CHAPTER

OPERATIONS
2
AND
PROPERTIES CHAPTER
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Jesse is fascinated by number relationships and 2-1 Order of Operations

often tries to find special mathematical properties of 2-2 Properties of Operations
the five-digit number displayed on the odometer of his 2-3 Addition of Signed Numbers
car. Today Jesse noticed that the number on the 2-4 Subtraction of Signed
odometer was a palindrome and an even number divis- Numbers
ible by 11, with 2 as three of the digits. What was the 2-5 Multiplication of Signed
five-digit reading? (Note: A palindrome is a number, Numbers
word, or phrase that is the same read left to right as 2-6 Division of Signed Numbers
read right to left, such as 57375 or Hannah.) 2-7 Operations With Sets
In this chapter you will review basic operations of 2-8 Graphing Number Pairs
arithmetic and their properties. You will also study Chapter Summary
operations on sets.
Vocabulary
Review Exercises
Cumulative Review

37
38 Operations and Properties

2-1 ORDER OF OPERATIONS

The Four Basic Operations in Arithmetic

Bicycles have two wheels. Bipeds walk on two feet. Biceps are muscles that have
two points of origin. Bilingual people can speak two languages. What do these
bi-words have in common with the following examples?
6.3  0.9  7.2 21.4  3  64.2
1137 2 217 5 927 9 4 2 5 412
The prefix bi- means “two.” In each example above, an operation or rule was
followed to replace two rational numbers with a single rational number. These
familiar operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are called
binary operations. Each of these operations can be performed with any pair of
rational numbers, except that division by zero is meaningless and is not allowed.
In every binary operation, two elements from a set are replaced by exactly
one element from the same set. There are some important concepts to remem-
ber when working with binary operations:
1. A set must be identified, such as the set of whole numbers or the set of
rational numbers. When no set is identified, use the set of all real numbers.
2. The rule for the binary operation must be clear, such as the rules you
know for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
3. The order of the elements is important. Later in this chapter, we will use
the notation (a, b) to indicate an ordered pair in which a is the first ele-
ment and b is the second element. For now, be aware that answers may be
different depending on which element is first and which is second. Con-
sider subtraction. If 8 is the first element and 5 is the second element,
then: 8  5  3. But if 5 is the first element and 8 is the second element,
then: 5  8  3
4. Every problem using a binary operation must have an answer, and there
must be only one answer. We say that each answer is unique, meaning
there is one and only one answer.

DEFINITION
A binary operation in a set assigns to every ordered pair of elements from the
set a unique answer from the set.

Note that, even when we find the sum of three or more numbers, we still add
only two numbers at a time, indicating the binary operation:
4  9  7  (4  9)  7  13  7  20
 Order of Operations 39

Factors
When two or more numbers are multiplied to give a certain product, each num-
ber is called a factor of the product. For example:
• Since 1  16  16, then 1 and 16 are factors of 16.
• Since 2  8  16, then 2 and 8 are factors of 16.
• Since 4  4  16, then 4 is a factor of 16.
• The numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 are all factors of 16.

Prime Numbers
A prime number is a whole number greater than 1 that has no whole number
factors other than itself and 1. The first seven prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11,
13, 17. Whole numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called composite
numbers. Composite numbers have three or more whole number factors. Some
examples of composite numbers are 4, 6, 8, 9, 10.

Bases, Exponents, Powers

When the same number appears as a factor many times, we can rewrite the
expression using exponents. For example, the exponent 2 indicates that the fac-
tor appears twice. In the following examples, the repeated factor is called a base.
4  4  16 can be written as 42  16.
42 is read as “4 squared,” or “4 raised to the second power,” or “the second
power of 4.”

Exponent

Base 42 = 16 Power

The exponent 3 indicates that a factor is used three times.

4  4  4  64 can be written as 43  64.
43 is read as “4 cubed,” or “4 raised to the third power,” or “the third power
of 4.”
Exponent

Base 43 = 64 Power
40 Operations and Properties

The examples shown above lead to the following definitions:

DEFINITION
A base is a number that is used as a factor in the product.
An exponent is a number that tells how many times the base is to be used as a
factor. The exponent is written, in a smaller size, to the upper right of the base.
A power is a number that is a product in which all of its factors are equal.

A number raised to the first power is equal to the number itself, as in 61  6.

Also, when no exponent is shown, the exponent is 1, as in 9  91.

EXAMPLE 1

Compute the value of 45.

Solution 4  4  4  4  4  1,024

Calculator Use the exponent key, ^ , on a calculator.

Solution
ENTER: 4 ^ 5 ENTER

DISPLAY:
4^5
1024

Answer 1,024

EXAMPLE 2
Find A 23 B a. as an exact value b. as a rational approximation.
3

Solution a. The exact value is b. Use a calculator.

a fraction: ENTER: ( 2  3 ) ^ 3 ENTER

A 23 B
3 8
5 23 3 23 3 23 5 27 DISPLAY:
(2/3)^3
.2962962963

Note: The exact value is a rational number that can also be written as the
repeating decimal 0.296.

8
Answers a. 27 b. 0.2962962963
 Order of Operations 41

Computations With More Than One Operation

When a numerical expression involves two or more different operations, we
need to agree on the order in which they are performed. Consider this example:
11  3  2
Suppose that one person multiplied Suppose another person subtracted
first. first.
11  3  2  11  6 11  3  2  8  2
5  16
Who is correct?
In order that there will be one and only one correct answer to problems like
this, mathematicians have agreed to follow this order of operations:
1. Simplify powers (terms with exponents).
2. Multiply and divide, from left to right.
3. Add and subtract, from left to right.
Therefore, we multiply before we subtract, and 11  3  2  11  6  5 is
correct.
A different problem involving powers is solved in this way:
1. Simplify powers: 5  23 + 3  5  8  3
2. Multiply and divide:  40  3
3. Add and subtract:  43

Expressions with Grouping Symbols

In mathematics, parentheses ( ) act as grouping symbols, giving different mean-
ings to expressions. For example, (4  6)  7 means “add 7 to the product of 4
and 6,” while 4  (6  7) means “multiply the sum of 6 and 7 by 4.”
When simplifying any numerical expression, always perform the operations
within parentheses first.
(4  6)  7  24  7  31 4  (6  7)  4  13  52
Besides parentheses, other symbols are used to indicate grouping, such as
brackets [ ]. The expressions 2(5  9) and 2[5  9] have the same meaning: 2 is
multiplied by the sum of 5 and 9. A bar, or fraction line, also acts as a symbol of
grouping, telling us to perform the operations in the numerator and/or denom-
inator first.
20 2 8
3 5 12
3 5 4
6
3 1 1 5 64 5 32 5 112
42 Operations and Properties

However, when entering expressions such as these into a calculator, the line of
the fraction is usually entered as a division and a numerator or denominator
that involves an operation must be enclosed in parentheses.

ENTER: ( 20  8 )  3 ENTER

DISPLAY:
(208)/3
4

ENTER: 6  ( 3  1 ) ENTER

DISPLAY:
6/(3+1)
1.5

When there are two or more grouping symbols in an expression, we perform

the operations on the numbers in the innermost symbol first. For example:
5  2[6  (3  1)3]
= 5  2[6  23]
= 5  2[6  8]
= 5  2[14]
= 5  28
= 33

Procedure
To simplify a numerical expression, follow the correct order of
operations:
1. Simplify any numerical expressions within parentheses or within other
grouping symbols, starting with the innermost.
2. Simplify any powers.
3. Do all multiplications and divisions in order from left to right.
4. Do all additions and subtractions in order from left to right.

EXAMPLE 3

Simplify the numerical expression 80  4(7  5).

 Order of Operations 43

Solution Remember that, in the given expression, 4(7  5) means 4 times the value in
the parentheses.
How to Proceed

(1) Write the expression: 80  4(7  5)

(2) Simplify the value within the parentheses:  80  4(2)
(3) Multiply:  80  8
(4) Subtract:  72

Calculator ENTER: 80  4 ( 7  5 ) ENTER

Solution
DISPLAY:
80–4(7–5)
72

Answer 72

EXERCISES
Writing About Mathematics
1. Explain why 2 is the only even prime.
2. Delia knows that every number except 2 that ends in a multiple of 2 is composite.
Therefore, she concludes that every number except 3 that ends in a multiple of 3 is compos-
ite. Is Delia correct? Explain how you know.

Developing Skills
In 3–10, state the meaning of each expression in part a and in part b, and simplify the expression in
each part.
3. a. 20  (6  1) b. 20  6  1 4. a. 18  (4  3) b. 18  4  3
5. a. 12  (3  0.5) b. 12  3  0.5 6. a. 15  (2  1) b. 15  2  1
7. a. (12  8 )  4 b. 12  8  4 8. a. 48  (8  4 ) b. 48  8  4
9. a. 7  52
b. (7  5) 2
10. a. 4  3 2
b. (4  3)2
11. Noella said that since the line of a fraction indicates division, 105 3
3 15
3 is the same as
10  15  5  3. Do you agree with Noella? Explain why or why not.
44 Operations and Properties

In 12–15: a. Find, in each case, the value of the three given powers. b. Name, in each case, the expres-
sion that has the greatest value.
12. 52, 53, 54 13. (0.5)2, (0.5)3, (0.5)4 14. (0.5)2, (0.6)2, (0.7)2 15. (1.1)2, (1.2)2, (1.3)2

In 16–23: a. List all of the whole numbers that are factors of each of the given numbers. b. Is the
number prime, composite, or neither?
16. 82 17. 101 18. 71 19. 15
20. 1 21. 808 22. 67 23. 397

Applying Skills
In 24–28, write a numerical expression for each of the following and find its value to answer the
question.
24. What is the cost of two chocolate chip and three peanut butter cookies if each cookie costs
28 cents?
25. What is the cost of two chocolate chip cookies that cost 30 cents each and three peanut but-
ter cookies that cost 25 cents each?
26. How many miles did Ms. McCarthy travel if she drove 30 miles per hour for 43 hour and 55
miles per hour for 112 hours?
27. What is the cost of two pens at $0.38 each and three notebooks at $0.69 each?
28. What is the cost of five pens at $0.29 each and three notebooks at $0.75 each if ordered
from a mail order company that adds $1.75 in postage and handling charges?

