Contents

1 Introduction to Life Sciences 6

1.1 Life Sciences Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 The Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Important principles and relationships in Life Sciences . . . . . 15
1.4 Presenting data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Mathematical skills in Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6 Lab safety procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2 The chemistry of life 30

2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Molecules for life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3 Inorganic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5 Vitamins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6 Recommended Dietary Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3 Cells: the basic units of life 72

3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2 Molecular make up of cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.3 Cell structure and function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.4 Cell organelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.6 End of chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4 Cell division 110

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.2 The cell cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.3 The role of mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4 Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.6 End of chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

5 Plant and animal tissues 128

5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.2 Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.3 Plant tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.4 Animal tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.5 Applications of indigenous knowledge and biotechnology . . . 152
5.6 The leaf as an organ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
 5.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

6 Support and transport systems in plants 170

6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.2 Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.3 Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.4 Wilting and guttation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.5 Uptake of water and minerals in the roots . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

7 Support systems in animals 204

7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2 Skeletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.3 Human skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.4 Musculoskeletal tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.5 Human locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.6 Muscle structure and function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.7 Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

8 Transport systems in animals 244

8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.2 Circulatory systems in animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.3 Lymphatic circulatory system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
8.4 Cardiovascular diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.5 Treatment of heart diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

9 Biospheres to ecosystems 282

9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.2 Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
9.3 Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9.4 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.5 Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.6 Energy flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.7 Nutrient cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.8 Ecotourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
9.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

10 Biodiversity and classification 324

10.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
10.2 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
10.3 Classification schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
10.4 Five kingdom system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
10.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

11 History of life on Earth 344

11.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
11.2 Representations of life’s history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
11.3 Life’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
11.4 Mass extinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

2 CONTENTS
 11.5 Impact of humans on biodiversity and the environment . . . . . 367
11.6 Fossil tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
11.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

Units used in the book 372

Solutions to exercises 373

List of Definitions 374

CONTENTS 3
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Life Sciences

1.1 Life Sciences Orientation 6

1.2 The Scientific Method 9
1.3 Important principles and relationships in
Life Sciences 15
1.4 Presenting data 16
1.5 Mathematical skills in Life Sciences 24
1.6 Lab safety procedures 27
 1 Introduction to Life Sciences

1.1 Life Sciences Orientation ESGQ

Introduction ESGR

The aim of this chapter is to provide you with an overview of the skills that
you will need to develop as a Life Scientist. In this chapter you will learn
how to gather evidence using the scientific method. The scientific method
is a systematic way of testing a theory. It involves gathering and analysing
information in order to come to an objective conclusion about the validity of
a theory. The scientific method requires that we constantly re-examine our
understanding, by testing new evidence with our current theories, and making
changes to those theories if the evidence does not meet the test. The scientific
method is a powerful tool you will use throughout the Physical Sciences and
Life Sciences.

What is Life Sciences? ESGS

Life Sciences is the scientific study of living things. It involves many levels
of investiagtion: from the study of the interactions of organic molecules to
the interactions of animals and plants with their environment. The list below
contains some of the various branches of Life Sciences.

• Anatomy (plant and animal)

• Biochemistry
• Biotechnology
• Botany
• Ecology
• Entomology
• Environmental Studies
• Genetics
• Medicine
• Microbiology
• Morphology
• Physiology (plant and animal)
• Sociobiology (animal behaviour)
• Taxonomy
• Zoology

6 1.1. Life Sciences Orientation

Why study Life Sciences? ESGT

Here are some reasons to study Life Sciences:

• To increase knowledge of key biological concepts, processes, systems

and theories.
• To develop the ability to critically evaluate and debate scientific issues
and processes.
• To develop scientific skills and ways of thinking scientifically that enables
you to see the flaws in pseudo-science in popular media.
• To provide useful knowledge and skills that are needed in everyday liv-
ing.
• To create a greater awareness of the ways in which biotechnology and
knowledge of Life Sciences has benefited humankind.
• To show the ways in which humans have impacted negatively on the
environment and organisms living in the environment.
• To develop a deep appreciation of the unique diversity of biomes In
Southern Africa, both past and present, and the importance of conser-
vation.
• To create an awareness of what it means to be a responsible citizen in
terms of the environment and life-style choices that they make.
• To create an awareness of the contributions of South African scientists.
item To expose you to the range and scope of biological studies to stimu-
late interest in and create awareness of possible specialities and fields of
study.
• To provide sufficient background for further studies and careers in one or
more of the biological sub-disciplines.

