orissa

Vishakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh

Chennai Tamil Nadu

Ennore Tamil Nadu

Tuticorin Tamil Nadu

Cochin Kerala

New Mangalore Karnataka

Mormugao Goa

Jawaharlal Nehru Maharashtra

Mumbai Maharashtra

Kandla Gujarat

All these ports are administered by the respective Port Trusts, except the newly constructed Ennore port which is under
the Ennore Port Ltd. Company.

Salient Features :

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• Kolkata Port (including Haldia) : Kolkata is a riverine port, located about 128 km from the Bay of Bengal on the
banks of river Hooghly. Haldia was developed because excessive silting prevented the entry of large marine
vessels in Kolkata.

• Paradip Port : Located on the Orissa coast along the Bay of Bengal. India exports raw iron to Japan from here.

• Vishakhapatnam Port : The deepest port, located in Andhra Pradesh. It serves the Bhilai and Rourkela steel
plants.

• Chennai Port : Oldest artificial harbour. This port ranks only second after Mumbai in terms of the traffic handling
capacity.

• Ennore Port : Declared a major port in 2001. It is the first port with corporate participation. Provided with all the
modern facilities for handling the thermal coal required for Tamil Nadu Electricity Board Power Station.

• Tuticorin Port : It came into existence during the reign of Pandya kings. It has an artificial deep sea harbour.

• Cochin Port : A fine natural harbour located on Kerala coast. Handles the export of tea, cofee and spices and
import of petroleum and fertilisers.

• New Mangalore Port : The ‘Gateway of Karnataka’. Handles the export of iron-ore of Kudremukh.

• Marmugao Port : It has a naval base. India’s leading iron-ore port.

• Mumbai Port : A natural port, India’s busiest. A new port, Nhava Sheva, is being developed near Mumbai port.

• Jawaharlal Nehru Port : Occupies the 5th position in the world’s faster growing ports.

• Kandla Port : Called the ‘offspring of partition’ as it was developed after the partition as a substitute of Karachi
port. It is a tidal port and a free trade zone located in the Rann of Kachchh.

Nick Names of Important Indian Places

Nick Name Place

Golden City Amritsar

Manchester of India Ahmedabad

City of Seven Islands Mumbai

Queen of Arabian Sea Cochin

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Nick Name Place

Space City Bangalore

Garden City of India Bangalore

Silicon Valley of India Bangalore

Electronic City of India Bangalore

Pink City Jaipur

Gateway of India Mumbai

Twin City Hyderabad - Sikandarabad

City of Festivals Madurai

Deccan Queen Pune

Nick Name Place

City of Buildings Kolkata

Dakshin Ganga Godavari

Old Ganga Godavari

Egg Bowls of Asia Andhra Pradesh

Soya Region Madhya Pradesh

Manchester of the South Coimbatore

City of Nawabs Lucknow

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Nick Name Place

Venice of the East Cochin

Sorrow of Bengal Damodar river

Sorrow of Bihar Kosi river

Blue Mountains Nilgiri

Queen of the Mountains Mussoorie (Uttarakhand)

Sacred river Ganga

Hollywood of India Mumbai

City of Castles Kolkata

State of Five Rivers Punjab

City of Weavers Panipat

City of Lakes Srinagar

Steel City of India Jamshedpur (Called Tatanagar)

City of Temples Varanasi

Manchester of the North Kanpur

City of Rallies New Delhi

Heaven of India Jammu & Kashmir

Boston of India Ahmedabad

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Nick Name Place

Garden of spices of India Kerala

Switzerland of India Kashmir

Abode of the God Prayag (Allahabad)