In 29–30, use a calculator to find each answer.

29. The value of $1 invested at 6% for 20 years is equal to (1.06)20. Find, to the nearest cent, the
value of this investment after 20 years.
30. The value of $1 invested at 8% for n years is equal to (1.08)n. How many years will be
required for $1 invested at 8% to double in value? (Hint: Guess at values of n to find the
value for which (1.08)n is closest to 2.00.)
31. In each box insert an operational symbol +, –, , , and then insert parentheses if needed
to make each of the following statements true.
a. 3 □ 2 □ 1  4 b. 1 □ 3 □ 1  4 c. 1 □ 2 □ 3 □ 4  5
d. 4 □ 3 □ 2 □ 1  5 e. 6 □ 6 □ 6 □ 6  5 f. 6 □ 6 □ 6 □ 6  6
 Properties of Operations 45

2-2 PROPERTIES OF OPERATIONS

When numbers behave in a certain way for an operation, we describe this
behavior as a property. You are familiar with these operations from your study
of arithmetic. As we examine the properties of operations, no proofs are given,
but the examples will help you to see that these properties make sense and to
identify the sets of numbers for which they are true.

The Property of Closure

A set is said to be closed under a binary operation when every pair of elements
from the set, under the given operation, yields an element from that set.
1. Add any two numbers.
23  11  34 The sum of two whole numbers is a whole number.
7.8  4.8  12.6 The sum of two rational numbers is a rational number.
p  (p)  0 The sum of p and its opposite, p, two irrational num-
bers, is 0, a rational number.
Even though the sum of two irrational numbers is usually an irrational num-
ber, the set of irrational numbers is not closed under addition. There are some
pairs of irrational numbers whose sum is not an irrational number. However, p,
p, 0, and each of the other numbers used in these examples are real numbers
and the sum of two real numbers is a real number.
 The sets of whole numbers, rational numbers, and real numbers are each
closed under addition.
2. Multiply any two numbers.
(2)(4)  8 The product of two whole numbers is a whole
number.
3
4 3 12 5 38 The product of two rational numbers is a rational
number.
"2 3 "2 5 "4 5 2 The product of "2 and "2, two irrational num-
bers, is 2, a rational number.
Though the product of two irrational numbers is usually an irrational num-
ber, there are some pairs of irrational numbers whose product is not an irra-
tional number. The set of irrational numbers is not closed under multiplication.
However, "2, 2, and each of the other numbers used in these examples are real
numbers and the product of two real numbers is a real number.
 The sets of whole numbers, rational numbers, and real numbers are each
closed under multiplication.
46 Operations and Properties

3. Subtract any two numbers.

7  12  5 The difference of two whole numbers is not a whole
number, but these whole numbers are also integers
and the difference between two integers is an integer.
12.7  8.2  4.5 The difference of two rational numbers is a rational
number.
"3 2 "3 5 0 The difference of "3 and "3, two irrational num-
bers, is 0, a rational number.
Even though the difference of two irrational numbers is usually an irra-
tional number, there are some pairs of irrational numbers whose difference is
not an irrational number. The set of irrational numbers is not closed under
subtraction. However, "3, 0, and each of the other numbers used in these exam-
ples are real numbers and the difference of two real numbers is a real number.
 The sets of integers, rational numbers, and real numbers are each closed
under subtraction.

4. Divide any two numbers by a nonzero number. (Remember that division

by 0 is not allowed.)
9  2  4.5 The quotient of two whole numbers or two integers
is not always a whole number or an integer.
3
4 4 23 5 34 3 32 5 98 The quotient of two rational numbers is a rational
number.
"5 4 "5 5 1 The quotient of "5 and "5, two irrational num-
bers, is 1, a rational number.
Though the quotient of two irrational numbers is usually an irrational num-
ber, there are some pairs of irrational numbers whose quotient is not an ir-
rational number. The set of irrational numbers is not closed under division.
However, "5, 1, and each of the other numbers used in these examples are real
numbers and the quotient of two nonzero real numbers is a nonzero real
number.
 The sets of nonzero rational numbers, and nonzero real numbers are each
closed under division.

Later in this book, we will study operations with signed numbers and oper-
ations with irrational numbers in greater detail. For now, we will simply make
these observations:
 The set of whole numbers is closed under the operations of addition and
multiplication.
 Properties of Operations 47

 The set of integers is closed under the operations of addition, subtraction,

and multiplication.
 The set of rational numbers is closed under the operations of addition, sub-
traction, and multiplication, and the set of nonzero rational numbers is
closed under division.
 The set of real numbers is closed under the operations of addition, subtrac-
tion, and multiplication, and the set of nonzero real numbers is closed under
division.

Commutative Property of Addition

When we add rational numbers, we assume that we can change the order in
which two numbers are added without changing the sum.
For example, 4  5  5  4 and 21 1 14 5 14 1 12. These examples illustrate
the commutative property of addition.
In general, we assume that for every number a and every number b:

abba

Commutative Property of Multiplication

In the same way, when we multiply rational numbers, we assume that we can
change the order of the factors without changing the product.
For example, 5  4  4  5, and 21 3 14 5 14 3 12. These examples illustrate
the commutative property of multiplication.
In general, we assume that for every number a and every number b:

abba

Subtraction and division are not commutative, as shown by the following

counterexample.
12  7  7  12 12  3  3  12
3
5  5 4  12

Associative Property of Addition

Addition is a binary operation; that is, we add two numbers at a time. If we wish
to add three numbers, we find the sum of two and add that sum to the third. For
example:
48 Operations and Properties

2  5  8  (2  5)  8 or 2  5  8  2  (5  8)
78  2  13
 15  15
The way in which we group the numbers to be added does not change the sum.
Therefore, we see that (2  5)  8  2  (5  8). This example illustrates the
associative property of addition.
In general, we assume that for every number a, every number b, and every
number c:

(a  b)  c  a  (b  c)

Associative Property of Multiplication

In a similar way, to find a product that involves three factors, we first multiply
any two factors and then multiply this result by the third factor. We assume that
we do not change the product when we change the grouping. For example:
5  4  2  (5  4)  2 or 5  4  2  5  (4  2)
 20  2 58
 40  40
Therefore, (5  4)  2  5  (4  2). This example illustrates the associative
property of multiplication.
In general, we assume that for every number a, every number b, and every
number c:

a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c

Subtraction and division are not associative, as shown in the following coun-
terexamples.
(15  4)  3  15  (4  3) (8  4)  2  8  (4  2)
11  3  15  1 2282
8  14 14

The Distributive Property

We know 4(3  2)  4(5)  20, and also 4(3)  4(2)  12  8  20. Therefore,
we see that 4(3  2)  4(3)  4(2).
This result can be illustrated geometrically. Recall that the area of a rectan-
gle is equal to the product of its length and its width.
 Properties of Operations 49

3 2

4 4(3+2) =4 4(3) +4 4(2)

(3+2) 3 2

This example illustrates the distributive property of multiplication over

addition, also called the distributive property. This means that the product of
one number times the sum of a second and a third number equals the product
of the first and second numbers plus the product of the first and third numbers.
In general, we assume that for every number a, every number b, and every
number c:

a(b  c)  ab  ac and (a  b)c  ac  bc

The distributive property is also true for multiplication over subtraction:

a(b  c)  ab  ac and (a  b)c  ac  bc

The distributive property can be useful for mental computations. Observe

how we can use the distributive property to find each of the following products
as a sum:
1. 6  23  6(20  3)  6  20  6  3  120  18  138
2. 9 3 313  9 A 3113 B  9  3  9  13  27  3  30
3. 6.5  8  (6  0.5)8  6  8  0.5  8  48  4  52
Working backward, we can also use the distributive property to change the
form of an expression from a sum or a difference to a product:
1. 5(12)  5(8)  5(12  8)  5(20)  100
2. 7(14)  7(4)  7(14  4)  7(10)  70

Addition Property of Zero and the Additive

Identity Element
The equalities 5 + 0  5 and 0  2.8  2.8 are true. They illustrate that the sum
of a rational number and zero is the number itself. These examples lead us to
observe that:
50 Operations and Properties

1. The addition property of zero states that for every number a:

a0a and 0aa

2. The identity element of addition, or the additive identity, is 0. Thus, for any
number a:

If a  x  a, or if x  a  a, it follows that x  0.

Additive Inverses (Opposites)

When we first studied integers, we learned about opposites. For example, the
opposite of 4 is 4, and the opposite of 10 is 10.
Every rational number a has an opposite, –a, such that their sum is 0, the
identity element in addition. The opposite of a number is called the additive
inverse of the number.
In general, for every rational number a and its opposite a:

a  (a)  0

On a calculator, the (-) key, is used to enter the opposite of a number. The
following example shows that the opposite of 4.5 is 4.5.

ENTER: (-) (-) 4.5 ENTER

DISPLAY:
--4.5
4.5

Multiplication Property of One and the

Multiplicative Identity Element
The sentences 5  1  5 and 1  4.6  4.6 are true. They illustrate that the prod-
uct of a number and one is the number itself. These examples lead us to observe
that:
1. The multiplication property of one states that for every number a:

a1a and 1aa

2. The identity element of multiplication, or the multiplicative identity, is 1.

 Properties of Operations 51

Multiplicative Inverses (Reciprocals)

When the product of two numbers is 1 (the identity element for multiplication),
then each of these numbers is called the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of
the other. Consider these examples:
4 ? 14 5 1 A 212 B A 25 B 5 A 52 B A 25 B 5 1

The reciprocal of 4 is 41. The multiplicative inverse of 212 or 25 is 25.

