1

An analysis of combustion from

a top-lit up-draft (TLUD) cookstove

Cristian Birzer*, Paul Medwell, Josh Wilkey, Tomas West,

Matthew Higgins, Gregory MacFarlane and Matthew Read
School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide
*[email protected]

ABSTRACT: It is estimated that three billion people worldwide cook with traditional stoves. These
stoves generaly consist of three stones and an open fire, and produce harmful emissions that are
known to cause fatal illnesses. Traditional stoves claim the lives of 1.6 million people every year
and cause the death of more children under the age of five than any other single cause. In addition,
widespread land degradation and deforestation have resulted from inefficient fuel consumption of
traditional stoves. This paper presents some results from an extensive investigation into design and
experimental evalation of top-lit up-draft (TLUD) microgasifier cookstoves aimed at addressing
problems associated with traditional cooking approaches. Results indicate that geometric variations
of the stove and fuel size influence burn rates and emissions production, and must therefore be
considered for any design and implementation.

KEYWORDS: combustion emissions, cookstoves, microgasifier, biofuels

1 INTRODUCTION and agricultural waste are also used. It is known that

these stoves are inefficient for fuel consumption and
Domestic energy consumption in the developed and heat transfer. In addition, the emissions produced
developing worlds are vastly different. Currently, the can be fatal.
developed world predominantly consumes energy
produced from fossil fuels, and to a growing extent, The combustion of the biomass fuels, typically used
renewable energy sources. In contrast, the developing in traditional stoves, can result in the production
world is still largely dependent on biomass such as of harmful emissions. The types and quantities
of these emissions are dependent on fuel and the
wood, dung and agricultural waste for domestic
combustion environment, including fuel/air mixing;
energy – fuel sources that are typically burned in
temperatures; and if the combustion reaction is
traditional stoves. Emissions produced by traditional
complete or incomplete. The major products from
stoves and cooking fires in the developing world
complete combustion include carbon dioxide
cause illness that results in approximately 1.6 million
(CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and large particles
deaths every year (Legros et al, 2009). Due to the
including fly ash and salts (Loo & Koppejan, 2002).
high levels of air pollution from these simple stoves, Sulphur oxides (SOX), hydrogen chloride (HCl)
women and young children have an increased risk of and heavy metals may also be present, subject to
acute respiratory infection and lung cancer. Harmful the fuel. Incomplete combustion generaly results
emissions from traditional stoves and cooking fires from inadequate mixing of fuel and oxygen, low
are reported to claim the lives of more children under combustion temperatures and short residence
the age of five years than any other single cause times. In addition to the aforementioned emissions,
(Waornat, 2001). Developing affordable systems for incomplete combustion includes carbon monoxide
cooking that reduce these hazards can help save the (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC) and
lives of millions of people every year. fine particles (PM2.5-10) (Loo & Koppejan, 2002).
Three-stone fires are the most commonly used Emissions from incomplete combustion of biomass
cooking method in developing communities. They are of particular concern for both adverse health
consist of three stones placed in a ring on the ground effects and climate change (Jetter & Kariher, 2009).
with fuel in the centre of the ring. They are made Dung is a commonly used biomass fuel. Dung
from and fuelled by material collected in the local produces higher amounts of poisonous CO emissions
environment and rarely incur financial cost. The compared to wood and agricultural residues. The
most commonly used fuel is wood, although dung release of CO is one of the most hazardous products

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 2 “An analysis of combustion …” – Birzer, Medwell, Wilkey, West, Higgins, MacFarlane & Read

Figure 1: Schematic diagrams of (left) the naturaldraft combustion process and (right) the fluid flow
patterns generated by the use of a concentrator disk in a TLUD stove.

Figure 2: Photos of (left) the assembled TLUD stove used for experiments and (right) two adaptors for
the TLUD stove. These adaptors have different concentrator disk diameters (the large hole in
the centre of each adaptor) and different secondary air inlet hole sizes and numbers.