Pittsburg of India Jamshedpur

Important Indian Towns on Rivers

Town River

Allahabad At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna

Patna Ganga

Varanasi Ganga

Kanpur Ganga

Hardwar Ganga

Badrinath Alaknanda

Agra Yamuna

Delhi Yamuna

Mathura Yamuna

Ferozpur Satluj

Ludhiana Satluj

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Town River

Srinagar Jhelum

Lucknow Gomti

Town River

Jaunpur Gomti

Ayodhya Saryu

Bareilly Ram Ganga

Ahmedabad Sabarmati

Kota Chambal

Jabalpur Narmada

Panji Mandavi

Ujjain Kshipra

Surat Tapti

Jamshedpur Swarnarekha

Dibrugarh Brahmaputra

Guwahati Brahmaputra

Kolkata Hooghly

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Town River

Sambalpur Mahanadi

Cuttack Mahanadi

Seriranganatnam Cauvery

Hyderabad Musi

Nasik Godavari

Vijayvada Krishna

Curnool Tungabhadra

Tiruchirapalli Cauvery

Famous Hill Stations in India

Hill Stations Height From Sea Level (m) States

Gulberga 2550 J&K

Ooty (Ootacamund) 2290 Tamil Nadu

Shimla 2210 H.P

Pahalgam 2200 J&K

Darjeeling 2135 West Bengal

Kodaikanal 2120 Tamil Nadu

Lansdowne 2120 Uttarkhand

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Hill Stations Height From Sea Level (m) States

Dalhousie 2035 H.P

Mussoorie 2006 Uttarkhand

Mukteshwar 1975 Uttarkhand

Nainital 1940 Uttarkhand

Kasauli 1985 H.P

Hill Stations Height From Sea Level (m) States

Coonoor 1860 Tamil Nadu

Gangtok 1850 Sikkim

Manali 1830 H.P

Ranikhet 1830 Uttarkhand

Ranchi 1800 Jharkhand

Srinagar 1770 J&K

Almora 1650 Uttarakhand

Shillang 1500 Maghalaya

Mahabaleshwar 1370 Maharashtra

Kalimpong 1250 West Bengal

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Hill Stations Height From Sea Level (m) States

Mt. Abu 1220 Rajastan

Kullu Valley 1200 H.P

Panchgani 1200 Maharastra

Mannar 1160 Kerala

Panchmarhi 1065 M.P

Periyar 915 Kerala

Mandi 709 H.P

Lonawala 620 Maharastra

Khandala 620 Maharastra

Tribal Groups of India

Tribal Groups Found in

Abhors North-East

Adivasis MP (Bastar distt.)