The reciprocal of 41 is 4. The multiplicative inverse of 52 is 25 or 212.

Since there is no number that, when multiplied by 0, gives 1, the number 0
has no reciprocal, or no multiplicative inverse.
In general, for every nonzero number a, there is a unique number a1 such
that:

a ? a1 5 1

On the calculator, a special key, x 1 displays the reciprocal. For example,

if each of the numbers shown above is entered and the reciprocal key is pressed,
the reciprocal appears in decimal form.

ENTER: 4 x 1 ENTER ENTER: ( 5  2 ) x 1 ENTER

DISPLAY: DISPLAY:
4 –1 ( 5 / 2 ) –1
.25 .4

Note: Parentheses must be used when calculating the reciprocal of a fraction.

For many other numbers, however, the decimal form of the reciprocal is not
shown in its entirety in the display. For example, we know that the reciprocal of
6 is 16, but what appears is a rational approximation of 16.

ENTER: 6 x 1 ENTER

DISPLAY:
6 –1
.1666666667

The display shows the rational approximation of 16 rounded to the last deci-
mal place displayed by the calculator. A calculator stores more decimal places
in its operating system than it has in its display. The decimal displayed times the
original number will equal 1.
52 Operations and Properties

To display the reciprocal of 6 from the example on the previous page as a

common fraction, we use 6 x 1 MATH ENTER ENTER .

Multiplication Property of Zero

The sentences 7  0  0 and 0  34  0 are true. They illustrate that the product
of a rational number and zero is zero. This property is called the multiplication
property of zero:
In general, for every number a:

a00 and 0a0

EXAMPLE 1

Write, in simplest form, the opposite (additive inverse) and the reciprocal (mul-
tiplicative inverse) of each of the following: a. 7 b. 238 c. 115 d. 0.2 e. p

Solution Number Opposite Reciprocal

1
a. 7 –7 7

b. 238 3
8 283 5 2223

c. 115 5 65 2115 5 265 5

6
d. 0.2 0.2 5
1
e. p p p

EXAMPLE 2

Express 6t + t as a product and give the reason for each step.

Solution Step Reason

(1) 6t  t  6t  1t Multiplication property of 1.
(2)  (6  1)t Distributive property.
(3)  7t Addition.

Answer 7t
 Properties of Operations 53

EXERCISES
Writing About Mathematics
1. If x and y represent real numbers and xy  x:
a. What is the value of y if the equation is true for all x? Explain your answer.
b. What is the value of x if the equation is true for all y? Explain your answer.
2. Cookies and brownies cost $0.75 each. In order to find the cost of 2 cookies and 3 brownies
Lindsey added 2  3 and multiplied the sum by $0.75. Zachary multiplied $0.75 by 2 and
then $0.75 by 3 and added the products. Explain why Lindsey and Zachary both arrived at
the correct cost of the cookies and brownies.

Developing Skills
3. Give the value of each expression.
a. 9  0 b. 9  0 c. 9  1 d. 32 3 0 e. 0  23 f. 1  23
g. (p) A p1 B h. 1  4.5 i. 0 1 "7 j. 1.63 3 0 k. 1 3 "5 l. 0 3 "225

In 4–13: a. Replace each question mark with the number that makes the sentence true. b. Name the
property illustrated in each sentence that is formed when the replacement is made.
4. 8  6  6  ? 5. 17  5  ?  17
6. (3  9)  15  3  (9  ?) 7. 6(5  8)  6(5)  ?(8)
8. (0.5  0.2)  0.7  0.5  (?  0.7) 9. 4  0  ?
10. (3  7)  5  (?  3)  5 11. (?)(8  2)  (8  2)(9)
12. 7(4  ?)  7(4) 13. ?x  x

In 14–25: a. Name the additive inverse (opposite) of each number. b. Name the multiplicative
inverse (reciprocal) of each number.
14. 17 15. 1 16. –10 17. 2.5 18. –1.8 19. 19
20. 213 21. 2p 22. 37 23. 1.780 1
24. 211 5
25. 371

In 26–31, state whether each sentence is a correct application of the distributive property. If you
believe that it is not, state your reason.
26. 6(5  8)  6(5)  6(8) 27. 10 A 12 1 15 B 5 10 3 12 1 15
28. 5  (8  6)  (5  8)  (5  6) 29. 3(x  5)  3x  3  5
30. 14a  4a  (14  4)a 31. 18(2.5)  18(2)  18(0.5)
54 Operations and Properties

In 32–35: a. Tell whether each sentence is true or false. b. Tell whether the commutative property
holds for the given operation.
32. 357  19  19  357 33. 2  1  1  2
34. 25  7  7  25 35. 18(3.6)  3.6(18)

In 36–39: a. Tell whether each sentence is true of false. b. Tell whether the associative property holds
for the given operation
36. (73  68)  92  73  (68  92) 37. (24  6)  2  24  (6  2)
38. (19  8)  5  19  (8  5) 39. 9  (0.3  0.7)  (9  0.3)  0.7
40. Insert parentheses to make each statement true.
a. 3  2  1  3  3 b. 4  3  2  2  3 c. 8  8  8  8  8  8
d. 3  3  3  3  3  1 e. 3  3  3  3  3  0 f. 0  12  3  16  8  0

Applying Skills
41. Steve Heinz wants to give a 15% tip to the taxi driver. The fare was $12. He knows
that 10% of $12 is $1.20 and that 5% would be half of $1.20. Explain how this information
can help Steve calculate the tip. What mathematical property is he using to determine
the tip?
42. Juana rides the bus to and from work each day. Each time she rides the bus the fare is $1.75.
She works five days a week. To find what she will spend on bus fare each week, Juana wants
to find the product 2(1.75)(5). Juana rewrote the product as 2(5)(1.75).
a. What property of multiplication did Juana use when she changed 2(1.75)5 to
2(5)(1.75)?
b. What is her weekly bus fare?

2-3 ADDITION OF SIGNED NUMBERS

Adding Numbers That Have the Same Signs

The number line can be used to find the sum of two numbers. Start at 0. To add
a positive number, move to the right. To add a negative number, move to the
left.

EXAMPLE 1

Add 3 and 2.

 Addition of Signed Numbers 55

Solution Start at 0 and move 3 units to the +3 +2

right to 3; then move 2 more units
to the right, arriving at +5.
–1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
Calculator ENTER: 3  2 ENTER
Solution
DISPLAY:
3+2
5

Answer 5

The sum of two positive integers is the same as the sum of two whole num-
bers. The sum +5 is a number whose absolute value is the sum of the absolute
values of 3 and 2 and whose sign is the same as the sign of 3 and 2.

EXAMPLE 2

Add 3 and 2.

Solution Start at 0 and move 3 units to the –2 –3

left to 3: then move 2 more units
to the left, arriving at 5. –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1

Calculator ENTER: (-) 3  (-) 2 ENTER

Solution
DISPLAY:
-3+-2
-5

Answer 5

The sum 5 is a number whose absolute value is the sum of the absolute
values of 3 and 2 and whose sign is the same as the sign of 3 and 2.
Examples 1 and 2 illustrate that the sum of two numbers with the same sign
is a number whose absolute value is the sum of the absolute values of the num-
bers and whose sign is the sign of the numbers.

Procedure
To add two numbers that have the same sign:
1. Find the sum of the absolute values.
2. Give the sum the common sign.
56 Operations and Properties

Adding Numbers That Have Opposite Signs

EXAMPLE 3

Add: 3 and 2.

–2
Solution Start at 0 and move 3 units to the right to 3; +3
then move 2 units to the left, arriving at 1.

Calculator ENTER: 3  (-) 2 ENTER –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4

Solution
DISPLAY:
3+-2
1

Answer 1

This sum can also be found by using properties. In the first step, substitution
is used, replacing (3) with the sum (1)  (2).
(3)  ( 2)  [(1)  (2)]  (2) Substitution
 (1)  [(2)  ( 2)] Associative property
 1  0 Addition property of opposites
 1 Addition property of zero
The sum 1 is a number whose absolute value is the difference of the
absolute values of 3 and 2 and whose sign is the same as the sign of 3, the
number with the greater absolute value.

EXAMPLE 4

Add: 3 and 2.

+2
Solution Start at 0 and move 3 units to the left to 3; –3
then move 2 units to the right, arriving at 1.

Calculator ENTER: (-) 3  2 ENTER –4 –3 –2 –1 0 +1

Solution
DISPLAY:
-3+2
-1

Answer 1
 Addition of Signed Numbers 57

This sum can also be found by using properties. In the first step, substitution
is used, replacing (3) with the sum (1)  (2).
(3)  (2)  [(1)  (2)]  (2) Substitution
 (1)  [(2)  (2)] Associative property
 1  0 Addition property of opposites
 1 Addition property of zero
The sum 1 is a number whose absolute value is the difference of the
absolute values of 3 and 2 and whose sign is the same as the sign of 3, the
number with the greater absolute value.
Examples 3 and 4 illustrate that the sum of a positive number and a nega-
tive number is a number whose absolute value is the difference of the absolute
values of the numbers and whose sign is the sign of the number having the
larger absolute value.

Procedure
To add two numbers that have different signs:
1. Find the difference of the absolute values of the numbers.
2. Give this difference the sign of the number that has the greater absolute value.
3. The sum is 0 if both numbers have the same absolute value.

EXAMPLE 5

Find the sum of 2334 and 114.

Solution How to Proceed

(1) Since the numbers have 334 2 114 5 224
different signs, find the difference
of their absolute values:
(2) Give the difference the sign 2224 5 2212 Answer
of the number with the greater
absolute value:
58 Operations and Properties

Calculator The number 334 is the sum of the whole number 3 and the fraction 43. The oppo-
Solution site of 33, 233, is the sum of 3 and 23.
4 4 4
Enclose the absolute value of the sum of 3 and 34 in parentheses.