Specific aims ESGV

In order to guide your progress through the year, and make sure that you benefit
in the ways listed above, there are three specific aims for the year:

• Specific Aim 1: Acquire new knowledge: your knowledge of the Life

Sciences will grow this year as you acquire a new understanding of Life
Sciences concepts, processes, phenomena, mechanisms, principles, the-
ories, laws and models. You will see new connections between fields
and topics, and learn to evaluate and analyse what you learn.
• Specific Aim 2: Investigate Phenomena in the Life Sciences: this year
you will gain experience in conducting science experiments, practical
work and investigations.
• Specific Aim 3: Understand the applications of Life Sciences in every-
day life: you will gain an appreciation of the way that science applies
in everyday life, as well as gain an understanding of some of the history
of scientific discoveries and the relationship between indigenous knowl-
edge and science.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 7

 An A to Z of possible careers in Life Sciences ESGW

Ever wondered what you can do with Life Sciences after school? Below are
some careers which you could study:

• Agronomist: someone who works to improve the quality and production

of crops.
• Animal scientist: a researcher in selecting, breeding, feeding and man-
aging of domestic animals, such as cows, sheep and pigs.
• Biochemist: someone who investigates the chemical composition and
behaviour of the molecules that make up living things and uses this
knowledge to try understand the causes of diseases and find cures.
• Botanist: someone who studies plants and their interaction with the en-
vironment.
• Developmental biologist: studies the development of an animal from the
fertilised egg through to birth.
• Ecologist: a person who looks at the relationships between organisms
and their environment.
• Food Scientist: someone who studies the biological, chemical and phys-
ical nature of food to ensure it is safely produced, preserved and stored,
and they also investigate how to make food more nutritious and flavour-
ful.
• Geneticist: a researcher who studies inheritance and conducts exper-
iments to investigate the causes and possible cures of inherited genetic
disorders and how traits are passed on from one generation to the next.
• Horticulturalist: a person who works in orchards and with garden plants
and they aim to improve growing and culturing methods for home own-
ers, communities and public areas.
• Marine biologist: a researcher who studies the relationships between
plants and animals in the ocean and how they function and develop.
They also investigate ways to minimise human impact on the ocean and
its effects, such as over fishing and pollution.
• Medical doctor or nurse: someone who uses the current latest under-
standing of the causes and treatments for disease to treat people who are
ill or improve a person’s well-being.
• Medical illustrator: someone who illustrates and draws parts of the hu-
man body to be used in textbooks, publications and presentations.
• Microbiologist: a researcher who studies microscopic organisms such as
bacteria, viruses, algae and yeast and investigates how these organisms
affect animals and plants.
• Nutritionist: someone who gives advice to individuals or groups on good
nutritional practices to either maintain or improve their health and to live
a healthy lifestyle.
• Palaeontologist: a researcher who studies fossils of plants and animals to
trace and reconstruct evolution, prehistoric environments and past life.

8 1.1. Life Sciences Orientation

 • Pharmacologist: a scientist who develops new or improved drugs or FACT
medicines and conducts experiments to test the effects of drugs and any Watch this
interesting video
undesirable side effects.
about ”The Times
• Physiologist: a researcher who studies the internal functions animals and and Troubles of the
plants during normal and abnormal conditions. Scientific Method”
See video:
• Science teacher: someone who helps students in different areas of sci- 2CMG
ence, whether it is at primary school, high school or university.
• Science writer: someone who writes and reports about scientific issues,
new discoveries or researcher, or health concerns for newspapers, maga-
zines, books, television and radio.
• Veterinarian: someone who looks after the health and wellbeing of pets,
domestic animals, animals in game parks and zoos.
• Zoologist: a researcher who studies the behaviour, interactions, origins
and life processes of different animal groups.

1.2 The Scientific Method ESGX

How science works ESGY

Science investigation and research requires many skills and processes to come
together in order to be successful and worthwhile.

• To be accepted as a science, certain methods for broadening existing

knowledge, or discovering new things, are generally used.
• These methods must be repeatable and follow a logical approach.
• The methods include formulating hypotheses and carrying out investiga-
tions and experiments to test the hypothesis.
• Crucial skills are making objective observations, taking measurements,
collecting information and presenting the results in the form of drawings,
written explanations, tables and graphs.
• A scientist must learn to identify patterns and relationships in data.
• It is very important to then communicate these findings to the public in
the form of scientific publications, at conferences, in articles or TV or
radio programmes.

The scientific method is the basic skill process in the world of science. Since the
beginning of time humans have been curious as to why and how things happen
in the world around us. The scientific method provides scientists with a well
structured scientific platform to help find the answers to their questions. Using
the scientific method there are very few things we can’t investigate. Recording
and writing up an investigation is an integral part of the scientific method.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 9

 What follows is a step-by-step guide to the scientific method.

Figure 1.1: Overview of scientific method.

1. The question ESGZ

Scientists are curious people, and most investigations arise from a scientist
noticing something that they don’t understand. Therefore the first step to any
scientific investigation is:

• Ask a question to which you want to find an answer.

– What is happening?
– How is it happening?
– When is it occurring?
– Why is it happening?

10 1.2. The Scientific Method

 • Example: A farmer notices that his tomato plants that are shaded have
smaller tomatoes than his plants that are in a sunny spot, which makes
him wonder: ’Does the amount of sunlight a tomato plant receives affect
the size of tomatoes?’

2. Introduction ESG32

Once you have a general question, background research needs to be under-

taken. Your background research will ensure that you are not investigating
something that has already been researched and answered. It will also tell you
about interesting connections, theories, explanations and methods that people
have used in the past to answer questions related to yours. Science always
builds on the work of others, and it ensures that our theories are constantly
improved and refined. It is important to acknowledge the work of the people
upon whose work your theory relies in the form of referencing. It is also vital
to communicate your findings so that future scientists can use use your work as
a basis for future research.