Angami Manipur

Apatamis Arunachal Pradesh

Badagas Tamil Nadu

Baigas M.P

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Tribal Groups Found in

Bakkarwals J&K

Bhils M.P & Rajastan

Bhotias Uttarakhand

Bhuia M.P

Birhors M.P and Bihar

Chang North - East

Chenchus A.P and Orissa

Tribal Groups Found in

Chutia Assam

Gaddis Himachal Pradesh

Gallong North-East

Garos Assam and Meghalaya

Gonds M.P and Bihar

Gujlars J & K and H.P

Irula Tamil Nadu

Jaintias Meghalaya

Jarawas Little Andamans

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Tribal Groups Found in

Kanikar Tamil Nadu

Katkari M.P

Kharia M.P

Khond M.P

Khas U.P

Khasis Assam and Meghalaya

Khonds Orissa

Kol M.P

Kolam A.P

Kotas Tamil Nadu

Kuki Manipur

Lahaulas Himachal Pradesh

Lepchas Sikkim

Lushai Tripura

Murias M.P

Minas Rajastan

Moplahs Kerala

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Tribal Groups Found in

Mundas Bihar

Murias M.P

Nishi North - East

Nagas Nagaland

Oarons Bihar and Orissa

Onges Andaman & Nicobar

Pho North - East

Santhals WB, Orissa and Bihar

Sangtam North-East

Sema Nagaland

Sentinelese Andaman & Nicobar

Shompens Andaman & Nicobar

Todas Tamil Nadu

Uralis Kerala

Wancho North - East

Warlis Maharashtra

Indian Towns Associated with Industries

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Town State Industries

Ahmedabad Gujarat Cotton Textiles

Agra U.P Leather, Marble, Carpet

Aligarh U.P Locks, Cutlery

Ankleshwar Gujarat Oil Fields

Ambernath Maharashtra Machine Tools

Amritsar Punjab Woolen Clothes

Anand Gujarat Milk and its Products

Alwaye Kerala Fertilizer, Monazite Factory

Ambala Haryana Scientific Instruments

Bokaro Jharkhand Steel Plant

Bangalore Karnataka Telephones, Aircrafts, Motors, Cotton Textiles, Toys

Batanagar West Bengal Shoes

Bareilly U.P Resin Industries, Match Factory

Town State Industries

Bhilai Chhattisgarh Steel Plant

Barauni Bihar Chemical Fertilizer

Burnpur West Bengal Steel Plant

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Town State Industries

Bhurkunda Jharkhand Glass Industries

Bhagalpur Bihar Silk industries

Bhandara Maharashtra Explosives

Bhadravati Karnataka Iron & Steel

Bongaigaon Assam Petroleum

Bhadoi U.P Carpets

Churk MP Cement

Cyberabad Andhra Pradesh Electronics, Computers, Information technology

Chitranjan West Bengal Locomotive

Kolkata West Bengal Jute, Leather, Electric goods

Cochin Kerala Ship building, coconut oil, rubber

Calicut Kerala Coffee, coconut

Coimbatore Tamil Nadu Cotton industries

Dhariwal Punjab Woolen clothes

Durgapur West Bengal Steel

Digboi Assam Petroleum

Delhi Delhi Textiles, Electronics, D.D.T

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Town State Industries

Dalmianagar Bihar Cement

Darjeeling W. Bengal Tea

Dindigul Tamil Nadu Cigar, Tobacco

Frozabad M.P Bangle works

Guntur Andhra Pradesh Cotton industries

Gwalior Madhya Pradesh Pottery, Tobacco

Gomia Jharkhand Explosives

Hardwar Uttarakhand Heavy electricals

Hatia Jharkhand Heavy Engineering Corporation

Haldia W. Bengal Chemical fertilizer

Hazira Gujarat Artificial Rayon

Jamshedpur Jharkhand Iron & Steel, Locomotives, Railway coaches

Jallundhur Punjab Surgical goods and sports articles

Jaipur Rajasthan Cloth Printing, Brass

Jharia Jharkhand Coal mines

Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh Bidi industry

Jainakot Jammu & Kashmir H.M.T watch

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Town State Industries

Japla Jharkhand Cement

Kanpur U.P Cotton and Woollen mills, Leather, Sugar

Katni M.P Cement

Korba Chattisgarh Aluminium factory, Thermal plant

Koyna Maharashtra Aluminium factory

Koyali Gujarat Petrochemical industries

Kolar Karnataka Gold mining centre

Kota Rajasthan Atomic power plant

Kanchipuram Tamil Nadu Silk clothes

Karnal Haryana Dairy product

Kandla Gujarat Chemical fertiliser, famous port

Khetri Rajasthan Copper industries

Ludhiana Punjab Hosiery

Lucknow U.P Embroidery work, Chicken work

Chennai Tamil Nadu Leather, cigarette, Integral coach factory

Madurai Tamil Nadu Cotton and Silk Weaving

Mirzapur U.P Carpet, Pottery, Brass industries

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Town State Industries

Muradabad UP Brassware, cutlery

Mathura U.P Oil refinery

Mysore Karnataka Sandalwood oil, Silk goods

Meerut U.P Publication work, Sports goods, Scissors making

Mumbai Maharashtra Cinema industries, Cotton textiles

Modinagar U.P Nylon thread

Moorie Jharkhand Aluminium

Majhagaon Maharashtra Ship building