ENTER: (-) ( 3  3  4 )  1  1  4 ENTER

DISPLAY:
-(3+3/4)+1+1/4
-2.5

Answer 2.5 or 2212

The method used in Example 5 to enter the negative mixed number 2334
illustrate the following property:

Property of the Opposite of a Sum For all real numbers a and b:

(a  b)  (a)  (b)

When adding more than two signed numbers, the commutative and associa-
tive properties allow us to arrange the numbers in any order and to group them
in any way. It may be helpful to add positive numbers first, add negative num-
bers next, and then add the two results.

EXERCISES
Writing About Mathematics
1. The sum of two numbers is positive. One of the numbers is a positive number that is larger
than the sum. Is the other number positive or negative? Explain your answer.
2. The sum of two numbers is positive. One of the numbers is negative. Is the other number
positive or negative? Explain your answer.
3. The sum of two numbers is negative. One of the numbers is a negative number that is
smaller than the sum. Is the other number positive or negative? Explain your answer.
4. The sum of two numbers is negative. One of the numbers is positive. Is the other number
positive or negative? Explain your answer.
5. Is it possible for the sum of two numbers to be smaller than either of the numbers? If so,
give an example.

Developing Skills
In 6–10, find each sum or difference.
6. 6  4 7. 10  5 8. 4.5  4.5 9. 6  4 10. 6  4
 Subtraction of Signed Numbers 59

In 11–27, add the numbers. Use a calculator to check your answer.

11. 17  (28) 12. 23  (35) 13. 87  (87) 14. 2.06  1.37
15. 23313  1923 16. 2534  812 17. +7  A 2627 B 18. (3.72)  (5.28)
19. (47)  (35)  (47) 20. 3438  (73) 21. 27312  86
22. 21434  A 21734 B 23. 13  (13) 24. 42  A43B
25. 6.25  (0.75) 26. (12.4)  13.0 27. 12.4  13.0

Applying Skills
28. In 1 hour, the temperature rose 4° Celsius and in the next hour it dropped 6° Celsius. What
was the net change in temperature during the two-hour period?
29. An elevator started on the first floor and rose 30 floors. Then it came down 12 floors. At
which floor was it at that time?
30. A football team gained 7 yards on the first play, lost 2 yards on the second, and lost 8 yards
on the third. What was the net result of the three plays?
31. Fay has $250 in a bank. During the month, she made a deposit of $60 and a withdrawal of
$80. How much money did Fay have in the bank at the end of the month?
32. During a four-day period, the dollar value of a share of stock rose $1.50 on the first day,
dropped $0.85 on the second day, rose $0.12 on the third day, and dropped $1.75 on the
fourth day. What was the net change in the stock during this period?

2-4 SUBTRACTION OF SIGNED NUMBERS

In arithmetic, to subtract 3 from 7, we find the number that, when added to 3,
gives 7. We know that 7  3  4 because 3  4  7. Subtraction is the inverse
operation of addition.

DEFINITION
In general, for every number c and every number b, the expression c  b is the
number a such that b  a  c.

We use this definition in order to subtract signed numbers. To subtract 2 from

3, written as (3)  (2), we must find a number that, when added to 2, will
give 3. We write:
(2)  (?)  3
60 Operations and Properties

We can use a number line to find the +5

answer to this open sentence. From a –2
point 2 units to the left of 0, move to the
point that represents 3, that is, 3 units –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4
to the right of 0. We move 5 units to the
right, a motion that represents 5.
Therefore, (3)  (2)  5 because (2)  (5)  3.
Notice that (3)  (2) can also be represented as the directed distance
from 2 to 3 on the number line.
Subtraction can be written vertically as follows:
(3) or Subtract: (3) minuend
(2) (2) subtrahend
5 5 difference
When you first learned to subtract numbers, you learned to check your
answer. The answer (the difference) plus the number being subtracted (the sub-
trahend) must be equal to the number from which you are subtracting (the min-
uend).
Check each of the following examples using:
subtrahend  difference  minuend:
Subtract: 9 7 5 3
6 2 2 1
3 5 7 4
Now, consider another way in which addition and subtraction are related. In
each of the following examples, compare the result obtained when a signed
number is subtracted with the result obtained when the opposite of that signed
number is added.
Subtract Add Subtract Add Subtract Add Subtract Add
9 9 7 7 5 5 3 3
6 6 2 2 2 2 1 1
3 3 5 5 7 7 4 4
Observe that, in each example, adding the opposite (the additive inverse) of
a signed number gives the same result as subtracting that signed number. It
therefore seems reasonable to define subtraction as follows:
DEFINITION
If a is any signed number and b is any signed number, then:
a  b  a  (b)

Procedure
To subtract one signed number from another, add the opposite (addi-
tive inverse) of the subtrahend to the minuend.
 Subtraction of Signed Numbers 61

Uses of the Symbol 

We have used the symbol  in three ways:
1. To indicate that a number is negative: 2 Negative 2
2. To indicate the opposite of a number: (4) Opposite of negative 4
a Opposite of a
3. To indicate subtraction: 4  (3) Difference between
4 and 3
Note that an arithmetic expression such as 3  7 can mean either the dif-
ference between 3 and 7 or the sum of 3 and 7.
3  7  3  (7)  3  (7)
When writing an arithmetic expression, we use the same sign for both a neg-
ative number and subtraction. On a calculator, the key for subtraction,  , is
not the same key as the key for a negative number, (-) . Using the wrong key
will result in an error message.

EXAMPLE 1

Perform the indicated subtractions.

a. (30)  (12) b. (19)  (7) c. (4)  (0) d. 0  8

Answers a. 18 b. 12 c. 4 d. 8

EXAMPLE 2

From the sum of 2 and 8, subtract 5.

Solution (2  8)  (5)  6  (5)  11

Calculator ENTER: (-) 2  8  (-) 5 ENTER

Solution
DISPLAY:
-2+8–-5
11

Answer 11
62 Operations and Properties

EXAMPLE 3

Subtract the sum of 7 and 2 from 4.

Solution 4  (7  2)  4  (5)  4  (5)  1

Calculator ENTER: (-) 4  ( (-) 7  2 ) ENTER

Solution
DISPLAY:
-4–(-7+2)
1

Answer 1

EXAMPLE 4

How much greater than 3 is 9?

+12
Solution 9  (3)  9  3  12
–3 0 +9
Answer 9 is 12 greater than 3.

Note that parentheses need not be entered in the calculator in Example 2

since the additions and subtractions are to be done in the order in which they
occur in the expression. Parentheses are needed, however, in Example 3 since
the sum of 7 and 2 is to be found first, before subtracting this sum from 4.

EXERCISES
Writing About Mathematics
1. Does 8  12 mean the difference between 8 and 12 or the sum of 8 and 12? Explain
your answer.
2. How is addition used to check subtraction?

Developing Skills
In 3–10, perform each indicated subtraction. Check your answers using a calculator.
3. 23  (35) 4. 87  (87) 5. 5.4  (8.6) 6. 8.8  (3.7)
7. 2.06  (1.37) 8. 23313  A 11923 B 9. 2534  A 2812 B 10. 7  A 627 B

In 11–18, Find the value of each given expression.

 Subtraction of Signed Numbers 63

11. (18)  (14) 12. (3.72)  (5.28) 13. (12)  (57  12)
14. (47)  (35  47) 15. 27312  86 16. 21434 2 A 21734 B
17. 23438 2 A 273 2 7238 B 18. 32  (32)
19. How much is 18 decreased by 7?
20. How much greater than 15 is 12?
21. How much greater than 4 is 1?
22. What number is 6 less than 6?
23. Subtract 8 from the sum of 6 and 12.
24. Subtract 7 from the sum of 18 and 10.
25. State whether each of the following sentences is true or false:
a. (5)  (3)  (3)  (5) b. (7)  (4)  (4)  (7)
26. If x and y represent real numbers:
a. Does x  y  y  x for all replacements of x and y? Justify your answer.
b. Does x  y  y  x for any replacements of x and y? For which values of x and y?
c. What is the relation between x  y and y  x for all replacements of x and y?
d. Is the operation of subtraction commutative? In other words, for all signed numbers
x and y, does x  y  y  x?
27. State whether each of the following sentences is true or false:
a. (15  9)  6  15  (9  6) b. [(10)  (4)]  (8)  (10)  [(4)  (8)]
28. Is the operation of subtraction associative? In other words, for all signed numbers x, y, and
z, does (x  y)  z  x  (y  z)? Justify your answer.

Applying Skills
29. Express as a signed number the increase or decrease when the Celsius temperature changes
from:
a. 5° to 8° b. 10° to 18° c. 6° to 18° d. 12° to 4°
30. Find the change in altitude when you go from a place that is 15 meters below sea level to a
place that is 95 meters above sea level.
31. In a game, Sid was 35 points “in the hole.” How many points must he make in order to have
a score of 150 points?
32. The record high Fahrenheit temperature in New City is 105°; the record low is 9°. Find the
difference between these temperatures.
33. At one point, the Pacific Ocean is 0.50 kilometers in depth; at another point it is 0.25 kilo-
meters in depth. Find the difference between these depths.
64 Operations and Properties

2-5 MULTIPLICATION OF SIGNED NUMBERS

Four Possible Cases in the

Multiplication of Signed Numbers
We will use a common experience to illustrate the various cases that can arise
in the multiplication of signed numbers.
1. Represent a gain in weight by a positive number and a loss of weight by a
negative number.
2. Represent a number of months in the future by a positive number and a
number of months in the past by a negative number.
CASE 1 Multiplying a Positive Number by a Positive Number
If a boy gains 2 pounds each month, 4 months from now he will be 8 pounds
heavier than he is now. Using signed numbers, we may write:
(2)(4)  8
The product of the two positive numbers is a positive number.
CASE 2 Multiplying a Negative Number by a Positive Number
If a boy loses 2 pounds each month, 4 months from now he will be 8 pounds
lighter than he is now. Using signed numbers, we may write:
(2)(4)  8
The product of the negative number and the positive number is a negative
number.

