Engine

An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of

energy into mechanical energy.[1][2] Heat engines, like the internal
combustion engine, burn a fuel to create heat which is then used to
do work. Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical
motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air, and clockwork motors
in wind-up toys use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular
motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create forces
and ultimately motion.

Contents
Terminology
History
Antiquity
Medieval
Animation showing the four stages of
Industrial Revolution the four-stroke gasoline combustion
Automobiles engine cycle:
Horizontally opposed pistons
Advancement 1. Induction (Fuel enters)
Increasing power 2. Compression
Combustion efficiency 3. Ignition (Fuel is burnt)
Engine configuration 4. Emission (Exhaust out)
Types
Heat engine
Combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
External combustion engine
Air-breathing combustion engines
Environmental effects
Air quality
Non-combusting heat engines
Non-thermal chemically powered motor
Electric motor
Physically powered motor
Pneumatic motor
Hydraulic motor
Performance
Speed
Thrust
Torque
Power
 Efficiency
Sound levels
Engines by use
See also
Notes
References
External links

Terminology
The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious.
Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, and
knowledge of how to construct them was often treated as a military secret. The word gin, as in cotton gin, is
short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the industrial revolution were described as engines
—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the original steam engines, such as those by Thomas
Savery, were not mechanical engines but pumps. In this manner, a fire engine in its original form was merely a
water pump, with the engine being transported to the fire by horses.[3]

In modern usage, the term engine typically describes devices, like steam engines and internal combustion
engines, that burn or otherwise consume fuel to perform mechanical work by exerting a torque or linear force
(usually in the form of thrust). Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as
engines.[4] Examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel
engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets.

When the internal combustion engine was invented, the term motor was initially used to distinguish it from the
steam engine—which was in wide use at the time, powering locomotives and other vehicles such as steam
rollers. The term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion.
Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion.

Motor and engine are interchangeable in standard English.[5] In some engineering jargons, the two words have
different meanings, in which engine is a device that burns or otherwise consumes fuel, changing its chemical
composition, and a motor is a device driven by electricity, air, or hydraulic pressure, which does not change
the chemical composition of its energy source.[6][7] However, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even
though they consume fuel.

A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure
of a fluid into mechanical energy.[8] An automobile powered by an internal combustion engine may make use
of various motors and pumps, but ultimately all such devices derive their power from the engine. Another way
of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, and then converts it into mechanical
energy, while an engine creates power from pressure (derived directly from the explosive force of combustion
or other chemical reaction, or secondarily from the action of some such force on other substances such as air,
water, or steam).[9]

History

Antiquity
Simple machines, such as the club and oar (examples of the lever), are prehistoric. More complex engines
using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and even steam power date back to antiquity.
Human power was focused by the use of simple engines, such as the capstan, windlass or treadmill, and with
ropes, pulleys, and block and tackle arrangements; this power was transmitted usually with the forces
multiplied and the speed reduced. These were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in
mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius,
Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, so their invention may be more ancient. By
the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans
in earlier times.

According to Strabo, a water powered mill was built in Kaberia of the kingdom of Mithridates during the 1st
century BC. Use of water wheels in mills spread throughout the Roman Empire over the next few centuries.
Some were quite complex, with aqueducts, dams, and sluices to maintain and channel the water, along with
systems of gears, or toothed-wheels made of wood and metal to regulate the speed of rotation. More
sophisticated small devices, such as the Antikythera Mechanism used complex trains of gears and dials to act
as calendars or predict astronomical events. In a poem by Ausonius in the 4th century AD, he mentions a
stone-cutting saw powered by water. Hero of Alexandria is credited with many such wind and steam powered
machines in the 1st century AD, including the Aeolipile and the vending machine, often these machines were
associated with worship, such as animated altars and automated temple doors.

Medieval

Medieval Muslim engineers employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and used dams as a source of
water power to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[10] In the medieval Islamic
world, such advances made it possible to mechanize many industrial tasks previously carried out by manual
labour.

In 1206, al-Jazari employed a crank-conrod system for two of his water-raising machines. A rudimentary
steam turbine device was described by Taqi al-Din[11] in 1551 and by Giovanni Branca[12] in 1629.[13]

In the 13th century, the solid rocket motor was invented in China. Driven by gunpowder, this simplest form of
internal combustion engine was unable to deliver sustained power, but was useful for propelling weaponry at
high speeds towards enemies in battle and for fireworks. After invention, this innovation spread throughout
Europe.