3. Identify variables ESG33

Your background research will help you identify the factors that influence your
question. Factors that might change during the experiment are called variables.
Different types of variables are given special names. Below is a list of some
important variable types:

• The dependent variable is the thing that you want to measure or investi-
gate.
• The independent variable is a factor (or factors) that you control or change
in your experiment. It will have an effect on the dependent variable.
• We call the the variables we keep constant fixed variables, or controlled
variables.

Example: In this investigation, variables might include: the amount of sun-

shine, the types of soil in which the tomatoes are growing, the water available
to each of the plants, etc. To which variable type does each factor belong?

• Dependent variable: mass of tomatoes

• Independent variable: how much light the tomato plants receive
• Fixed/ Controlled variables: all tomato plants will:
– Be the same species of tomato
– Get the same fertiliser (type and amount)
– Grow in the same type of soil
– Grow in the same type of container
– Get the same amount of water
– Can you think of more?

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 11

 4. Hypothesis ESG34

Write down a statement or prediction as to what you think will be the outcome
or result of your investigation. This is your hypothesis. The hypothesis should:

• be specific
• relate directly to the question you are asking
• be expressed as a statement that includes the variables involved (the
‘cause’ and ‘effect’)
• be testable
• not expressed as a question but rather as a prediction
• be written in the future tense

Example: During your background research you would have learnt that toma-
toes need sunshine to make food through photosynthesis. You may predict that
plants that get more sun will make more food and grow bigger. In this case your
hypothesis would be: I think that the more sunlight a tomato plant receives, the
larger the tomatoes will grow’.

NOTE:
A scientific investigation does not aim to prove a particular event occurs or
a particular relationship exists. Rather, an investigation shows that it cannot
disprove a particular suggestion or prediction. Therefore, it is important to note
that an incorrect prediction does not mean that you have failed. It means that
the experiment has brought some new facts to light that you might not have
thought of before. Therefore, even if your hypothesis (prediction) turns out to
be wrong, DO NOT go back and change the it!

5. Aim ESG35

• In the aim you need to state what you going to be investigating.

• Key words you can use are:
– To determine...
– To show that...
– To investigate...
– To find out...
– To observe...
– To measure...

Example: In this case, your aim would be: to investigate the effect of different
amounts of sunlight on tomatoes.

12 1.2. The Scientific Method

NOTE:
In science we never ‘prove’ a hypothesis through a single experiment because
there is a chance that you made an error somewhere along the way, or there
may be an alternate explanation for the results that you observe. What you can
say is that your results SUPPORT the original hypothesis.

6. Apparatus ESG36

All the apparatus that you will need for the investigation needs to be listed.

• Sizes of beakers, test tubes and measuring cylinders

• Specialised equipment that you may need must also be included (make
sure that this equipment is available for your research).
• Include all chemicals and quantities that are required for your investiga-
tion.

7. Method ESG37

The next step is to test your hypothesis. An experiment is a tool that you design
to find out if your ideas about your question are right or wrong. You must design
an experiment that accurately tests your hypothesis. The experiment is the
most important part of the scientific method. We will discuss independent and
dependent variables as well as controls later. These are all important concepts
to know when designing an experiment. In science, another researcher may
want to repeat your method, to verify your results, improve it or do a variation
of your experiment. Listing the apparatus helps others to verify that you used a
suitable method, and enables them to replicate the experiment.

• Write down the scientific method in bullet format for your investigation.
• The method should be written so that a complete stranger will be able
to carry out the same procedure in the exact same way and get almost
identical results.
• The method should be written in the past tense using the passive voice.
• The method must be clear and precise instructions including
– the apparatus
– exact measurements or quantities of chemicals or substances
• Ensure that your method is written out in the correct sequence, with each
step of the experiment numbered.
• State the criteria you will look for or measure to get results.
• Give clear instructions how the results should be recorded (table, graph
etc.)
• Include safety precautions where possible.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 13

 8. Results ESG38

• Record your observations from doing the investigation.

• It is important that you do not write out an explanation for the results.
• Present your results in a suitable format such as tables and graphs.
• It is also important to note that not getting the result you expected is still
a result. Even if there is no change at all, this is still a result that needs to
be recorded.

9. Analysis of results or discussion ESG39

• The analysis of the results is stating in words what the results are often
saying in tables/graphs.
• Discuss if there are there any relationships between your independent
and dependent variables.
• It is important to look for patterns/trends in your graphs or tables and
describe these clearly in words.

10. Evaluation of results ESG3B

• This is where you answer the question “What do the results mean?”
• You need to carefully consider the results :
– Were there any unusual results? If so then these should be discussed
and possible reasons for them can be given.
– Discuss how you ensured the validity and reliability of the investi-
gation.
∗ Vailidity: Was it a fair test and did it test what it set out to test?
∗ Reliability: If the experiment were to be repeated would the
results obtained be similar?
– The best way to ensure reliability is to repeat the experiment several
times and obtain an average.
– Discuss any experimental errors that may have occurred during the
experiment. These can include errors in the methods and apparatus
used and what make suggestions what could be done differently
next time.

11. Conclusion ESG3C

The conclusion needs to link the results to the aim and hypothesis. In a short
paragraph, write down if what was observed is supported or rejected by the
hypothesis by restating the variables that were tested. If your original hypothesis
does not match up with the final results of your experiment, do not change the

14 1.2. The Scientific Method

hypothesis. Instead, try and explain what might have been wrong with your
original hypothesis. What information did you not have originally that cause
you to be wrong in your prediction.