Nagpur Maharashtra Cotton mills, Oranges

Nepanagar Madhya Pradesh Newsprint

Nasik Maharashtra Security Printing Press

Neyveli Tamil Nadu Lignite industries

Nunamati Assam Oil refineries

Narora U.P Atomic Power Plant

Nangal Punjab Fertilisers

Panna M.P Diamond mining

Pinjore Haryana Hindustan Machines Tools

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Town State Industries

Perambur Tamil Nadu Integral coach factory

Pimpri Maharashtra Penicillin factory

Raniganj W. Bengal Coal mining

Rourkela Orissa Steel plant, Chemical fertiliser

Rana Pratap Sagar Rajasthan Hydro Power Plant

Renukoote U.P Aluminium Plant

Roopnarayanpur W. Bengal Cables

Rishikesh Uttarakhand Antibiotic Plant

Saharanpur U.P Cigarette factory, News print

Sindri Jharkhand Chemical fertilizers

Srinagar Jammu & Kashmir Woolen shawls, Silk, Woodwork

Surat Gujarat Cotton textiles, Diamond Cutting

Surajpur Haryana Cement factory

Suratgarh Rajasthan Agriculture implements

Singhbhum Jharkhand Copper, Iron

Singreni Andhra Pradesh Cool mining

Salem Tamil Nadu Iron and Steel

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Town State Industries

Samastipur Bihar Jute, Paper, Tobacco, Sugar

Tarapur Maharashtra Atomic Power Plant

Titagarh W. Bengal Paper & Jute

Thiruvananthapuram Kerala Coir matting

Trombay Maharashtra Oil refinery

Tiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu Cigar

Tirupati Andhra Pradesh Scooter

Tanjore Tamil Nadu Silk clothes

Thumba Kerala Rocket launching Station

Vijaypur M.P Fertilizers

Viiaynagar Karnataka Steel Plant

Vishakhapatnam A.P Ship building, Iron and Steel, Oil refinery

Varanasi U.P Rail Engines and Saari industries

Worli Maharashtra Baby food

Zainkot J&K HMT Watches

Largest Longest Highest and Smallest in India

Longest River Ganges

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Longest River Ganges

The Longest Tributary River of India Yamuna

The Longest River of the South Godavari

Highest Mountain Peak Godwin Austin (K2)

Largest Lake (Fresh Water) Wular Lake (Kashmir)

Highest Dam Bhakra Dam (Punjab)

Largest Mosque Jama Masjid, Delhi

Longest Road Grand Trunk Road

State with Longest Coastline Gujarat

Longest Railway Route From Jammu to Kanyakumari

Longest Tunnel Jawahar tunnel (Jammu & Kashmir)

Longest National Highway NH - 7 which runs from Varanasi to Kanyakumari

Longest Dam Hirakud Dam (Orissa)

Longest River Bridge Mahatma Gandhi Setu, Patna

Longest River Ganges

Largest Populated City Mumbai (1.60 crore)

Largest Museum National Museum, Kolkata

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Longest River Ganges

Largest Delta Sunderban Delta, W. Bengal

Largest Dome Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur (Karnataka)

Largest Zoo Zoological Gardens, Alipur, Kolkata

Largest Man - made Lake Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam)

Largest Desert Thar (Rajasthan)

Highest Tower Pitampura Tower, Delhi

Smallest State (Area) Goa

Smallest State (Population) Sikim

Highest Waterfall Gersoppa waterfall (Karnataka)

Longest Electric Railway Line From Delhi to Kolkata via Patna

Densest Populated State West Bengal

Largest Cave Temple Kailash temple, Ellora (Maharashtra)

Largest Animal Fair Sonepur (Bihar)

Highest Gateway Buland Darwuza, Fatehpur Sikri (Agra)

Biggest Hotel Oberai-Sheraton (Mumbai)

Largest State (Area) Rajasthan

Largest State (Population) Uttar Pradesh

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Longest River Ganges

Place of Heaviest Rainfall Mausinram (Meghalaya)

Largest Corridor Rameshwaram temple corridor (Tamil Nadu)

Largest Cantilever Span Bridge Howrah Bridge (Kolkata)

Largest Forest State Madhya Pradesh

Highest Straight Gravity Dam Bhakra Dam

Longest Railway Platform Kharagpur (W. Bengal)

Largest Stadium Salt Lake (Yuva Bharti), Kolkata

Largest Port Mumbai

Highest Lake Devatal (Garhwal)

Largest Lake (Saline Water) Chilka Lake, Orissa

Highest Award Bharat Ratna

Highest Gallantry Award Paramveer Chakra

Largest Gurudwara Golden Temple, Amritsar

Deepest River Valley Bhagirathi & Alaknanda

State with Longest Coastline of South India Andhra Pradesh

Longest River which forms estuary Narmada

Largest Church Saint Cathedral (Goa)

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Longest River Ganges

Longest Beach Marina Beach, Chennai

Highest Battle Field Siachin Glacier

Highest Airport Leh (Laddakh)

Largest River Island Majuli (Brahmaputra River, Assam)

Largest Planetarium Birla Planetarium (Kolkata)