Industrial Revolution

The Watt steam engine was the first type of steam engine to make use of steam at a pressure just above
atmospheric to drive the piston helped by a partial vacuum. Improving on the design of the 1712 Newcomen
steam engine, the Watt steam engine, developed sporadically from 1763 to 1775, was a great step in the
development of the steam engine. Offering a dramatic increase in fuel efficiency, James Watt's design became
synonymous with steam engines, due in no small part to his business partner, Matthew Boulton. It enabled
rapid development of efficient semi-automated factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where
waterpower was not available. Later development led to steam locomotives and great expansion of railway
transportation.

As for internal combustion piston engines, these were tested in France in 1807 by de Rivaz and independently,
by the Niépce brothers. They were theoretically advanced by Carnot in 1824. In 1853–57 Eugenio Barsanti
and Felice Matteucci invented and patented an engine using the free-piston principle that was possibly the first
4-cycle engine.[14]
The invention of an internal combustion engine which was later commercially
successful was made during 1860 by Etienne Lenoir.[15]

In 1877 the Otto cycle was capable of giving a far higher power to weight
ratio than steam engines and worked much better for many transportation
applications such as cars and aircraft.

Automobiles

The first commercially successful automobile, created by Karl Benz, added to

the interest in light and powerful engines. The lightweight gasoline internal
combustion engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has been the most
successful for light automobiles, while the more efficient Diesel engine is used Boulton & Watt engine of
for trucks and buses. However, in recent years, turbo Diesel engines have 1788
become increasingly popular, especially outside of the United States, even for
quite small cars.

Horizontally opposed pistons

In 1896, Karl Benz was granted a patent for his design of the
first engine with horizontally opposed pistons. His design
created an engine in which the corresponding pistons move in
horizontal cylinders and reach top dead center simultaneously,
thus automatically balancing each other with respect to their
individual momentum. Engines of this design are often referred
to as flat engines because of their shape and lower profile. They
were used in the Volkswagen Beetle, the Citroën 2CV, some
A V6 internal combustion engine from a
Porsche and Subaru cars, many BMW and Honda motorcycles, Mercedes-Benz
and propeller aircraft engines.

Advancement

Continuance of the use of the internal combustion engine for automobiles is partly due to the improvement of
engine control systems (onboard computers providing engine management processes, and electronically
controlled fuel injection). Forced air induction by turbocharging and supercharging have increased power
outputs and engine efficiencies. Similar changes have been applied to smaller diesel engines giving them
almost the same power characteristics as gasoline engines. This is especially evident with the popularity of
smaller diesel engine propelled cars in Europe. Larger diesel engines are still often used in trucks and heavy
machinery, although they require special machining not available in most factories. Diesel engines produce
lower hydrocarbon and CO2 emissions, but greater particulate and NOx pollution, than gasoline engines.[16]
Diesel engines are also 40% more fuel efficient than comparable gasoline engines.[16]

Increasing power

In the first half of the 20th century, a trend of increasing engine power occurred, particularly in the U.S
models. Design changes incorporated all known methods of increasing engine capacity, including increasing
the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the rate at
which the engine produces work. The higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine
vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts
replacing longer straight-line arrangements.
Combustion efficiency

The design principles favoured in Europe, because of economic and other restraints such as smaller and
twistier roads, leant toward smaller cars and corresponding to the design principles that concentrated on
increasing the combustion efficiency of smaller engines. This produced more economical engines with earlier
four-cylinder designs rated at 40 horsepower (30 kW) and six-cylinder designs rated as low as 80 horsepower
(60 kW), compared with the large volume V-8 American engines with power ratings in the range from 250 to
350 hp, some even over 400 hp (190 to 260 kW).

Engine configuration

Earlier automobile engine development produced a much larger range of engines than is in common use today.
Engines have ranged from 1- to 16-cylinder designs with corresponding differences in overall size, weight,
engine displacement, and cylinder bores. Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW)
were followed in a majority of the models. Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models were built while
most engines had straight or in-line cylinders. There were several V-type models and horizontally opposed
two- and four-cylinder makes too. Overhead camshafts were frequently employed. The smaller engines were
commonly air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively low. The 1970s
and 1980s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy, which caused a return to smaller V-6 and four-
cylinder layouts, with as many as five valves per cylinder to improve efficiency. The Bugatti Veyron 16.4
operates with a W16 engine, meaning that two V8 cylinder layouts are positioned next to each other to create
the W shape sharing the same crankshaft.