• Example: after conducting your experiment you may have found that
tomato plants that received more sunlight grew larger than tomato plants
grown in the shade or without light. Therefore you might conclude your
investigation with the following:
– It was clear that tomato plants form bigger tomatoes when they are
exposed to bright sunlight. The original hypothesis was supported.

1.3 Important principles and relationships in

Life Sciences ESG3D

Surface area and volume ESG3F

Depending on the system it is advantageous to either have a large surface to

volume ratio or a small surface to volume ratio.

A cell’s surface area must be large enough to meet the needs of its volume.
This is highlighted in the following examples:

• Flatworms and leeches have more surface area to volume to increase the
area for diffusion for nutrients and respiratory gases across their whole
bodies.
• In animals the shapes of organs are defined by surface area to volume
requirements. For example, in the lungs there are many branches to
increase the surface area through which gases can be exchanged.
• Cells with a small volume and large surface area are better suited for
diffusion, ingestion and excretion because of the relatively large area of
the cell membrane.

Structure and function ESG3G

In living organisms, the structure of a particular biological feature is related

to what function it performs. Thus for all the structures you will study in Life
Sciences, the important questions to ask are the following:

1. What makes this structure suited to its function?

2. How has the structure adapted to its function?
3. Why is this structure so efficient for its function?

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 15

 1.4 Presenting data ESG3H

Biological drawings and diagrams ESG3J

Drawings and diagrams are an essential part of communication in science, and

especially Life Sciences. Remember it is not an artwork or sketch! But rather
it is a clear representation of what you observe which can be used to interpret
what you saw.

Some rules to follow

Drawings and diagrams must:

• Be drawn in a sharp pencil for clear, smooth lines.

• Be large so that all structures can be clearly seen (at least 10 lines of
paper).
• Be drawn in the middle of the page.
• Be two dimensional (no shading)!
• Have a heading or caption.
• Specify the section in which the specimen was sliced, i.e. transverse
section (T/S), cross section (C/S), or longitudinal section (L/S).
• State the source of the drawing or diagram, i.e. From a biological speci-
men, a micrograph or a slide.
• Indicate the magnification or scale of the drawing, either in the caption
or in the corner of the drawing.
• Label lines should be drawn and they must:
– be parallel to the top of the page and drawn with a ruler.
– not cross each other or have an arrow at the end.
– clearly indicate the structure which is being named.
– be aligned neatly, one below the other and preferably on one side
of the page, unless there are many labels in which both sides can
be used.

16 1.4. Presenting data

Activity: Identifying the key aspects of producing biological drawings

Instructions:

Make a list of what makes the above drawings good and bad.

Figure 1.2: Identify the features of the images that make each one good or bad.

Two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) dia-

grams ESG3K

Diagrams of apparatus are generally drawn in two-dimensions so that the shape

of each item of apparatus is simplified and looks similar to a section through
the apparatus.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 17

 Tables ESG3M

What is a table?

• A table is a summary of data, using as few words as possible.

• It is a grid divided up into rows and columns.
• The heading is placed above the table.
• The heading should include both variables under investigation- the de-
pendent and independent variables.
• Independent variable is placed in the first column.
• The column headings should mention the units that were used, eg. grams,
hours, km/hr, cm.

When to use a table?

• To summarise information.
• To compare related things or aspects.
• To record the results of an experiment.
• To illustrate patterns and trends.
• To record the data which will be used to construct a graph.

Types of Graphs ESG3N

One of the clearest and most concise ways to represent data is via graphs.
Graphs can immediately provide a graphical display of trends and patterns that
words and numbers in a table don’t necessarily convey.

18 1.4. Presenting data

Line Graphs ESG3P

Line graphs are used when:

• The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is

continuous.
• Both dependent and independent variables are measured in numbers.

Features of line graphs:

• An appropriate scale is used for each axis so that the plotted points use
most of the axis/space (work out the range of the data and the highest and
lowest points).
• The scale must remain the SAME along the entire axis and use easy in-
tervals such as 10’s, 20’s, 50’s, and not intervals such as 7’s, 14’s, etc,
which make it difficult to read information off the graph.
• Each axis must be labelled with what is shown on the axis and must
include the appropriate units in brackets, e.g. Temperature (◦ C), Time
(days), Height (cm).
• Each point has an x and y co-ordinate and is plotted with a symbol which
is big enough to see, e.g. a cross or circle.
• The points are then joined.
• With a ruler if the points lie in a straight line (see Figure 3) or you can
draw a line of best fit where the number of points are distributed fairly
evenly on each side of the line.
• Freehand when the points appear to be following a curve (see Figure 4).
• DO NOT start the line at the origin unless there is a data point for 0. If
there is no reading for 0, then start the line at the first plotted point.
• The graph must have a clear, descriptive title which outlines the relation-
ship between the dependent and independent variable.
• If there is more than one set of data drawn on a graph, a different symbol
must be used for each set and a key or legend must define the symbols.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 19

FACT
Table headings are
always written
ABOVE the table.
Graph headings are
always written
BELOW the graph.