CASE 3 Multiplying a Positive Number by a Negative Number

If a girl gained 2 pounds each month, 4 months ago she was 8 pounds lighter
than she is now. Using signed numbers, we may write:
(2)(4)  8
The product of the positive number and the negative number is a negative
number.
CASE 4 Multiplying a Negative Number by a Negative Number
If a girl lost 2 pounds each month, 4 months ago she was 8 pounds heavier than
she is now. Using signed numbers, we may write:
(2)(4)  8
The product of the two negative numbers is a positive number.

In all four cases, the absolute value of the product, 8, is equal to the product
of the absolute values of the factors, 4 and 2.
 Multiplication of Signed Numbers 65

Using the Properties of Real Numbers to

Multiply Signed Numbers
You know that the sum of any real number and its inverse is 0, a  (a)  0,
and that for all real numbers a, b, and c, a(b  c)  ab  ac.
These two facts will enable us to demonstrate the rules for multiplying
signed numbers.
4[7  (7)]  4(7)  4(7)
4(0)  28  4(7)
0  28  4(7)
In order for this to be a true statement, 4(7) must equal 28, the opposite of 28.
Since addition is a commutative operation, 4(7)  7(4). Then
7[4  (4)]  7(4)  (7)(4)
7(0)  28  (7)(4)
0  28  (7)(4)
In order for this to be a true statement, 7(4) must be 28, the additive inverse
of 28.

Rules for Multiplying Signed Numbers

RULE 1 The product of two positive numbers or of two negative numbers is a
positive number whose absolute value is the product of the absolute values of
the numbers.
RULE 2 The product of a positive number and a negative number is a negative
number whose absolute value is the product of the absolute values of the
numbers.
In general, if a and b are both positive or are both negative, then:
ab  a · b
If one of the numbers, a or b, is positive and the other is negative, then:
ab  (a · b))

Procedure
To multiply two signed numbers:
1. Find the product of the absolute values.
2. Write a plus sign before this product when the two numbers have the same sign.
3. Write a minus sign before this product when the two numbers have different signs.
66 Operations and Properties

EXAMPLE 1

Find the product of each of the given pairs of numbers.

Answers Answers
a. (12)(4)  48 b. (13)(5) 5 65
c. (18)(3)  54 d. (15)(6) 5 90
e. (3.4)(3)  10.2 f. A 2718 B (23) 5 12138

EXAMPLE 2

Use the distributive property of multiplication over addition to find the product
8(72).

Solution 8(72)  8[(70)  (2)]

 8(70)  8(2)
 (560)  (16)
 576 Answer

EXAMPLE 3

Find the value of (2)3.

Solution (2)3  (2)(2)(2)  4(2)  8

Answer 8
Note: The product of an odd number (3) of negative factors is negative.

EXAMPLE 4

Find the value of (3)4.

Solution (3)4  (3)(3)(3)(3)  [(3)(3)][(3)(3)]  (9)(9)  81

Answer 81

Note: The product of an even number (4) of negative factors is positive.

In this example, the value of (3)4 was found to be 81. This is not equal to
3 , which is the opposite of 34 or 1(34). To find the value of 34, first find the
4

value of 34, which is 81, and then write the opposite of this power, 81. Thus,
(3)4  81 and 34  81.
 Multiplication of Signed Numbers 67

On a calculator, evaluate (3)4. On a calculator, evaluate 34.

ENTER: ( (-) 3 ) ^ 4 ENTER ENTER: (-) 3 ^ 4 ENTER

DISPLAY: DISPLAY:
(-3)^4 -3^4
81 -81

EXERCISES
Writing About Mathematics
1. Javier said that (5)(4)(2)  40 because the product of numbers with the same sign is
positive. Explain to Javier why he is wrong.
2. If a(b) means the opposite of ab, explain how knowing that 3(4)  12 can be used to
show that 3(4)  12.

Developing Skills
In 3–12, find the product of each pair of numbers. Check your answers using a calculator.
3. 17(6) 4. +27(6) 5. 9( 27) 6. 23(15) 7. +4(4)
8. +5.4(0.6) 9. 2.6( 0.05) 10. 2313 A 1123 B 11. 2534 A 212 B 12. 2623 (7)

In 13–18, find the value of each expression.

13. (18)(4)(5) 14. (3.72)(0.5)(0.2) 15. (4)(35  7)
16. (12)(7  3) 17. 28 A 273 1 7238 B 18. 4234 1 14

In 19–28, find the value of each power.

19. (3)2 20. 32 21. (5)3 22. (2)4 23. (2)4
24. 24 25. (0.5)2 26. (0.5)2 27. 0.52 28. (3)3

In 29–34, name the property that is illustrated in each statement.

29. 2(1  3)  2(1)  2(3) 30. (2)  (1)  (1)  (2)
31. (1  2)  3  1  (2  3) 32. 2  0  2
33. (5)(7)  (7)(5) 34. 3  (2  3)  (3  2)  (3)
68 Operations and Properties

2-6 DIVISION OF SIGNED NUMBERS

Using the Inverse Operation in

Dividing Signed Numbers

Division may be defined as the inverse operation of multiplication, just as sub-

traction is defined as the inverse operation of addition. To divide 6 by 2 means
to find a number that, when multiplied by 2, gives 6. That number is 3 because
3(2)  6. Thus, 62  3, or 6  2  3. The number 6 is the dividend, 2 is the divi-
sor, and 3 is the quotient.
It is impossible to divide a signed number by 0; that is, division by 0 is unde-
fined. For example, to solve (9)  0, we would have to find a number that,
when multiplied by 0, would give 9. There is no such number since the prod-
uct of any signed number and 0 is 0.

 In general, for all signed numbers a and b (b  0), a  b or ab means to find

the unique number c such that cb  a

In dividing nonzero signed numbers, there are four possible cases. Consider
the following examples:
CASE 1 16
13  ? implies (?)(3)  6. Since (2)(3)  6, 16
13  2

CASE 2 26
23  ? implies (?)(3)  6. Since (2)(3)  6, 26
23  2
26
CASE 3 13  ? implies (?)(3)  6. Since (2)(3)  6, 13
26
 2

CASE 4 16
23  ? implies (?)(3)  6. Since (2)(3)  6, 16
23  2

In the preceding examples, observe that:

1. When the dividend and divisor are both positive or both negative, the quo-
tient is positive.
2. When the dividend and divisor have opposite signs, the quotient is nega-
tive.
3. In all cases, the absolute value of the quotient is the absolute value of the
dividend divided by the absolute value of the divisor.

Rules for Dividing Signed Numbers

RULE 1 The quotient of two positive numbers or of two negative numbers is a
positive number whose absolute value is the absolute value of the dividend
divided by the absolute value of the divisor.
 Division of Signed Numbers 69

RULE 2 The quotient of a positive number and a negative number is a nega-

tive number whose absolute value is the absolute value of the dividend
divided by the absolute value of the divisor.
In general, if a and b are both positive or are both negative, then:

a |a|
a  b  a  b or b  |b|

If one of the numbers, a or b, is positive and the other is negative, then:

a  b  (a  b) or a
b   A |a|
|b| B

Procedure
To divide two signed numbers:
1. Find the quotient of the absolute values.
2. Write a plus sign before this quotient when the two numbers have the
same sign.
3. Write a minus sign before this quotient when the two numbers have
different signs.

Rule for Dividing Zero by a Nonzero Number

0
If the expression 0  (5) or 25  ?, then (?)(5)  0. Since 0 is the only num-
0
ber that can replace ? and result in a true statement, 0  (5) or 25  0. This
illustrates that 0 divided by any nonzero number is 0.
In general, if a is a nonzero number (a  0), then

0  a  a0  0.

EXAMPLE 1

Perform each indicated division, if possible.

a. 160
115 b. 110
290 c. 227
23 d. (45)  9 e. 0  (9) f. 3  0
Answers a. 4 b. 219 c. 9 d. 5 e. 0 f. Undefined

Using the Reciprocal in Dividing Signed Numbers

In Section 2-2, we learned that for every nonzero number a, there is a unique
number a1, called the reciprocal or multiplicative inverse, such that a ? a1 5 1.
70 Operations and Properties

Using the reciprocal of a number, we can define division in terms of multi-

plication as follows:
For all numbers a and b (b  0):

a  b  ba  a · b1 (b  0)

Procedure
To divide a signed number by a nonzero signed number, multiply the
dividend by the reciprocal of the divisor.

Notice that we exclude division by 0. The set of nonzero real numbers is

closed with respect to division because every nonzero real number has a unique
reciprocal, and multiplication by this reciprocal is always possible.

EXAMPLE 2

Perform each indicated division by using the reciprocal of the divisor.

Answers
a. 130
12  (130) A 112 B 5 115
230
b. 190  (230) A 190
1
B 5 213
c. (54)  6  (254) A 16 B  9
d. 227 4 A 213 B  227 3 A 231 B 5 181
e. (13) 4 A 235 B  13 A 253 B 5 25
f. 0  (9)  0 A 219 B 5 0

EXERCISES
Writing About Mathematics
1. If x and y represent nonzero numbers, what is the relationship between x  y and y  x?
2. If x  y, are there any values of x and y for which x  y  y  x?

Developing Skills
In 3–10, name the reciprocal (the multiplicative inverse) of each given number.
3. 6 4. 5 5. 1 6. 1
7. 12 1
8. 210 9. 234 10. x if x  0
 Operations with Sets 71

In 11–26, find the indicated quotients or write “undefined” if no quotient exists.