The largest internal combustion engine ever built is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C, a 14-cylinder, 2-stroke
turbocharged diesel engine that was designed to power the Emma Mærsk, the largest container ship in the
world when launched in 2006. This engine has a mass of 2,300 tonnes, and when running at 102 RPM
(1.7 Hz) produces over 80 MW, and can use up to 250 tonnes of fuel per day.

Types
An engine can be put into a category according to two criteria: the form of energy it accepts in order to create
motion, and the type of motion it outputs.

Heat engine

Combustion engine

Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat of a combustion process.

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (generally, fossil fuel) occurs
with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the
high temperature and high pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to
components of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by moving it over a distance,
generates mechanical work.[17][18][19][20]

External combustion engine

An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine
where an internal working fluid is heated by combustion of an
external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger.
The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of
the engine produces motion and usable work.[21] The fluid is
then cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle), or (less
commonly) dumped, and cool fluid pulled in (open cycle air
engine).

"Combustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply

the heat. Engines of similar (or even identical) configuration and
operation may use a supply of heat from other sources such as
A three-horsepower internal combustion
nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not involving
engine that ran on coal gas
combustion; but are not then strictly classed as external
combustion engines, but as external thermal engines.

The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engine, or steam as in a steam engine or an organic liquid such
as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine cycle. The fluid can be of any composition; gas is by far the most
common, although even single-phase liquid is sometimes used. In the case of the steam engine, the fluid
changes phases between liquid and gas.

Air-breathing combustion engines

Air-breathing combustion engines are combustion engines that use the oxygen in atmospheric air to oxidise
('burn') the fuel, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a rocket. Theoretically, this should result in a better
specific impulse than for rocket engines.

A continuous stream of air flows through the air-breathing engine. This air is compressed, mixed with fuel,
ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas.

Examples

Typical air-breathing engines include:

Reciprocating engine
Steam engine
Gas turbine

airbreathing jet engine

Turbo-propeller engine

Pulse detonation engine

Pulse jet
Ramjet
Scramjet
Liquid air cycle engine/Reaction Engines SABRE.

Environmental effects
The operation of engines typically has a negative impact upon air quality and ambient sound levels. There has
been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing features of automotive power systems. This has created
new interest in alternate power sources and internal-combustion engine refinements. Though a few limited-
production battery-powered electric vehicles have appeared, they have not proved competitive owing to costs
and operating characteristics. In the 21st century the diesel engine has been increasing in popularity with
automobile owners. However, the gasoline engine and the Diesel engine, with their new emission-control
devices to improve emission performance, have not yet been significantly challenged. A number of
manufacturers have introduced hybrid engines, mainly involving a small gasoline engine coupled with an
electric motor and with a large battery bank, but these too have yet to make much of an inroad into the market
shares of gasoline and Diesel engines.

Air quality

Exhaust gas from a spark ignition engine consists of the following: nitrogen 70 to 75% (by volume), water
vapor 10 to 12%, carbon dioxide 10 to 13.5%, hydrogen 0.5 to 2%, oxygen 0.2 to 2%, carbon monoxide: 0.1
to 6%, unburnt hydrocarbons and partial oxidation products (e.g. aldehydes) 0.5 to 1%, nitrogen monoxide
0.01 to 0.4%, nitrous oxide <100 ppm, sulfur dioxide 15 to 60 ppm, traces of other compounds such as fuel
additives and lubricants, also halogen and metallic compounds, and other particles.[22] Carbon monoxide is
highly toxic, and can cause carbon monoxide poisoning, so it is important to avoid any build-up of the gas in a
confined space. Catalytic converters can reduce toxic emissions, but not completely eliminate them. Also,
resulting greenhouse gas emissions, chiefly carbon dioxide, from the widespread use of engines in the modern
industrialized world is contributing to the global greenhouse effect – a primary concern regarding global
warming.