Figure 1.3: Graph showing change in plant height over 10 days.

Bar Graphs ESG3Q

Bar graphs are used when:

• The independent variable is discontinuous (i.e. The variables on the x-

axis are each associated with something different)
• Independent variables are not numerical. For example, when examining
the protein content of various food types, the order of the food types
along the horizontal axis is irrelevant.

Bar graphs have the following features:

• The data are plotted as columns or bars that do not touch each other as
each deals with a different characteristic.
• The bars must be the same width and be the same distance apart from
each other.
• A bar graph can be displayed vertically or horizontally.
• A bar graph must have a clear, descriptive title, which is written beneath
the graph.

Figure 1.4: Bar graph showing how many learners use each type of transport

20 1.4. Presenting data

Histograms ESG3R

Histograms are used when:

• the independent variable (x-axis) represents information which is contin-

uous, such as numerical ranges, i.e. 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, etc.

Histograms have the following features:

• Unlike a bar graph, in a histogram the data are plotted as columns or bars
that touch each other as they are related to each other in some way.
• The numerical categories must not overlap, for example, 0-10, 10-20,
20-30, etc. The ranges must be exclusive so that there is no doubt as to
where to put a reading, for example, 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, etc.
• The bars can be vertically or horizontally drawn.
• A histogram must have a descriptive heading with is written below the
graph
• and the axes must be labelled.

Figure 1.5: A histogram showing the number of learners in a Grade 10 Life sciences
class with a particular percentage test score

Pie charts ESG3S

Pie charts are used when:

• You want to give a visual representation of percentages as a relative pro-

portion of the total of a circle.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 21

 Pie charts have the following features:

• They are a type of graph even though they do not have any axes.
• A pie chart is a circle divided into sectors (think of them as the slices of a
cake).
• 100% represents the whole complete circle, 50% represents a half circle,
25% is a quarter circle, and so on.

Example:

1. Count the number of each species and record it in a table.

2. Work out the total number of species in the ecosystem.
3. Calculate the percentage of each species.
4. Use the following formula to work out the angle of each slice:
v × 360◦
a=
t

Category Number Percentage % Slice angle

of species
Insects 17
17 × 100 34 × 360
= 34% = 122,4◦
50 100

Plants 16
16 × 100 16 × 360
= 32% = 115,2◦
50 100

Birds 9
9 × 100 18 × 360
= 18% = 65◦
50 100

Amphibians 8
8 × 100 16 × 360
= 16% = 57,6◦
50 100

Table 1.1: Table showing recordings and calculations for construction of a pie chart

5. Use a compass to draw the circle and a protractor to measure accurate

angles for each slice.
6. Start with the largest angle/percentage starting at 12 o’ clock and measure
in a clockwise direction.
7. Shade each slice and write the percentage on the slice and provide a key.

22 1.4. Presenting data

Figure 1.6: Pie chart showing the relative proportions of different categories of organ-
isms in an ecosystem

Activity: Converting tables to graphs

Aim:

It is very important to be able to convert tables to graphs, and vice versa. Below
are some exercises to practice this skill.

Questions:

1. Convert the data in the graphs below into Tables. Remember to identify
which is the independent variable in the graphs and to place this in the first
column of the Table.

Figure 1.7: The average height in boys and girls between the ages of 10 and 18 years.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 23

 Figure 1.8: Proportion of each blood group in a small population.

2. Convert the data in the following tables into graphs. Look back at the
features of each type of graph to decide which one you will use.

Favourite take away restaurant in a class of learners

Take away restaurant Learners (%)

Kauai 40
Anat Falafel 15
Nandos 25
Burger King 20

1.5 Mathematical skills in Life Sciences ESG3T

Mathematical skills are important in Life Sciences. Below are explanations of

some of the skills you will encounter:

• Scales
• Averages
• Percentages
• Conversions

NB. You must state the units at the end of each calculation, e.g. cm, degrees,
kg, etc.

24 1.5. Mathematical skills in Life Sciences

Scales ESG3V

A scale is given in a diagram, drawing or electron micrograph so that the actual

size of the object that is being shown can be determined. The object could be
bigger or smaller in real life.

Example: To measure the diameter of a chloroplast with a scale line of 1 µm.

1. Measure the length of the scale line on the micrograph in mm, e.g. 1 µm
= 17mm
2. Measure the diameter of the organelle in millimetres, e.g. = 60mm
3. True diameter of chloroplast:

measured size × true length of scale line

=
measured length of scale line
60 mm × 1 µm
=
17 mm
= 3,53 µm

Answer: The true diameter of the chloroplast is 3.53 µm.

Averages ESG3W

To find an average of a set of numbers, you add all the items and divide the
total by the number of items.

Example: Find the average height in a class of 10 learners with the following
heights in cm: 173, 135, 142, 167, 189, 140, 139, 164, 172, 181.

1. Add all 10 learners heights together to get a total.

2. Divide the total by the number of learners (10) to get the average.

Total:
Sum = 1602 cm

Average:
1602
Average =
10
= 160,2 cm

Answer: The average height of the learners is 160,2 cm

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 25

 Percentages ESG3X

To calculate a percentage, multiply the fraction by 100.