Important Monuments in India

Name Place Built by

Ajanta - Ellora Caves Aurangabad (Mah.) Gupta rulers

Aram Bagh Agra (UP) Babur

Agra Fort Agra (UP) Akbar

Akbar's Mausoleum Sikandra (UP) Akbar

Itmod - ud - daula Fort Agra (UP) Noorjahan

Anand Bhawan Allahabad (UP) Motilal Nehru

Bada Imambara Lucknow (UP) Asaf-ud-daula

Bharatpur Fort Bharatpur (Raj.) Raja Surajmal Singh

Bibi Ka Maqbara Aurangabad (Mah.) Aurongzeb

Char - Minor Hyderabad (AP) Quli Qutub Shah

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Name Place Built by

Charar - e - Sharif Jammu & Kashmir Zainul Abedin

Chhota Imambara Lucknow (UP) Muhammad Ali Shah

Name Place Built by

Dargah Ajmer Sharif Ajmer (Raj.) Sultan Shyasuddin

Dilwara's Jain Temple Mount Abu (Raj.) Siddharaja

Deewan - e - Khas Agra Fort (UP) Shahjahan

Adhai Din Ka Jhopra Ajmer (Raj.) Qutubuddin Aibak

Elephanfa's cave Mumbai (Mah.) Rashtrakuta rulers

Fatehpur Sikri Agra (UP) Akbar

Ferozshah Kotla Delhi Ferozshah Tughlaq

Golghar Patna (Bih.) British Government

Gateway of India Mumbai (Mah.) British Government

Hauz Khas Delhi Alauddin Khilji

Hawa Mahal Jaipur (Raj.) Maharaja Pratap Singh

Humayun's Tomb Delhi Hymayun's wife

Jama Masjid Agra (UP) Shahjahan

Jama Masjid Delhi Shahjahan

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Name Place Built by

Jagannath Temple Puri (Ori.) Anantvarmun Ganga

Jantar - Mantar Delhi Sawai Jai Singh

Jaigarh Fort Jaipur (Raj.) Sawai Jai Singh

Jim Corbett Park Nainital (Uttar.) Sir Malcom Hqilley

Jodhpur Fort Jodhpur (Raj.) Rao Jodhoji

Kanheri's Fort Mumbai (Mah.) Buddhists

Khirki Masjid Delhi Ghyasuddin Tughlaq

Lai Bagh Bangalore (Kar.) Hyder Ali

Lakshmi Narayan Temple Delhi Birla Family

Makka Masjid Hyderabad (AP) Quli Qutub Shah

Moti Masjid Agra Fort (UP) Shahjahan

Moti Masjid Delhi Fort Aurangzeb

Nahargarh Fort Jaipur (Raj.) Sawai Jai Singh

Nishat Garden Srinagar (J & K) Asaf Ali

Parana Qila Delhi Shershah Suri

Pathar Ki Masjid Patna (Bih.) Pervez Shah

President House Delhi British Government

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Name Place Built by

Qutub Minor Delhi Qutubuddin Aibak

Red Fort Delhi Shahjahan

Safdar Jung Tomb Delhi Shuja-ud-daula

Sabarmati Ashram Ahmadabad (Guj.) Mahatma Gandhi

Shantiniketan West Bengal Rabindra Nath Tagore

Shish Mahal Agra (UP) Shahjahan

Shalimar Garden Srinagar (J & K) Jahangir

Shershah's Tomb Sasaram (Bih.) Shershah's son

Saint George Fort Chennai (TN) East India Company

Sati Burj Mathura (UP) Raja Bhagwan Das

Sun Temple Konark (Ori.) Narsimhadeva

Swarna Mandir (Golden Temple) Amritsar (Pun.) Guru Ramdas

Taj Mahal Agra (UP) Shahjahan

Vellure Math Kolkata (WB) Swami Vivekanand

Victoria Memorial Kolkata (WB) British Government

Vishnupad Temple Gaya (Bih.) Rani Ahiliabai

Viiaya Stambha Chittorgarh (Raj.) Maharana Kumbha

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States in India

India, a union of states, is a Sovereign, Secular, Democratic Republic with a Parliamentary system of Government.

• The President is the constitutional head of Executive of the Union. In the states, the Governor, as the
representative of the President, is the head of Executive.
• The system of government in states closely resembles that of the Union. There are 28 states and 7 Union
territories in the country. Union Territories are administered by the President through an Administrator appointed
by him.
• From the largest to the smallest, each State / UT of India has a unique demography, history and culture, dress,
festivals, language etc.