Non-combusting heat engines

Some engines convert heat from noncombustive processes into mechanical work, for example a nuclear power
plant uses the heat from the nuclear reaction to produce steam and drive a steam engine, or a gas turbine in a
rocket engine may be driven by decomposing hydrogen peroxide. Apart from the different energy source, the
engine is often engineered much the same as an internal or external combustion engine. Another group of
noncombustive engines includes thermoacoustic heat engines (sometimes called "TA engines") which are
thermoacoustic devices which use high-amplitude sound waves to pump heat from one place to another, or
conversely use a heat difference to induce high-amplitude sound waves. In general, thermoacoustic engines
can be divided into standing wave and travelling wave devices.[23]

Non-thermal chemically powered motor

Non-thermal motors usually are powered by a chemical reaction, but are not heat engines. Examples include:

Molecular motor – motors found in living things

Synthetic molecular motor.

Electric motor

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, usually through the interaction of
magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy from
mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on vehicles often perform
both tasks. Electric motors can be run as generators and vice versa, although this is not always practical.
Electric motors are ubiquitous, being found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current
(for example a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating current from a central
electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of
highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses.
The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such purposes as pipeline
compressors, with ratings in the thousands of kilowatts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of
electric power, by their internal construction, and by their application.

The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the

interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field was known as
early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were
constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation
of electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical
generators and electrical distribution networks.

To reduce the electric energy consumption from motors and their

associated carbon footprints, various regulatory authorities in many
countries have introduced and implemented legislation to encourage
the manufacture and use of higher efficiency electric motors. A well-
designed motor can convert over 90% of its input energy into useful
power for decades.[24] When the efficiency of a motor is raised by Electric motor
even a few percentage points, the savings, in kilowatt hours (and
therefore in cost), are enormous. The electrical energy efficiency of a
typical industrial induction motor can be improved by: 1) reducing the electrical losses in the stator windings
(e.g., by increasing the cross-sectional area of the conductor, improving the winding technique, and using
materials with higher electrical conductivities, such as copper), 2) reducing the electrical losses in the rotor coil
or casting (e.g., by using materials with higher electrical conductivities, such as copper), 3) reducing magnetic
losses by using better quality magnetic steel, 4) improving the aerodynamics of motors to reduce mechanical
windage losses, 5) improving bearings to reduce friction losses, and 6) minimizing manufacturing tolerances.
For further discussion on this subject, see Premium efficiency.)

By convention, electric engine refers to a railroad electric locomotive, rather than an electric motor.

Physically powered motor

Some motors are powered by potential or kinetic energy, for example some funiculars, gravity plane and
ropeway conveyors have used the energy from moving water or rocks, and some clocks have a weight that
falls under gravity. Other forms of potential energy include compressed gases (such as pneumatic motors),
springs (clockwork motors) and elastic bands.

Historic military siege engines included large catapults, trebuchets, and (to some extent) battering rams were
powered by potential energy.

Pneumatic motor

A pneumatic motor is a machine that converts potential energy in the form of compressed air into mechanical
work. Pneumatic motors generally convert the compressed air to mechanical work through either linear or
rotary motion. Linear motion can come from either a diaphragm or piston actuator, while rotary motion is
supplied by either a vane type air motor or piston air motor. Pneumatic motors have found widespread success
in the hand-held tool industry and continual attempts are being made to expand their use to the transportation
industry. However, pneumatic motors must overcome efficiency deficiencies before being seen as a viable
option in the transportation industry.
Hydraulic motor

A hydraulic motor derives its power from a pressurized liquid. This type of engine is used to move heavy
loads and drive machinery.[25]

Performance
The following are used in the assessment of the performance of an engine.

Speed

Speed refers to crankshaft rotation in piston engines and the speed of compressor/turbine rotors and electric
motor rotors. It is measured in revolutions per minute (RPM).

Thrust

Thrust is the force exerted on an aircraft engine or its propeller after it has speeded up the air passing through
it.

Torque

Torque is a turning moment on a shaft and is calculated by multiplying the force causing the moment by its
distance from the shaft.

Power

Power is the measure of how fast work is done.

Efficiency

Efficiency is a measure of how much fuel is wasted in producing power.

Sound levels

Vehicle noise is predominantly from the engine at low vehicle speeds and from tires and the air flowing past
the vehicle at higher speeds.[26] Electric motors are quieter than internal combustion engines. Thrust-producing
engines, such as turbofans, turbojets and rockets emit the greatest amount of noise due to the way their thrust-
producing, high-velocity exhaust streams interact with the surrounding stationary air. Noise reduction
technology includes intake and exhaust system mufflers (silencers) on gasoline and diesel engines and noise
attenuation liners in turbofan inlets.