Formula for calculating percentage (%):

Number with feature (A)

Percentage = × 100
Total number (B)

Example: There are 48 learners in your class and 4 of them are left handed.
Calculate the percentage of learners in your class that are left-handed.

1. Count how many learners are left handed (A).

2. Count the total number of learners in the class (B).
3. Divide the number of left-handed learners (A) by the total number of
learners (B) to get a fraction or proportion.
4. Multiply the fraction by 100.

Therefore, to calculate the percentage of learners that are left-handed:

A
= × 100
B
4
= × 100
48
= 8,3%

Answer: 8,3% of the learners in your class are left-handed.

Example: Using the same class of learners, calculate the percentage of learners
that are right-handed.

To calculate the percentage of the class that is right handed, one could count
the number of right-handed students, and perform the percentage calculation
again. Or, since the whole class is equal to 100 %, one can simply subtract the
percentage of left-handed students and you will be left with the percentage of
right-handed students.

The percentage of right-handed learners:

= 100% − 8,3%
= 91,7%

Answer: 91,7% of the learners in your class are right-handed.

26 1.5. Mathematical skills in Life Sciences

Conversions ESG3Y

Below is a table with some common conversions that you will need to use in
the study of Life Sciences:

From unit: To unit (number of these units per “From unit”):

m mm µm nm
m 1 1000 1 000 000 1 000 000 000
mm 10−3 or 1 1000 1 000 000
1/1000
µm (mi- 10−6 or 10−3 or 1 1000
crometres) 1/1 000 000 1/1000
nm 10−9 or 10−6 or 10−3 or 1
(nanometres) 1/1 000 000 0001/1 000 000 1/1000

1.6 Lab safety procedures ESG3Z

The Life Science Laboratory has rules that are enforced as a safety precaution.

These rules are:

• Take care when pouring liquids or powders from one container to an-
other. When spillages occur you need to call the teacher immediately to
assist in cleaning up the spillage.
• Take care when using acids. A good safety precaution is to have a so-
lution of sodium bicarbonate in the vicinity to neutralise any spills as
quickly as possible.
• Safety goggles and/ or gloves may need to be worn when doing experi-
mental work, working with various chemicals, or heating substances, as
spitting may occur.
• When lighting a Bunsen burner the correct procedure needs to be fol-
lowed.
• Remember that when heating a substance in a test tube, the mouth of the
test tube must face away from you and members in your group.
• Do not to overheat the solution when heating substances in a test tube.
• Ensure that you are dressed appropriately: hair should be tied back and
loose clothing that could potentially knock over the equipment or catch
alight if too near a flame should be avoided.
• Before doing any scientific experiment make sure that you know where
the fire extinguishers are in your laboratory and there should also be a
bucket of sand to extinguish fires.
• If scalpel blades, pins and knives are used, take care not to cut yourself.
If you do cut yourself and draw blood call the teacher immediately.
• When working with chemicals and gases that are hazardous a fume cup-
board should be used.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 27

 CHAPTER 2

The chemistry of life

2.1 Overview 30
2.2 Molecules for life 31
2.3 Inorganic compounds 32
2.4 Organic compounds 38
2.5 Vitamins 58
2.6 Recommended Dietary Allowance 59
2.7 Summary 63
 2 The chemistry of life

2.1 Overview ESG42

Introduction ESG43

In this chapter we will study the molecular structure and biological functions
of key molecules important to life. We will study the chemistry of proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins and nucleic acids and will learn the role of each
nutrient class in plant and animal life. We will also learn how our diet allows
us to obtain sufficient quantities of each of these nutrients. There are a variety
of practicals and investigations in this section, which provide an opportunity
for you to practice applying the scientific method.

Key concepts

• Organic molecules always contain carbon (C), and usually also contain
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms. Some important organic molecules
also contain nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), sulfur (S), iron (Fe) and other
elements.
• Water (H2 O) is an inorganic compound made up of two H atoms and
one O atom. Water helps with temperature regulation, form and support,
transport and lubrication and is a medium for chemical reactions.
• Minerals are required as part of a healthy diet. A deficit in essential
minerals results in deficiency diseases in plants and animals.
• Fertilisers are a way that essential nutrients can be added to the soil to
improve plant growth.
• Carbohydrates are made up of C, H and O. They can be in the form of
monosaccharides (single sugars), disaccharides (double sugars) or polysac-
charides (many sugars), and are an important energy source for plants and
animals.
• Lipids are made up of C, H and O. Triglycerides are a type of lipid that
contains glycerol and three fatty acid chains. Cholesterol, another type
of lipid, can increase the risk of heart disease.
• Proteins are made up of C, H, O, N, and some have P, S and Fe. Pro-
teins consist of a long chain of amino acids that fold into a very specific
three-dimensional structure. Proteins are an important building block in
plants and animals and play a role in the immune system and in cell
communication.
• Enzymes are a type of protein that act as a biological catalyst to speed up
reactions. They work by a ”lock and key” mechanism and are affected by
temperature and pH.