from biomass combustion stoves (Maroni et al, et al, 2009). Development of the design of biomass-
1995). The production of CO is directly related to fuelled cookstoves has the potential to improve the
the burn rate (Bhattacharya & Salam, 2002). Stove lives of over a third of the world’s population.
users generally utilise burn rate to control the power Compared with some improved stoves, three-stone
output of the stoves with an increase in burn rate fires produce 15-30% more particulate matter in
resulting in an increase in power output (Kandpal et the form of PM10 and PM2.5 particles (Naeher et
al, 1994). Therefore, burn rate is of critical importance al, 2000) and release more emissions of CO (Jetter
in any stove design. & Kariher, 2009; MacCarty et al, 2008). However,
Evidence indicates that emissions from inadequate incorrect usage of some “improved” stoves can
biomass stoves are linked to acute lower respiratory result in lower efficiencies and an increase in some
infection, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and harmful emissions. There are no known published
lung cancer in women and children (Desai et al, 2004). results from the systematic study of the development
Consequently, many significant health, productivity of improved cook stoves.
and environmental benefits may result from replacing One particular stove design that can be used to
traditional cooking fires with modern cooking stoves potentially reduce harmful emissions production
(Heltberg, 2004). Despite this, approximately 3 from solid-fuel combustion is a top-lit up-draft
billion people in developing countries still rely on (TLUD) microgasifier stove (Figures 1 and 2). The
traditional stoves (Legros et al, 2009); this is due to combustion process of a TLUD stove can produce
the expense and unavailability of modern sources fewer harmful emissions and preserves the charcoal
(WHO, 2002). Due to limited budgets, solid fuels as biochar (an organic soil enhancer) (Anderson,
such as wood, crop residue and animal dung are used 2009). This technology can be applied to a stove to
throughout the developing world (Rao, 1985). Of the burn almost any solid biomass fuel, including wood
people who rely on traditional sources to meet their pellets, nut shells, crop residues, textile waste and
cooking needs, approximately 2.6 billion people use animal dung, thereby reducing the depletion of wood
biomass sources while 400 million use coal (Legros resources (Anderson & Roth, 2011). Unfortunately,

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 “An analysis of combustion …” – Birzer, Medwell, Wilkey, West, Higgins, MacFarlane & Read 3

insufficient scientific information is available for the production of CO2, CO and NOX and enable
design optimisation of these types of stoves. estimates of fuel burn rates.
The combustion process of a TLUD stove is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 1. These stoves utilise 2 EQUIPMENT
pyrolysis (a thermo-chemical decomposition of
biomass at elevated temperatures in a low oxygen 2.1 TLUD stove design
environment (Roth, 2011)) to separate solid biomass
into charcoal and volatiles. Once the volatiles have A TLUD stove with various chimney configurations
been released, they travel up through the stove. Air is used for the experiments. These variations
is drawn in through the air inlets and enters the fuel include the chimney height, chimney diameter and
chamber as either primary air that travels up through concentrator disk diameter. For testing of emissions,
the packed fuel, or secondary air that mixes with a comparison is made to a traditional three-stone
volatiles before combustion. stove. The TLUD stove is made from readily available
recycled parts, in order to ensure that the final design
The flame is held above the biomass at the point can be made at little, if any, monetary cost. The stove
of mixture with secondary air and travels up body of the TLUD is made from a 10 L paint tin
through the chimney. A pressure drop generated (donated by Solver Paints) with holes drilled into the
by the chimney results in air being drawn into the base as the primary air inlet. The stove adaptor (see
stove via the primary and secondary air inlets. The Figure 2) is made from a second 10 L paint tin. The
flow rates through these two flows are related to diameter (D) of the TLUD is 200 mm. The chimney
chimney geometry. Additionally, it is postulated is made from either tomato or baked bean cans, in
that the use of a concentrator disk can be used to order to vary chimney geometry without the need
increase turbulence and hence improve mixing for sheet metal fabrication. Figure 2 show images
of air and fuel. The concentrator disk consists of of the assembled TLUD stove and the adaptors,
an orifice plate with a hole in the centre (refer to respectively.
Figure 1). In the current experiment, the diameter of
the hole is a variable. Although it is known that the
optimal mixture of secondary and primary air for 2.2 Fuel
combustion is approximately 4:1 (MacCarty et al,
2008) and it is evident that the chimney design plays To assess the burn rates for various chimney
an important role in TLUD combustion, there is no configurations, in order to identify an optimal
known published systematic scientific study of TLUD TLUD design, wood pellets were used as the fuel.
chimney designs and the impact on combustion and This was to provide consistency of fuels for various
emissions. experiments, compared with using dung. The wood
pellets used were obtained from Pellet Heaters
Microgasifiers, such as the TLUD, are able to reduce Australa (PHA) with details listed in Table 1.
fuel consumption by up to 75% (compared to a
three-stone fire) and lower emissions compared
Table 1: Wood pellet specifications used for
with other designs (Servals Automation, 2011).
preliminary TLUD stove testing.
However, this requires optimal design of stove
geometry as well as fuel preparation (Roth, 2011). Size 6.5 mm
Fuel preparation requires fuel pieces to be small Moisture Content < 8%
enough to allow for complete pyrolysis, but large
enough to enable primary air flow through the Heating Value 18,770 kJ/kg
packed fuel and different fuels require different Bulk Density > 672 kg/m3
preparation. Poor stove design or fuel preparation Ash Content < 1%
can result in incomplete combustion and lower
Raw Material Australian Hardwood
efficiency. However, specific information on stove
geometry and fuel size on stove performance is
limited. Furthermore, despite the importance of
The comparison of an optimised TLUD stove is made
TLUD design on emissions production, the scientific
to that of a three-stone fire with dung as fuel. The
analyses are limited. For the current study, analysis
regional focus of the project is the Nepalese Terai
is focused on CO2, CO and NOX emissions.
region, which typically uses buffalo dung. Due to
The motivation of the current work is focused on the limited available resources of buffalo dung for
developing affordable and sustainable clean-burning the current experiments, Angus cattle dung was used
cooking systems for the developing world. The aim as a surrogate. Nepalese buffalo predominately eat
of the current paper is to further the knowledge of grass, and occasionaly hay and other agricultural
TLUD designs for improved combustion. Specific waste (Tuladhar, 2010). Similarly, the Angus cattle
focus is given to chimney geometry (height and that produced the dung used in testing were primarily
diameter) and fuel size on burn rate and emissions grazing animals, their diet consisting of grass and hay.
production. Experiments were conducted to measure Fresh cow dung was collected from one particular