List of States in India

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Asom or Assam

Bihar Chattisgarh Goa

Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh

Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnatatka

Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

Manipur Megalaya Mizoram

Nagaland Orissa Punjab

Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu

Tripura Uttarkhand Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

Union Territories of India

Andaman & Nicobar Islands India

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Capital Port Blair

Area 8.249 sq km

Population 356,152

Sex Ratio 846

Growth Rate 26.94%

Literacy 81.30%

Districts 2

Languages Hindi, Nicobarese, Bengali, Malayalam, Tamil, Telegu

• Andamans is a group of 204 islands, while Nicobars is a group of 19 islands. Out of these only 36 islands in
Andamans and 12 islands in Nicobars are inhabited.
• India’s southern-most location, Indira Point, is located in Nicobars only.
• These islands are mostly inhabited by tribals. Important tribes are the Great Andamanese, Onge, Jarawas and
Sentinalese in Andamans and Nicobarese and Shompens in Nicobars.
• Tourism and agriculture is the mainstay of economy.
• Mangrove forests are found in abundance in these islands.

Chandigarh in India

Capital Chandigarh

Area 114 sq. km

Population 900,914

Sex Ratio 773

Growth Rate 40.33%

Literacy 81.94%

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Capital Chandigarh

Languages Hindi, Punjabi, English

• It is one of the most beautiful and well-planned places in India. It was designed by a French architect, Le
Corbusier.
• Chandigarh serves as a joint capital of Punjab and Haryana.
• Many large and small scale industries are here which give Chandigarh its revenue.

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

Capital Silvassa

Area 491 sq. km

Population 220,490

Sex Ratio 811

Growth Rate 59.20%

Literacy 57.63%

Languages Gujarati, Hindi

• It is predominantly a rural area having about 79% population of tribals.

• Forests cover about 40% of the total area.

Daman & Diu India

Capital Daman

Area 112 sq. km

Population 158,204

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Capital Daman

Sex Ratio 989

Growth Rate 55.59%

Literacy 78.18%

Districts 2

Languages Gujarati

• Agriculture and small-scale industries are the back-bone of economy.

Delhi Union Territory

Capital Delhi

Area 1,483 sq. km

Population 1,37,82,976

Sex Ratio 821

Growth Rate 46.31%

Literacy 81.67%

Districts 9

Languages Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu and English

• Delhi is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population.

• Delhi is the largest commercial centre of northern India and is the largest centre of small industries.
• Delhi has greater number of vehicles than the total vehicles of Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai put together.

Lakshadweep in India
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Capital Kavaratti

Area 32 sq. km

Population 60,595

Sex Ratio 947

Growth Rate 17.19%

Literacy 86.66%

Languages Jeseri (Dweep Bhasha) and Mahal

• Lakshadweep is group of 25 coral islands. It is the smallest Union Territory.

• Coconut is the only major crop.
• Fishing is another major activity.

Puducherry Union Territory

Capital Puducherry

Area 492 sq. km

Population 973,829

Sex Ratio 1001

Growth Rate 20.56%

Literacy 81.24%

Districts 4

Languages Tamil, Telegu, Malayalam, English, French

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• It is a former French colony, consisting of four districts, and named after the largest. In Sept 2006, the territory
changed its name from Pondicherrry to the vernacular original, Puducherry, which means, “New Village”.
• It is basically an agriculture based economy.

Sanctuaries and Parks in India

Name Location Reserves for

Achanakmar Sanctuary Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh Tiger, bear, chital, sambar, bison

Bandhavgarh National Park Shahdol, Madhya Pradesh Tiger, panther, chital, nilgai, wild bear

Bandipur Sanctuary Border of Karnataka and Tamil Elephant, tigers, panther, sambar, deer, birds
Nadu

Banarghatta Bangalore Elephant, chital, deer, gray

National Park Karnataka Partridges, green pigeon

Bhadra Sancturary Chikmagalur, Karnataka Elephant, chital, panther, sambar, wild bear

Bhimabandh Sanctuary Monghyr, Bihar Tiger, leopard, sambar, wild bear, chital, water
birds