30 2.1. Overview
 • Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are made of C, H, O, N and P. DNA FACT
contains the genetic information for heredity, and RNA has the instruc- Because all
compounds contain
tions on how to make protein.
more than one
• Vitamins are important organic molecules that must be obtained in the atom, all
diet. They often help enzymes to work properly, or act in growth or compounds are
molecules.
differentiation.
However, not all
molecules are
compounds.
In order to understand the chemistry of living systems, it is important to un-
derstand how all living systems are arranged from the smallest unit (atomic FACT
scale) to the largest unit (ecosystems). A simple way to describe the levels of Simulation on
building a molecule
organisation of livings things can be given as follows:
See video:
2CMH

atom →molecule→cell→tissue→organ→system→organism→ecosystem

2.2 Molecules for life ESG44

Although life at the macro level is diverse, the chemistry making up that life is
remarkably similar. All living things are made up of basic building blocks called
elements. An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
substances using chemical means. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur,
calcium, sodium and iron are examples of elements you will come across in
Life Sciences.

Each element is distinguished by the composition of its atom. An atom is

the basic unit of matter. Molecules are formed when one or more atoms are
covalently bonded together. The atoms of a molecule can be identical, such as
02 or H2 or differ such as H2 O. A compound is formed when atoms of different
elements join together.

Compounds are divided into organic and inorganic compounds. Organic com-
pounds always contain carbon, but not all compounds that contain carbon are
organic. A general rule of thumb is that organic compounds contain carbon,
with at least one of these carbons bonded to hydrogen atoms. Carbon diox-
ide is therefore an inorganic compound even though it contains carbon. The
major organic compounds found in living organisms include: carbohydrates,
fats, proteins and nucleic acids. These will be discussed in detail later in this
chapter.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 31

FACT Substance Percentage (%)
Learn about some of Inorganic
the amazing
Water 65
life-supporting
properties of water Mineral salts 1
See video: 2CMJ Organic
Protein 18
Carbohydrate 5
Other organic macromolecules 1

Table 2.1: The composition of macromolecules in humans by percentage.

2.3 Inorganic compounds ESG45

The role of water in the maintenance of life ESG46

As mentioned in Table 2.1, up to 65% of our bodies are made up of water.

Water is an inorganic compound made up of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom. Its molecular formula is H2 O. Water plays an important role in
the maintenance of biological systems.

Temperature regulation: In humans, the sweat glands produce sweat which

cools the body as it evaporates from the body surface in a process called per-
spiration. In a similar way, plants are cooled by the loss of water vapour from
their leaves, in a process called transpiration.

Form and support: Water is an important constituent of the body and plays an
important role in providing form and support in animals and plants. Animals,
such as worms and jellyfish, use water in special chambers in their body to
give their bodies support. This use of water pressure to provide body form,
and enable movement is called a hydrostatic skeleton. Plants grow upright and
keep their shape due to the pressure of water (turgor pressure) inside the cells.

Transport medium: Water transports substances around the body. For example,
water is the main constituent of blood and enables blood cells, hormones and
dissolved gases, electrolytes and nutrients to be transported around the body.

Lubricating agent: Water is the main constituent of saliva which helps chewing
and swallowing and also allows food to pass easily along the alimentary canal.
Water is also the main constituent of tears which help keep the eyes lubricated.

Solvent for biological chemicals: The liquid in which substances dissolve is

called a solvent. Water is known as the universal solvent as more substances
dissolve in water than in any other liquid.

32 2.3. Inorganic compounds

Medium in which chemical reactions occur: All chemical reactions in living
organisms take place in water.

Reactant: Water takes place in several classes of chemical reactions. Dur-

ing hydrolysis reactions, water is added to the reaction to break down large
molecules into smaller molecules. Water can also be split into hydrogen and
oxygen atoms to provide energy for complex chemical reactions such as pho-
tosynthesis.

Temperature Structure and support Lubrication

Sweating Jellyfish and worms Water helps Water is an important

helps human use a hydrostatic maintain the lubricant in the eye.
bodies cool (water pressure) upright
down. skeleton to keep their structure of
body shape. plants.

Table 2.2: The role of water in living organisms.

Minerals ESG47

Dietary minerals are the chemical elements that living organisms require to
maintain health. In humans, essential minerals include calcium, phosphorous,
potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine and magnesium.

Macro-elements (macro-nutrients) are nutrients that are required in large quan-

tities by living organisms (e.g carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium,
sodium, calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphorus and sulfur).

Micro-elements (micro-nutrients) are nutrients that are required in very small

quantities for development and growth and include iron, cobalt, chromium,
copper, iodine, manganese, selenium, zinc and molybdenum.

Nutrients required for human health

Table 2.3 below summarises some important minerals required for proper func-
tioning of the human body. Proper nutrition involves a diet in which the daily
requirements of the listed mineral nutrients are met.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 33

FACT
Chlorosis is the Mineral Food Source Main Functions Deficiency
yellowing of the Disease
leaves due to low
Macro-nutrients
production or loss
of chlorophyll. Calcium (Ca) most fruit and strong bones and teeth, rickets,
vegetables, meat, muscle contraction, osteoporosis
dairy products blood clotting, nerve
function
Magnesium nuts, meat, dairy strong bones and teeth, osteoporosis,
(Mg) products nerve and muscle muscle cramps
function, energy
production
Phosphorus (P) nuts, meat, dairy strong bones and teeth, rickets,
products nerve function, part of osteoporosis
nucleic acids and cell
membranes
Potassium (K) bananas, meat, growth and muscle cramps,
dairy products maintenance, water heart, kidney
balance, heart function and lung failure
Sodium (Na) table salt, fruit and regulates blood pressure muscle cramps
vegetables and volume, muscle and
nerve function
Sulfur (S) meat, dairy part of proteins, disorder
products, eggs, detoxifies the body, unlikely
legumes good skin, hair and nails
Micro-nutrients
Iron (Fe) meat, legumes part of haemoglobin (the anaemia
oxygen transport
protein), part of some
enzymes
Iodine (I) seafood, iodated production of hormones goitre, stunted
salt by the thyroid gland, growth, mental
strong bones and teeth, problems
good hair, skin and nails
Zinc (Zn) seafood, meat immune function, male stunted growth,
reproductive system prostate
problems

Table 2.3: Minerals required by humans.