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Figure 3: Average burn rate of a wood pellet burning TLUD stove as a function of (left) chimney
height and (right) chimney diameter, based on a chamber diameter of D = 200 mm.

farm. The dung was formed into palm-sized patties to the stove chamber diameter, D = 200mm. There
and left to dry for a period of two weeks to be is no concentrator disk for these results. Although
consistent with Nepalese dung preparation. The there are only a small number of data points, it can
patties were then cut to various sizes in order to assess be seen that the burn rate initially increases and then
the influence on fuel piece size for testing in the stove. plateaus at a chimney height of approximately 1.5D.
This is true for all chimney diameters, although the
maximum power output occurs at a chimney diameter
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
equal to that of the chamber diameter. It is known
3.1 Burn rate and chimney geometry that the burn rate is a function of air flowrate, which
is driven by the pressure differential generated by
The burn rate of fuel is the rate at which the solid fuel the chimney: the greater the pressure differential the
loses mass during a stove’s operation. It is calculated greater the expected flow rate and hence greater the
by dividing the lost mass of the fuel by the burn burn rate. A taller chimney may be expected to have a
time; the time from when the starter fluid1 is ignited greater pressure differential and subsequently greater
to when the stove is snuffed. Burn rate provides an burn rate. However, viscous losses are also increased
indication of the natural draft induced through the with chimney height. The optimal balance of pressure
stove, and the pyrolysis and combustion processes differential and viscous loss occurs when the chimney
which occur in the fuel bed and at the top of the fuel height is somewhere between D and 1.5D. With the
chamber. Understanding the trends in the burn rate limited data currently available, the optimal chimney
with changes in geometric parameters provided a height is seen to be at 1.5D and width of D.
basis on which to further develop stove designs.
The proposed purpose of the concentrator disk
For the experiments conducted to assess burn rate of is to increase mixing of fuel and secondary air
fuel for variations in TLUD geometry, 500 g of wood via enhanced turbulence, and hence improve
pellet fuel (ignited using 50 g of ethanol) was used. combustion (see Figure 1). Figure 4 shows a plot
The flame colour during combustion of volatiles is of the burn rate of fuel (g/s) for four different
a bright yellow/orange. When the flame turns blue, concentrator disk diameters when using chimney
it indicates that the majority of the volatiles have width and height of D. It is evident from Figure 4
been released and that char combustion dominates. that, for this set of experiments, a concentrator disk
At this point, the TLUD is no longer operating reduces the burn rate (and therefore power output).
within its design window, the stoves were therefore This indicates that pressure drop and hence lower
snuffed when a blue flame appeared. After cooling, air flowrate has a greater impact than enhanced
the remaining biomass was weighed.
mixing from turbulence in the recirculation zone
Figure 3 shows results of the burn rate of fuel (g/s) for of the concentrator disk. It is important to note that
three separate chimney diameters and three chimney a concentrator disk diameter of 0.7D generates the
heights. The chimney geometry is presented relative same burn rate as a concentrator disk diameter of D
(i.e. no disk or restriction), suggesting that there is
1
Although starter fluid is not readily accessible in developing communities, some tolerance to minor flow restrictions. Referring
for the purposes of experimental repeatability it is necessary to add starter back to Figure 3 (right), if the chimney diameter is
fluid as this helps ensure reliable ignition and thus a reliable measure of
the start of the combustion cycle. The small quantity that is added has
0.63D (approximately 0.7D), there is a reduction in
negligible effects on the performance or measurements of the stove. burn rate of approximately 10% compared with the