Bori Sanctuary Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh Tiger, panther, sambar, chital, wild boar,
barking deer

Borivli National Park Mumbai Panther, sambar, langur, wild boar, chinkara

Chandraprabha Sanctuary Near Varanasi Uttar Pradesh Famous for Gir lions, chital and sambar

Corbett National Park named in memory of Jim Corbett, famous Nainital, Uttaranchal Tiger, leopards, elephants, sambar
sportsman

Name Location Reserves for

Dachigam Sanctuary Dachigam, Kashmir Kashmiri stag

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Name Location Reserves for

Datma Sanctuary Singbhum, Uttaranchal Elephants, leopard, wild bear, barking deer

Dandeli Sanctuary Dharwar, Karnataka Tiger, panther, elephant, chital, sambar, wild bear

Dudhwa National Park Lakhimpurkheri U.P. Tiger, panther, sambar, chital, nilgai, barking deer

Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary Mandsaur, M.P. Chital, sambar, chinkara, barking deer, wild birds

Garampani Sanctuary Diphu, Assam Elephant, leopard, wild buffalo, langur

Ghana Bird Sanctuary Bharatpur, Rajasthan Water birds, black-buck, chital, sambar

Gir Forest Junagarh, Gujarat India's biggest wild life sanctuary famous for Gir lions

Gautam Buddha Sanctuary Gaya, Bihar Tiger, leopard, sambar, chital, barking deer

Hazaribagh Sanctuary Hazaribagh, Jharkhand Tiger, leopard, chital, nilgai, sambar, wild cat

Intangki Sanctuary Kohima, Nagaland Elephant, gaur, tiger, panther, barking deer, wild boar

Jaldapara Sanctuary West Bengal Rhinoceros

Kawal Sanctuary Adilabad, A.P. Tiger, panther, gaur, chital, wild bear

Kaziranga National Park Jorhat, Assam Horned rhinoceros, gaur, elephant, leopard, wild buffalo

Khangchandzendra National Park Gangtok, Sikkim Snow leopard, musk deer, Himalayan bear

Kinnersani Sanctuary Khamrsan, A.P. Tiger, panther, gaur, chital, sambar, nilgai

Kolleru Pelicanary Elluru A.P. Pelicans, painted stork

Nagerhole National Park Coorg, Karnataka Elephant, tiger, panther, sambar, chital

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Name Location Reserves for

Namdafa Sanctuary Tirap, Arunachal Pradesh Elephant, panther, sambar, tiger, chital, king cobra

Nawegaon National Park Bhandara, Maharashtra Tiger, panther, sambar, chital, nilgai

Pachmarhi Sanctuary Hoshangabad, M.P. Tiger, panther, bear, sambar, nilgai, barking deer

Pakhal Sanctuary Warangal A.P. Tiger, panther, sambar, chital, nilgai

Parambikulam Sanctuary Palghat, Kerala Tiger, leopard, gaur, elephant, nilgai, chital

Pench National Park Nagpur, Maharashtra Tiger, panther, gaur, sambar, chital, nilgai

Periyar Sanctuary Idukki, Kerala Elephant, tiger, panther, gaur, nilgai, sambar, wild bear

Ranganthittoo Bird Sanctuary Islands in Cauvery river in Karnataka Important bird sanctuary

Rohla National Park Kulu, H.P. Snow leopard, brown bear, musk deer, snow cock, snow pigeon

Sariska Sanctuary Alwar, Rajasthan Tiger, panther, sambar, nilgai, chital, chinkara

Sharaswathy Valley Sanctuary Shimoga, Karnataka Elephant, tiger, panther, sambar, gaur chital, wild bear

Shikari Devi Sanctuary Mandi, H.P. Black bear, musk deer, panther, leopard, partridge

Shivpuri National Park Shivpuri, M.P. Tiger, panther, sambar, hyena, hyena, sloth bear, nilgai

Similipal Sanctuary Mayurbhanj, Orissa Elephant, tiger, leopard, gaur, chital

Someshwara Sanctuary Canara, Karnataka Tiger, panther, wild boar, leopard

Sunderban Tiger Reserve South 24 parganas, West Bengal Tiger, deer, wild boar, crocodile, Gangetic dolphin