11. 263
29
248
12. 116 210
13. 110 0
14. 213
15. 215
245
13.6
16. 20.12 17. 20.25
22.5
10.01
18. 20.001
19. (100)  (2.5) 20. (75)  (0)
21. (0.5)  (0.25) 22. (1.5)  (0.03)
23. (112) 4 A 213 B 24. A 234 B 4 (16)
25. A 178 B 4 A 221
32 B 26. A 2114 B 4 A 2212 B

In 27–28, state whether each sentence is true or false:

27. a. [(16)  (4)]  (2)  (16)  [(4)  (2)]
b. [(36)  (6)]  (2)  (36)  [(6)  (2)]
c. Division is associative.
28. a. (12  6)  2  12  2  6  2
b. [(25)  (10)]  (5)  (25)  (5)  (10)  (5)
c. 2  (3  5)  2  3  2  5
d. Division is distributive over addition and subtraction.

2-7 OPERATIONS WITH SETS

Recall that a set is simply a collection of distinct objects or elements, such as a
set of numbers in arithmetic or a set of points in geometry. And, just as there are
operations in arithmetic and in geometry, there are operations with sets. Before
we look at these operations, we need to understand one more type of set.
The universal set, or the universe, is the set of all elements under consider-
ation in a given situation, usually denoted by the letter U. For example:
1. Some universal sets, such as all the numbers we have studied, are infinite.
Here, U = {real numbers}.
2. In other situations, such as the scores on a classroom test, the universal set
can be finite. Here, using whole-number grades, U = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . ., 100}.
Three operations with sets are called intersection, union, and complement.

Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets, A and B, denoted by A d B, is the set of all ele-
ments that belong to both sets, A and B. For example:
72 Operations and Properties

1. When A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, then A d B is {2, 4}.

4 4
2. In the diagram, two lines called AB and CD inter-
A C
sect. Each line is an infinite set of points although
only three points are marked on each line. The
intersection is a set that has one element, point E, E
4
the point that is on line AB (AB ) and on line CD
4
(CD). We write the intersection of the lines in the D B
4 4
example shown as AB d CD 5 E.
3. Intersection is a binary operation, F d G 5 H, where sets F, G, and H
are subsets of the universal set and d is the operation symbol. For
example:
U  set of natural numbers  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, . . .}
F  multiples of 2  {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, . . .}
G  multiples of 3  {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, . . .}
F d G  multiples of 6  {6, 12, 18, 24, 30, . . .}
4. Two sets are disjoint sets if their intersection is the empty set ( or {});
that is, if they do not have a common element. For example, when
K = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13} and L = {2, 4, 6, 8}, K d L 5 . Therefore,
K and L are disjoint sets.

Union of Sets
The union of two sets, A and B, denoted by A < B, is the set of all elements that
belong to set A or to set B, or to both set A and set B. For example:
1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6}, then A < B  {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}. Note that an
element is not repeated in the union of two sets even if it is an element of
each set.
2. In the diagram, both region R (gray shading)
R
and region S (light color shading) represent
sets of points. The shaded parts of both S
regions represents R < S, and the dark color
shading where the regions overlap represents
R d S.
3. If A  {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then the union of A and B is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
We can write A < B  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, or A < B  B. Once again we have
an example of a binary operation, where the elements are taken from a
universal set and where the operation here is union.
 Operations with Sets 73

4. The union of the set of all rational numbers and the set of all irrational
numbers is the set of real numbers.

{real numbers}  {rational numbers} {irrational numbers}

Complement of a Set
The complement of a set A, denoted by A, is the set of all elements that belong
to the universe U but do not belong to set A. Therefore, before we can deter-
mine the complement of A, we must know U. For example:
1. If A  {3, 4, 5} and U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then A  {1, 2} because 1 and 2
belong to the universal set U but do not belong to set A.
2. If the universe is {whole numbers} and A = {even whole numbers} then
A  {odd whole numbers} because the odd whole numbers belong to the
universal set but do not belong to set A.
Although it seems at first that only one set is being considered in writing the
complement of A as A, actually there are two sets. This fact suggests a binary
operation, in which the universe U and the set A are the pair of elements, com-
plement is the operation, and the unique result is A. The complement of any uni-
verse is the empty set. Note that the complement can also be written as U \ A to
emphasize that it is a binary operation.

EXAMPLE 1

If U  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, A  {6, 7}, and B  {3, 5, 7}, determine A d B.

Solution U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
Since A  {6, 7}, then A  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Since B = {3, 5, 7}, then B  {1, 2, 4, 6}.
Since 1, 2, and 4 are elements in both A and B, we can write:
A d B  {1, 2, 4} Answer

EXAMPLE 2

Using sets U, A, and B given for Example 1, find the complement of the set
A < B, that is, determine A < B.

Solution Since A < B contains all of the elements that are common to A and B,
A < B 5 53, 5, 6, 76 . Therefore,
A < B 5 51, 2, 46 Answer
74 Operations and Properties

EXERCISES
Writing About Mathematics
1. A line is a set of points. Can the intersection of two lines be the empty set? Explain.
2. Is the union of the set of prime numbers and the set of composite numbers equal to the set
of counting numbers? Explain.

Developing Skills
In 3–10, A  {1, 2, 3}, B  {3, 4, 5, 6}, and C = {1, 3, 4, 6}. In each case, perform the given operation
and list the element(s) of the resulting set.
3. A d B 4. A < B 5. A d C 6. A < C
7. B d C 8. B < C 9. B <  10. B d 
11. Using the sets A, B, and C given for Exercises 3–10, list the element(s) of the smallest possi-
ble universal set of which A, B, and C are all subsets.

In 12–19, the universe U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A  {1, 5}, B = {2, 5}, and C  {2}. In each case, perform the
given operation and list the element(s) of the resulting set.
12. A 13. B 14. C 15. A < B
16. A d B 17. A < B 18. A d B 19. A < B
20. If U  {2, 4, 6, 8} and A  {6}, what are the elements of A?
21. If U  {2, 4, 6, 8}, A  {2}, and B  {2, 4}, what are the elements of A < B?
22. If U  {2, 4, 6, 8}, A  {2}, and B  {2, 4}, what is the set A d B?
23. Suppose that the set A has two elements and the set B has three elements.
a. What is the greatest number of elements that A < B can have?
b. What is the least number of elements that A < B can have?
c. What is the greatest number of elements that A d B can have?
d. What is the least number of elements that A d B can have?
24. Let the universe U  {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, A  {2, 8, 12} and B  {4, 10}.
a. A b. A (the complement of A) c. B d. B (the complement of B)
25. Let the universe U  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.
a. Find the elements of A d B, A d B, and A < B when A and B are equal to:
(1) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}; B  {5, 6, 7, 8} (2) A  {2, 4}; B  {6, 8}
(3) A  {1, 3, 5, 7}; B  {2, 4, 6, 8} (4) A  {2}; B  {4}
b. When A and B are disjoint sets, describe, in words, the set A d B.
c. If A and B are disjoint sets, what is the set A < B? Explain.
 Graphing Number Pairs 75

2-8 GRAPHING NUMBER PAIRS

Even though we know that the surface

°W
°W

°E
°E
°E
°E
°E
of the earth is approximately the sur-

20
10

10
20
30
40
50
0°
face of a sphere, we often model the
earth by using maps that are plane sur- 30°N
faces. To locate a place on a map, we
choose two reference lines, the equa- 20°N
tor and the prime meridian. The loca- Dakar
tion of a city is given in term of east or 10°N
Lagos
west longitude (distance from the Equator
0°
prime meridian) and north or south

Prime Meridian
latitude (distance from the equator). 10°S
For example, the city of Lagos in
Nigeria is located at 3° east longitude 20°S
and 6° north latitude, and the city of
Dakar in Senegal is located 17° west 30°s
longitude and 15° north latitude.

Points on a Plane
The method used to locate cities on a map can be used to locate any point on a
plane. The reference lines are a horizontal number line called the x-axis and a
vertical number line called the y-axis. These two number lines, which have the
same scale and are drawn perpendicular to each other, are called the coordinate
axes. The plane determined by the axes is called the coordinate plane.
In a coordinate plane, the intersection of the two axes is called the origin
and is indicated as point O. This point of intersection is assigned the value 0 on
both the x- and y-axes.
Moving to the right and moving up
are regarded as movements in the pos- y
itive direction. In the coordinate plane, 4
points to the right of O on the x-axis 3
and on lines parallel to the x-axis and
points above O on the y-axis and on 2
lines parallel to the y-axis are assigned 1
positive values. O
Moving to the left and moving –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 x
down are regarded as movements in –1
the negative direction. In the coordi-
–2
nate plane, points to the left of O on
the x-axis and on lines parallel to the x- –3
axis and points below O on the y-axis –4
and on lines parallel to the y-axis are
assigned negative values.
76 Operations and Properties

Quadrant y Quadrant The x-axis and the y-axis separate the plane into four regions called
3
II I quadrants. These quadrants are numbered I, II, III, and IV in a counterclock-
2
1
wise order, beginning at the upper right, as shown in the accompanying diagram.
O The points on the axes are not in any quadrant.
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
–1
–2
Quadrant–3 Quadrant
III IV

Coordinates of a Point
Every point on the plane can be described by two numbers, called the
coordinates of the point, usually written as an ordered pair. The first number in
the pair is called the x-coordinate or the abscissa. The second number is the
y-coordinate or the ordinate. In general, the coordinates of a point are repre-
sented as (x, y).
In the graph at the right, point A, which
is the graph of the ordered pair (2, 3), lies

y-axis
A(+2,+3)
in quadrant I. Here, A lies a distance of 2
units to the right of the origin (in a positive B(–4,+1)
direction along the x-axis) and then up a dis-
tance of 3 units (in a positive direction paral- x-axis
O
lel to the y-axis).
Point B, the graph of (4, 1) in quad-
C(–2,–3)
rant II, lies a distance of 4 units to the left of
the origin (in a negative direction along the D(+3,–5)
x-axis) and then up 1 unit (in a positive direc-
tion parallel to the y-axis).
In quadrant III, every ordered pair (x, y) consists of two negative numbers.
For example, C, the graph of (2, 3), lies 2 units to the left of the origin (in the
negative direction along the x-axis) and then down 3 units (in the negative
direction parallel to the y-axis).
Point D, the graph of (3, 5) in quadrant IV, lies 3 units to the right of the
origin (in a positive direction along the x-axis) and then down 5 units (in a neg-
ative direction parallel to the y-axis).
Point O, the origin, has the coordinates (0, 0).