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Figure 5: Temperature profiles from WBT

Figure 4: Burn rate (grams of fuel consumed conducted for different fuel size ratios
per second) of a TLUD stove (relative to the diameter, D = 200 mm)
burning wood pellets for different of cow dung in a TLUD stove.
concentrator disk diameters
(normalised to the fuel chamber
diameter, D = 200 mm). Chimney
diameter and height constant at D and
1.5D respectively.

1.0D chimney diameter case. The significance of this

finding is that minor obstructions have little influence
on burn rate or power output of a TLUD cookstove.

3.2 Fuel size

As detailed in section 1, the fuel used in a TLUD Figure 6: Example of a commercial off-the-shelf
needs to be prepared appropriately. If fuel pieces are Champion TLUD stove (Cooke, 2013).
too small they will block the primary air flowrate,
preventing pyrolysis and extinguishing the flame.
If fuel pieces are too large, then the core of each in Figure 6. The fuel sizes were sized as fractions of
fuel piece will not devolatilise completely, thereby the chamber diameter, D = 200 mm.
wasting fuel. Furthermore, the optimised balance
The results from Figure 5 indicate that the larger
of fuel and air will not be maintained, reducing the
the fuel pieces, the longer it takes to boil water. The
stove efficiency.
pressure drop across the chimney is insufficient to
To assess fuel size, standard water boiling tests entrain the required primary air through the packed
(WBT) were conducted. During these tests the TLUD fuel, thereby limiting pyrolysis and the fuel / air
is ignited using 1800 g of dung and 50 g of ethanol. mixture ratio. The poor performance of the stove
Once the flame is established and stabilised, a 2 L with large size fuel pieces is such that water does
pot of water is placed above the stove and heated not heat to above 60 °C.
until the flame changed colour from yellow/orange
The smaller fuel sizes (D/10 and D/5) both boil
to blue, indicating combustion of the char and
water at similar rates. However, this does not take
incorrect TLUD operation. During operation of a
into account the total burn time or burn rate. Figure
TLUD the change of flame colour from yellow to
7 shows plots of the fuel size in relation to the burn
blue is associated with an increase in CO emissions.
rate and thermal efficiency. These results are from
During the tests, water temperature measurements
a modified WBT where only 1 L of water is boiled,
are taken. After the test and once cooled, the weight
rather than the standard 2 L. This was done to
of remaining water and char are recorded.
conserve total fuel usage. From these results it can be
Figure 5 shows a plot of temperature of water in a seen that the total burn time of fuel sizes of D/5 have
WBT versus cooking time for four different sizes a longer burn time compared with sizes D/10 and
of dung fuel. In these experiments, a commercial hence a higher thermal efficiency. Here, the thermal
off-the-shelf TLUD of similar size (Champion) was efficiency (!) is calulated as:
used for convenience and ensures a direct link of
Ht  Hv
the results to communities currently relying on these K (1)
stoves. An image of the Champion TLUD is shown Hf

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 6 “An analysis of combustion …” – Birzer, Medwell, Wilkey, West, Higgins, MacFarlane & Read

Figure 7: Results from the modified WBT for different size cow dung fuel pieces in a Champion TLUD
stove: (left) burn rate and boil time; (right) thermal efficiency.