Engines by use
Particularly notable kinds of engines include:

Aircraft engine
 Automobile engine
Model engine
Motorcycle engine
Marine propulsion engines such as Outboard motor
Non-road engine is the term used to define engines that are not used by vehicles on roadways.
Railway locomotive engine
Spacecraft propulsion engines such as Rocket engine
Traction engine

See also
Aircraft engine
Automobile engine replacement
Electric motor
Engine cooling
Engine swap
Gasoline engine
HCCI engine
Hesselman engine
Hot bulb engine
IRIS engine
Multifuel
Reaction engine
Solid-state engine
Timeline of heat engine technology
Timeline of motor and engine technology

Notes
1. "Motor" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/motor). Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved
2011-05-09. "a person or thing that imparts motion, esp. a contrivance, as a steam engine, that
receives and modifies energy from some source in order to utilize it in driving machinery."
2. Dictionary.com: (World heritage) (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/motor) "3. any device
that converts another form of energy into mechanical energy so as to produce motion"
3. "World Wide Words: Engine and Motor" (http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/engine.htm).
World Wide Words. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
4. "Engine" (http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/Engine). Collins English
Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-09-03.
 5. Dictionary definitions:
"motor" (http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=motor). Oxford English Dictionary
(3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library
membership (https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary) required.)
"engine" (http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=engine). Oxford English
Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public
library membership (https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary) required.)
"motor" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/motor). Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
"engine" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/engine). Merriam-Webster
Dictionary.
"motor" (https://www.dictionary.com/browse/motor). Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House.
"engine" (https://www.dictionary.com/browse/engine). Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random
House.
6. "Engine", McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, Third Edition, Sybil
P. Parker, ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994, p. 714.
7. Quinion, Michael. "World Wide Words: Engine and Motor" (http://www.worldwidewords.org/artic
les/engine.htm). Worldwide Words. Retrieved 2018-02-03.
8. "Prime mover", McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, Third Edition,
Sybil P. Parker, ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994, p. 1498.
9. Press, AIP, Associated (2007). Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law (42nd ed.). New York:
Basic Books. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-465-00489-8.
10. Hassan, Ahmad Y. Transmission Of Islamic Engineering (https://web.archive.org/web/2008021
8171021/http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm). Transfer Of
Islamic Technology To The West, Part II. Archived from the original (http://www.history-science-t
echnology.com/Articles/articles%2071.htm) on 2008-02-18.
11. Hassan, Ahmad Y. (1976). Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering, pp. 34–35. Institute
for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo.
12. "University of Rochester, NY, The growth of the steam engine online history resource, chapter
one" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120204034636/http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/thur
ston/1878/Chapter1.html). History.rochester.edu. Archived from the original (http://www.history.r
ochester.edu/steam/thurston/1878/Chapter1.html) on 2012-02-04. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
13. "Power plant engineering (https://books.google.com/books?id=Cv9LH4ckuEwC&pg=PA432&d
q&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false)". P.K. Nag (2002). Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 432. ISBN 0-07-
043599-5
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ci.it/inglese/documentiStorici.html). "A later request was presented to the Patent Office of the
Reign of Piedmont, under No. 700 of Volume VII of that Office. The text of this patent request is
not available, only a photo of the table containing a drawing of the engine. This may have been
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15. Victor Albert Walter Hillier, Peter Coombes – Hillier's Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle
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ngine&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjHtr7us63NAhVMIsAKHWeECxoQ6AEIIDAB#v=onepage
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References
J.G. Landels, Engineering in the Ancient World, ISBN 0-520-04127-5

External links
Engine (technology) (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187540) at the
Encyclopædia Britannica
U.S. Patent 194,047 (https://www.google.com/patents/US194047)
Detailed Engine Animations (http://www.animatedpiston.com)
Working 4-Stroke Engine – Animation (http://www.gbm.dk/gbm/Motor-e.htm)
Animated illustrations of various engines (http://www.animatedengines.com)
5 Ways to Redesign the Internal Combustion Engine (http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/n
ews/industry/5-alternative-engine-architectures?click=main_sr)
Article on Small SI Engines. (https://www.turfmagazine.com/maintenance/rebirth-of-the-gasolin
e-engine/)
Article on Compact Diesel Engines. (https://www.turfmagazine.com/maintenance/rise-of-the-co
mpact-diesel-engine-2/)
Detailed Engine Classification (https://www.autocurious.com/2020/04/classificationofengines.ht
ml?m=1)

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