Locating a Point on the Coordinate Plane

An ordered pair of signed numbers uniquely determines the location of a point.
 Graphing Number Pairs 77

Procedure
To find the location of a point on the coordinate plane:
1. Starting from the origin O, move along the x-axis the number of units given
by the x-coordinate. Move to the right if the number is positive or to the
left if the number is negative. If the x-coordinate is 0, there is no movement
along the x-axis.
2. Then, from the point on the x-axis, move parallel to the y-axis the number
of units given by the y-coordinate. Move up if the number is positive or
down if the number is negative. If the y-coordinate is 0, there is no move-
ment in the y direction.

To locate the point A(3, 4), from y

O, move 3 units to the left along the 2
x-axis, then 4 units down, parallel to the 1
y-axis. B(4, 0)
To locate the point B(4, 0), from O, –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
move 4 units to the right along the x-
–2
axis. There is no movement parallel to
the y-axis. –3
To locate the point C(0, 5), there A(–3, –4)
–4
C(0, –5)
is no movement along the x-axis. From –5
O, move 5 units down along the y-axis.

Finding the Coordinates of a Point on a Plane

The location of a point on the coordinate plane uniquely determines the coor-
dinates of the point.

Procedure
To find the coordinates of a point:
1. From the point, move along a vertical line to the x-axis.The number
assigned to that point on the x-axis is the x-coordinate of the point.
2. From the point, move along a horizontal line to the y-axis.The number
assigned to that point on the y-axis is the y-coordinate of the point.
78 Operations and Properties

To find the coordinates of point R, y

from point R, move in the vertical 5
S 4
direction to 5 on the x-axis and in the
horizontal direction to 6 on the y- 3
axis. The coordinates of R are (5, 6) 2
To find the coordinates of point S, 1
from point S, move in the vertical T
direction to 2 on the x-axis and in the –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
horizontal direction to 4 on the y-axis.
The coordinates of S are (2, 4) –2
Point T, lies at 5 on the x-axis. –3
Therefore, the x-coordinate is 5 and –4
the y-coordinate is 0. The coordinates –5
R
of T are (5, 0). –6
Note that if a point lies on the y-
axis, the x-coordinate is 0. If a point lies
on the x-axis, the y-coordinate is 0.

Graphing Polygons
A polygon is a closed figure whose y
sides are line segments. A quadrilat-
eral is a polygon with four sides. The
endpoints of the sides are called ver-
B(–3, 2) A(3, 2)
tices. A quadrilateral can be repre-
1
sented in the coordinate plane by
O
locating its vertices and then drawing 1 x
–1
the sides, connecting the vertices in –1
order. The graph at the right shows C(–3, –2) D(3, –2)
the rectangle ABCD. The vertices
are A(3, 2), B(3, 2), C(3, 2) and
D(3, 2). From the graph, note the
following:
1. Points A and B have the same y-coordinate and are on a line parallel to
the x-axis.
2. Points C and D have the same y-coordinate and are on a line parallel to
the x-axis.
3. Lines parallel to the x-axis are parallel to each other.
4. Lines parallel to the x-axis are perpendicular to the y-axis.
5. Points B and C have the same x-coordinate and are on a line parallel to
the y-axis.
 Graphing Number Pairs 79

6. Points A and D have the same x-coordinate and are on a line parallel to
the y-axis.
7. Lines parallel to the y-axis are parallel to each other.
8. Lines parallel to the y-axis are perpendicular to the x-axis.
Now, we know that ABCD is a rectangle, because it is a parallelogram with
right angles. From the graph, we can find the dimensions of this rectangle. To
find the length of the rectangle, we can count the number of units from A to
B or from C to D. AB  CD  6. Because points on the same horizontal line
have the same y-coordinate, we can also find AB and CD by subtracting their x-
coordinates.
AB  CD  3  (3)  3  3  6
To find the width of the rectangle, we can count the number of units from
B to C or from D to A. BC  DA  4. Because points on the same vertical
line have the same x-coordinate, we can find BC and DA by subtracting their y-
coordinates.
BC  DA  2  (2)  2  2  4

EXAMPLE 1

Graph the following points: A(4, 1), B(1, 5), C(2, 1). Then draw ABC and
find its area.
y
Solution The graph at the right shows ABC.
B(1, 5)
To find the area of the triangle,
we need to know the lengths of the
base and of the altitude drawn to that
base. The base of ABC is AC. D(1, 1)
C(–2,–1) A(4, 1)
AC  4  (2)  4  2  6 O
–1 1 x
The line segment drawn from B per- –1
pendicular to AC is the altitude BD.
BD  5  1  4
Area  12 (AC)(BD)
 12 (6)(4)
 12

Answer The area of ABC is 12 square units.

80 Operations and Properties

EXERCISES
Writing About Mathematics
1. Mark is drawing triangle ABC on the coordinate plane. He locates points A(2, 4) and
C(5, 4). He wants to make AC  BC, C a right angle, and point B lie in the first quad-
rant. What must be the coordinates of point B? Explain how you found your answer.
2. Phyllis graphed the points D(3, 0), E(0, 5), F(2, 0), and G(0, 4) on the coordinate plane
and joined the points in order. Explain how Phyllis can find the area of this polygon, then
find the area.

Developing Skills yA
2
3. Write as ordered number pairs the coordinates B F
1
of points A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and O in G O E
the graph. –2 –1 1 2 x
C –1
D
–2 H

In 4–15, draw a pair of coordinate axes on graph paper and locate the point associated with each
ordered number pair. Label each point with its coordinates.
4. (5, 7) 5. (3, 2) 6. (2, 6) 7. (4, 5)
8. (1, 6) 9. (8, 5) 10. (4, 4) 11. (5, 0)
12. (3, 0) 13. (0, 4) 14. (0, 6) 15. (0, 0)

In 16–20, name the quadrant in which the graph of each point described appears.
16. (5, 7) 17. (3, 2) 18. (7, 4) 19. (1, 3) 20. (2, 3)
21. Graph several points on the x-axis. What is the value of the y-coordinate for every point in
the set of points on the x-axis?
22. Graph several points on the y-axis. What is the value of the x-coordinate for every point in
the set of points on the y-axis?
23. What are the coordinates of the origin in the coordinate plane?

Applying Skills
In 24–33: a. Graph the points and connect them with straight lines in order, forming a polygon.
b. Identify the polygon. c. Find the area of the polygon.
24. A(1, 1), B(8, 1), C(1, 5) 25. P(0, 0), Q(5, 0), R(5, 4), S(0, 4)
26. C(8, 1), A(9, 3), L(4, 3), F(3, 1) 27. H(4, 0), O(0, 0), M(0, 4), E(4, 4)
 Graphing Number Pairs 81

28. H(5, 3), E(5, 3), N(2, 0) 29. F(5, 1), A(5, 5), R(0, 5), M(2, 1)
30. B(3, 2), A(2, 2), R(2, 2), N(3, 2) 31. P(3, 0), O(0, 0), N(2, 2), D(1, 2)
32. R(4, 2), A(0, 2), M(0, 7) 33. M(1, 1), I(3, 1), L(3, 3), K(1, 3)
34. Graph points A(1, 1), B(5, 1), and C(5, 4). What must be the coordinates of point D if
ABCD is a rectangle?
35. Graph points P(1, 4) and Q(2, 4). What are the coordinates of R and S if PQRS is a
square? (Two answers are possible.)
36. a. Graph points S(3, 0), T(0, 4), A(3, 0), and R(0, 4), and draw the quadrilateral STAR.
b. Find the area of STAR by adding the areas of the triangles into which the axes divide it.
37. a. Graph points P(2, 0), L(1, 1), A(1, 1), N(2, 0), E(1, 1), and T(1, 1). Draw
PLANET, a six-sided polygon called a hexagon.
b. Find the area of PLANET. (Hint: Use the x-axis to separate the hexagon into two
parts.).

CHAPTER SUMMARY
A binary operation in a set assigns to every ordered pair of elements from
the set a unique answer from that set. The general form of a binary operation is
a  b  c, where a, b, and c are elements of the set and  is the operation sym-
bol. Binary operations exist in arithmetic, in geometry, and in sets.
Operations in arithmetic include addition, subtraction, multiplication, divi-
sion, and raising to a power.
Powers are the result of repeated multiplication of the same factor, as in
53  125. Here, the base 5 with an exponent of 3 equals 5  5  5 or 125, the
power.
Numerical expressions are simplified by following a clear order of opera-
tions:
(1) simplify within parentheses or other grouping symbols;
(2) simplify powers;
(3) multiply and divide from left to right;
(4) add and subtract from left to right.
Many properties are used in operations with real numbers, including:
• closure under addition, subtraction, and multiplication;
• commutative properties for addition and multiplication, a  b  b  a;
• associative properties for addition and multiplication,
(a  b)  c  a  (b  c);
82 Operations and Properties

• distributive property of multiplication over addition or subtraction,

a (b
c)  a b
a c and (a
b) c  a c
b c;
• additive identity (0);
• additive inverses (opposites), called a for every element a;
• multiplicative identity (1);
• multiplicative inverses (reciprocals), a1 for every nonzero element a; the
nonzero real numbers are closed under division.
Operations with sets include the intersection of sets, the union of sets, and
the complement of a set.
Basic operations with signed numbers:
• To add two numbers that have the same sign, find the sum of the absolute
values and give this sum the common sign.
• To add two numbers that have different signs, find the difference of the
absolute values of the numbers. Give this difference the sign of the num-
ber that has the greater absolute value. The sum is 0 if both numbers have
the same absolute value.
• To subtract one signed number from another, add the opposite (additive
inverse) of the subtrahend to the minuend.
• To multiply two signed numbers, find the product of the absolute values.
Write a plus sign before this product when the two numbers have the
same sign. Write a minus sign before this product when the two numbers
have different signs.
• To divide two signed numbers, find the quotient of the absolute values.
Write a plus sign before this quotient when the two numbers have the
same sign. Write a minus sign before this quotient when the two numbers
have different signs. When 0 is divided by any number, the quotient is 0.
Division by 0 is not defined.
The location of a point on a plane is given by an ordered pair of numbers
that indicate the distance of the point from two reference lines, a horizontal line
and a vertical line, called coordinate axes. The horizontal line is called the x-
axis, the vertical line is the y-axis, and their intersection is the origin. The pair
of numbers that are used to locate a point on the plane are called the coordi-
nates of the point. The first number in the pair is called the x-coordinate or
abscissa, and the second number is the y-coordinate or ordinate. The coordi-
nates of a point are represented as (x, y).