where Ht is energy from temperature rise, Hv is the general trends observed in these experiments are
energy from evaporation and Hf is the energy derived reliable and consistent with the overall performance
from the fuel. Ht, Hv and Hf are determined from the of the stoves. The time-averaged results from these
following: tests are presented in Table 2.
Ht = Cp mw 'T (2) In Table 2 it can be seen that the TLUD produces
(3) just over half the CO emissions compared with
Hv = L mv
the three-stone fire. Emission of CO correlates to
Hf = 'mf LHV (4) incomplete combustion and therefore it is clear that
the three-stone fire burns inefficiently. The levels of
where Cp is the specific heat of water (4.18 kJ/kg), L CO produced from the three-stone fire are greater
latent heat of vapourisation (2260 kJ/kg), mw, mv, mf than allowable levels dictated by WHO standards.
are the masses of water at the start of the experiments, The specific design of a three-stone fire may be
water evaporated and fuel burnt respectively, "T expected to have some influence on the absolute
is the change in temperature (°C) and LHV is the emissions. Here, the three-stone fire was built using
lower heating value of fuel (11,000 KJ/kg for dung regular house bricks rather than stones. Nonetheless,
as presented in Kandpal et al, 1994). the general trends observed here are representative
of typical emissions from a fire in comparison with
3.3 Emissions production a TLUD stove.
Measurements of CO, CO2(eq), and NOX emissions The TLUD produces much higher levels of NOX,
from both the TLUD stove and three-stone fire and CO2(eq), but the burn rate of the TLUD is much
using dung fuel were made using a TestoTM XL350 higher as well. As both NOX and CO2(eq) correspond
gas analyser at approximately one metre above the to the burn rate, these higher values are expected.
stove. Both tests were run with 500 g of the cow Nonetheless, although the high NOX values are less
dung (plus 20 g of ethanol) under an extraction hood than the maximum 24-hour exposure levels dictated
and without a cooking pot. While the extraction by the WHO, they are still significant. Any stove
hood and lack of cooking pot may affect the overall burning high-nitrogen fuels, such as dung, must
performance of the stoves, it is assumed that the therefore limit burn rates to reduce NOX production.

Table 2: Three-stone fire and TLUD stove emissions testing results. Results are time averaged and
taken at a height of approximately 1 m above the cookstove.
Stove CO CO2(eq) NOX Burn rate CO CO2(eq) NOX
(ppm) (%) (ppm) (g/s) (ppm/g/s) (%/g/s) (ppm/g/s)
Three-stone
95.4 0.246 12.4 0.221 432 1.11 56.2
fire
Optimised
49.3 0.830 54.3 0.875 56.4 0.949 62.1
TLUD

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As the burn rates (fuel consumption rates) are Kandpal J., Maheshwari, R. & Kandpa, T., 1994,
different they are not necessarily directly comparable. ‘Comparison of CO, NO and HCHO emissions from
Therefore, the normalised production rates of CO, biomass combustion in traditional and improved
CO2(eq) and NOX are also presented in Table 2. These cookstoves’, Energy, Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 1151-1155.
values (in ppm/g/s) show that the levels of NOX
and CO2(eq) are similar – within 15%. However, the Legros, G., Havet, I., Bruce, N., Bonjour, S., Rijal K.,
normalised values of CO highlight the significantly Takada, M., & Dora, C., 2009, ‘The energy access
higher values produced by the three-stone fire. As CO situation in developing countries: a review focusing
has been identified as a significantly more dangerous
on the least developed countries and Sub-Saharan
emission than the others investigated, it is clear that
Africa’, World Health Organization.
an optimised TLUD provides a suitable alternative, if
burn rate and therefore power output are controlled.
Loo, S. & Koppejan, J., 2002, ‘Handbook of biomass
This is an operational issue, rather than technical one.
combustion and co-firing’, Twente University Press.

4 CONCLUSION MacCarty, N., Ogle, D., and Still, D., 2008, ‘A

laboratory comparison of the global warming impact
A modified TLUD stove has been produced, tested
of five major types of biomass cooking stoves’, Energy
and compared with a traditional three-stone fire.
for Sustainable Development, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 5–14.
The results indicate that variations in geometry of
the TLUD chimney are essential to ensure improved
Maroni, B., Seifert, B., Lindval, T., Maroni, M.,
combustion. Results also show that when burning
dung, the TLUD with optimised chimney geometry, Seifert, B., & Lindval, T., 1995, ‘Indoor air qualty – a
is far superior to a three-stone fire in regards to comprehensive reference book’, Elsevier Science.
CO emissions, but due to the higher burn rate, can
produce higher levels of NOX, and CO2(eq). Results Naeher, L., Leaderer, B., & Smith, K., 2000, ‘Particulate
also indicate that fuel preparation is important to matter and carbon monoxide in highland Guatemala:
ensure correct TLUD operation. indoor and outdoor levels from traditional and
improved wood stoves and gas stoves’, Indoor Air,
10, pp. 200–205.
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