Important Indian Towns on Rivers

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Town River

Allahabad At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna

Patna Ganga

Varanasi Ganga

Kanpur Ganga

Hardwar Ganga

Badrinath Alaknanda

Agra Yamuna

Delhi Yamuna

Mathura Yamuna

Ferozpur Satluj

Ludhiana Satluj

Srinagar Jhelum

Town River

Lucknow Gomti

Jaunpur Gomti

Ayodhya Saryu

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Town River

Bareilly Ram Ganga

Ahmedabad Sabarmati

Kota Chambal

Jabalpur Narmada

Panji Mandavi

Ujjain Kshipra

Surat Tapti

Jamshedpur Swarnarekha

Dibrugarh Brahmaputra

Guwahati Brahmaputra

Kolkata Hooghly

Sambalpur Mahanadi

Cuttack Mahanadi

Seriranganatnam Cauvery

Hyderabad Musi

Nasik Godavari

Vijayvada Krishna

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Town River

Curnool Tungabhadra

Tiruchirapalli Cauvery

Heights of Some Important Indian Peaks

S No Peak Height in metres above mean Sea Level

1 K2 8,611

2 Kanchen Junga 8,598

3 Nanga Parvat 8,126

4 Gasher Brum 8,068

5 Broad Peak 8,047

6 Disteghil Sar 7,885

7 Masher Brum E 7,821

8 Nanda Devi 7,817

9 Masher Brum W 7,806

10 Rakaposhi 7,788

11 Kamet 7,756

12 Saser Kangri 7,672

13 Skyang Kangri 7,544

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S No Peak Height in metres above mean Sea Level

14 Sia Kangri 7,422

15 Chaukhamba (Badrinath Peak) 7,138

16 Trisul West 7,138

17 Nunkun 7,135

18 Pauhunri 7,128

19 Kangto 7,090

20 Dunagiri 7,066

Lengths of Some Important Indian Rivers

S No River Length (km)

1 Indus 3,000

2 Brahmaputra 2,900

3 Ganga 2,510

4 Godavari 1,450

5 Narmada 1,290

6 Krishna 1,290

7 Mahanadi 890

8 Cauvery 760

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Major Ports in India

SI. No. Western Coast Eastern Coast

1 Kandla (Child of Partition) Kolkata - Haldia (Riverine Port)

2 Mumbai (busiest and Biggest) Paradip (Exports Raw Iron into Japan)

3 Jawahar Lal Nehru (Fastest Growing) Vishakhapatnam (Deepest Port)

4 Marmugao (Naval base also) Chennai (Oldest and Artificial)

5 Mangalore (Exports Kudremukh Iron - ore) Ennore (Most Modern in Private Hands)

6 Cochin (Natural Harbour) Tuticorin (Southernmost)

World Geography
Cosmology Important Facts

The Universe or the Cosmos, as perceived today, consists of millions of Galaxies. A galaxy is a huge congregation of
stars held together by the forces of gravity.

• Edwin Hubble in 1924 first demonstrated existence of galaxies beyond Milky Way. He proved that these galaxies
are flying away from each other and that the farther they are, the faster they fly. This means that the universe is
expanding like a balloon that is being blown up.
• In the ancient times, the knowledge about the universe was vague and confined to mystery and religious
perceptions.
• In 140 AD, Ptolemy propounded the theory that the earth was the centre of the universe and the sun and other
heavenly bodies revolved around it. In 1543, Copernicus argued that the sun and not the earth was the centre of
the universe.
• However, he still equated the universe with the solar system. Kepler supported Copernicus but said that the sun
was the centre of the solar system and not the universe. In 1805, Hershel made it clear that the solar system was
a part of the much larger system of stars called galaxy.

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• Our galaxy is Milky Way Galaxy (or the Akash Ganga). It is spiral in shape. It consists of over a 100 billion stars
rotating and revolving about its centre. Nearest galaxy to ours is Andromeda.
• The Big Bang Theory evaluates that 15 billion years ago, cosmic matter (universe) was in an extremely
compressed state, from which expansion started by a primordial explosion. This explosion broke up the super-
dense ball and cast its fragments far out into space, where they are still traveling at thousands of miles per
second.
• It is from these speeding fragments of matter that our galaxies have been formed. The formation of galaxies and
stars has not halte