VOCABULARY

2-1 Binary operation • Factor • Prime • Composite • Base • Exponent •

Power • Order of operations • Parentheses • Brackets
 Review Exercises 83

2-2 Property • Closure • Commutative property • Associative property •

Distributive property of multiplication over addition and subtraction •
Addition property of zero • Additive identity • Additive inverse
(opposite) • Multiplication property of one • Multiplicative inverse
(reciprocal) • Multiplication property of zero
2-3 Property of the opposite of a sum
2-7 Universal set • Intersection • Disjoint sets • Empty set • Union •
Complement
2-8 x-axis • y-axis • Coordinate axes • Coordinate plane • Origin • Quadrants
• Coordinates • Ordered pair • x-coordinate • Abscissa • y-coordinate •
Ordinate • Graph of the ordered pair
2-9 Polygon • Quadrilateral • Vertices

REVIEW EXERCISES
In 1–8, simplify each numerical expression.
1. 20  3  4 2. (20  3)  ( 4) 3. –8  16  4  2
4. (8  16)  (4  2) 5. (0.16) 2
6. 62  82
7. (6  8)2 8. 7(9  7)3

In 9–14: a. Replace each question mark with a number that makes the sentence
true. b. Name the property illustrated in each sentence that is formed when the
replacement is made.
9. 8  (2  9)  8  (9  ?) 10. 8  (2  9)  (8  ?)  9
11. 3(?)  3 12. 3(?)  0
13. 5(7  4)  5(7)  ?(4) 14. 5(7  4)  (7  4)?

In 15–24, the universe U  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, set A  {1, 2, 4, 5}, and set B  {2, 4, 6}.
In each case, perform the given operation and list the element(s) of the result-
ing set.
15. A d B 16. A < B 17. A 18. A d B 19. A d A
20. A < A 21. A d B 22. A < B 23. A d B 24. A < B

In 25–32, find each sum or difference.

25. 6  6 26. 6  6 27. 3.2  4.5 28. 4  5
29. 23  0 30. 54  52 31. 100  25 32. 0  7
84 Operations and Properties

In 33–40, to each property named in Column I, match the correct application of

the property found in Column II.
Column I Column II
33. Associative property of multiplication a. 3  4  4  3
34. Associative property of addition b. 3  1  3
35. Commutative property of addition c. 0  4  0
36. Commutative property of multiplication d. 3  0  3
37. Identity element of multiplication e. 3  4  4  3
38. Identity element of addition f. 3(4  5)  3(4)  3(5)
39. Distributive property g. 3(4  5)  (3  4)5
40. Multiplication property of zero h. (3  4)  5  3  (4  5)
41. a. Find the number on the odometer of Jesse’s car described in the chapter
opener on page 37.
b. What would the number be if it were an odd number?
42. a. Rectangle ABCD is drawn with two sides parallel to the x-axis. The coor-
dinates of vertex A are (2, 4) and the coordinates of C are (3, 5). Find
the coordinates of vertices B and D.
b. What is the area of rectangle ABCD?
43. Maurice answered all of the 60 questions on a multiple-choice test. The
test was scored by using the formula S  R 2 W 4 where S is the score on
the test, R is the number right, and W is the number wrong.
a. What is the lowest possible score?
b. How many answers did Maurice get right if his score was 5?
c. Is it possible for a person who answers all of the questions to get a
score of 4? Explain why not or find the numbers of right and wrong
answers needed to get this score.
d. Is it possible for a person who does not answer all of the questions to
get a score of 4? Explain why not or find the numbers of right and
wrong answers needed to get this score.
44. Solve the following problem using signed numbers.
Doug, the team’s replacement quarterback, started out on his team’s
30-yard line. On the first play, one of his linemen was offsides for a loss
of 5 yards. On the next play, Doug gave the ball to the runningback who
made a gain of 8 yards. He then made a 17-yard pass. Then Doug was
tackled, for a loss of 3 yards. Where was Doug on the field after he
was tackled?
 Cumulative Review 85

Exploration
In this activity, you will derive a rule to determine if a number is divisible by 3.
We will start our exploration with the number 23,568. For steps 1–4, fill in the
blanks with a digit that will make the equality true.
STEP 1. Write the number as a sum of powers of ten.
23,568  20,000  3,000  500  60  8
 □  10,000  □  1,000  □  100  □  10  □
STEP 2. Rewrite the powers of ten as a multiple of 9, plus 1.
□  10,000  □  1,000  □  100  □  10 □
 □  (9,999  1)  □  (999  1)  □  (99  1)  □  (9  1)  □
STEP 3. Use the distributive property to expand the product terms. Do not
multiply out products involving the multiples of 9.
□  (9,999  1)  □  (999  1)  □  (99  1)  □  (9  1)  □
 (□  9,999  □)  (□  999  □)  (□  99  □)  (□  9  □)  □
STEP 4. Group the products involving the multiples of 9 first and then the
remaining digit terms.
(□  9,999  □)  (□  999  □)  (□  99  □)  (□  9  □)  □
 (□  9,999  □  999  □  99  □  9)  (□  □  □  □  □)
STEP 5. Compare the expression involving the digit terms with the original
number. What do they have in common?
STEP 6. The expression involving the multiples of 9 is divisible by 3. Why?
STEP 7. If the expression involving the digit terms is divisible by 3, will the
entire expression be divisible by 3? Explain.
STEP 8. Based on steps 1–7 write the rule to determine if a number is divisible
by 3.

CUMULATIVE REVIEW CHAPTERS 1–2

Part I
Answer all questions in this part. Each correct answer will receive 2 credits. No
partial credit will be allowed.
1. Which number is not an integer?
(1) 7 (2) 2 (3) 0.2 (4) "9
86 Operations and Properties

2. Which inequality is false?

(1) 4  3 (2) 3  3 (3) 4  3 (4) 3  3
3. What is the opposite of 4?
(1) 214 (2) 14 (3) 4 (4) 4
4. Which of the following numbers has the greatest value?
(1) 57 (2) 0.7 (3) p5 25
(4) 36
5. Under which operation is the set of integers not closed?
(1) Addition (2) Subtraction (3) Multiplication (4) Division
6. Which of the following numbers has exactly three factors?
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 9 (4) 15
7. The graph of the ordered pair (3, 5) is in which quadrant?
(1) I (2) II (3) III (4) IV
8. Put the following numbers in order, starting with the smallest:
213, 215, 227
(1) 213 227 215 (3) 215 213 227
(2) 213 215 227 (4) 215 227 213

9. When rounded to the nearest hundredth, "3 is approximately equal to

(1) 1.732 (2) 1.730 (3) 1.73 (4) 1.74
10. For which value of t is 1t  t  t2?
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 0 (4) 12

Part II
Answer all questions in this part. Each correct answer will receive 2 credits.
Clearly indicate the necessary steps, including appropriate formula substitu-
tions, diagrams, graphs, charts, etc. For all questions in this part, a correct numer-
ical answer with no work shown will receive only 1 credit.
11. Mrs. Ling spends more than $4.90 and less than $5.00 for meat for tonight’s
dinner. Write the set of all possible amounts that she could have paid for
the meat. Is this a finite or an infinite set? Explain.
12. In a basketball league, 100 students play on 8 teams. Each team has at least
12 players. What is the largest possible number of players on any one team?
 Cumulative Review 87

Part III
Answer all questions in this part. Each correct answer will receive 3 credits.
Clearly indicate the necessary steps, including appropriate formula substitu-
tions, diagrams, graphs, charts, etc. For all questions in this part, a correct numer-
ical answer with no work shown will receive only 1 credit.
13. A teacher wrote the sequence 2, 4, 6, . . . and asked the class what the next
number could be. Three students each gave a different answer. The teacher
said that each of the answers was correct.
a. Josie said 8. Explain the rule that she used.
b. Emil said 10. Explain the rule that he used.
c. Ross said 12. Explain the rule that he used.
14. Evaluate the following expression without using a calculator. Show each
step in your computation.
4(7  3)  8  (2  6)2

Part IV
Answer all questions in this part. Each correct answer will receive 4 credits.
Clearly indicate the necessary steps, including appropriate formula substitu-
tions, diagrams, graphs, charts, etc. For all questions in this part, a correct numer-
ical answer with no work shown will receive only 1 credit.
15. The vertices of triangle ABC are A(2, 3), B(5, 3), and C(0, 4). Draw
triangle ABC on the coordinate plane and find its area.
16. A survey to which 250 persons responded found that 140 persons said that
they watch the news on TV at 6 o’clock, 120 persons said that they watch
the news on TV at 11 o’clock and 40 persons said that they do not watch
the news on TV at any time.
a. How many persons from this group watch the news both at 6 and at 11?
b. How many persons from this group watch the news at 6 but not at 11?
c. How many persons from this group watch the news at 11 but not at 6?