Nutrients required for plant growth

The previous section examined the key nutrients important for animal growth.
In Table 2.4 we will now look at the key nutrients required for plant growth.

34 2.3. Inorganic compounds

Mineral Source Main Functions Deficiency
Disease
Macro-nutrients
Calcium (Ca) inorganic fertilisers, part of the plant cell chlorosis
Ca ions in the soil wall, transport and (yellowing of the
retention of other leaves due to low
elements production or loss
of chlorophyll)
Magnesium inorganic fertilisers, component of chlorosis
(Mg) Mg ions in the soil chlorophyll (pigment
for photosynthesis),
activates many
enzymes required for
growth
Nitrogen (N) inorganic fertilisers in component of stunted growth,
the form of nitrates, chlorophyll, nucleic smaller leaves
symbiotic acids and proteins,
nitrogen-fixing seed and fruit
bacteria in roots production
Phosphorus inorganic fertilisers in photosynthetic stunted growth,
(P) the form of process, part of blue/green leaves
phosphates, low nucleic acids and cell
amounts in the soil membranes, root
growth
Potassium (K) inorganic fertilisers, K needed for protein chlorosis, curling
ions in the soil synthesis, leaf tips, brown
photosynthesis, scorching, poor
enzyme activation, fruit quality
opening and closing
of stomata
Sulfur (S) inorganic fertilisers protein synthesis, root chlorosis
growth, chlorophyll
formation, promotes
activity of enzymes
Micro-nutrients
Iron (Fe) inorganic fertilisers, component of the chlorosis
Fe ions in the soil enzyme that makes
chlorophyll
Zinc (Zn) inorganic fertilisers, part of poor leaf growth
Zn ions in the soil growth-regulating
enzyme systems
Sodium (Na) inorganic fertilisers, maintains salt and reduced growth
Na ions in the soil water balance
Iodine (I) inorganic fertilisers, I needed for energy poor growth
ions in the soil release during
respiration

Table 2.4: Nutrients required for plant growth.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 35

 Fertilisers ESG48

When crops are regularly grown and harvested on the same piece of land,
the soil becomes depleted of one or more nutrients. Fertilisers are natural or
non-natural mixtures of chemical substances that are used to return depleted
nutrients to the soil, improve the nutrient content of the soil and promote plant
growth. Inorganic nutrients (such as nitrates and phosphates) are added to the
soil in the form of inorganic fertilisers.

Effect of fertilisers on the environment

Using large amounts of fertilisers can be harmful to the environment. Fertilis-

ers wash off into rivers where they are poisonous to plant and animal life. The
accumulation of fertilisers in rivers can lead to a process known as eutrophi-
cation. This process occurs when excessive nutrients (nitrates and phosphates)
from the land (typically from fertilisers) run off into rivers and lakes. This leads
to high growth of water plants. Plants grow and produce food by photosynthe-
sis which requires high quantities of oxygen. The high oxygen demand of the
rapidly growing water plants removes oxygen available to other organisms in
the rivers and lakes. The overgrowth of water plants also blocks sunlight from
entering the water, so that plants underwater can no longer photosynthesise
and stop producing oxygen. These two processes combine to deplete the water
of oxygen and cause aquatic organisms to suffocate and die. The biodegrada-
tion of the dead organisms results in a massive increase in bacteria, fungi and
algae degrading the dead organic matter, which also require oxygen. This fur-
ther depletes the available oxygen, and further contributes to the death of fish
and other aquatic species.

Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram showing the processes that lead to eutrophication.

36 2.3. Inorganic compounds

Figure 2.2: Algae and dead fish in a lake Figure 2.3: Algal bloom in a river follow-
that has undergone eutrophication. ing eutrophication.

Natural fertilisers: an application of indigenous knowledge systems

The fertilisers discussed above are non-natural inorganic compounds such as

nitrates, phosphates etc. However, as a means of reducing the negative impact
of the inorganic fertilisers discussed earlier, organic fertilisers that occur nat-
urally can be used. Natural fertilisers consist of organic compounds derived
from manure, slurry, worm castings, peat, seaweed etc.

Natural fertilisers supply nutrients to the soil through natural processes such as
composting. This means that the nutrients are released back to the soil slowly,
and excessive nutrients do not wash off into rivers causing over-fertilisation and
eutrophication. However, the use of organic fertilisers is more labour-intensive
and the nutrient composition tends to be more variable than the inorganic
fertilisers. As a result it is difficult to know for sure whether the particular
nutrient required by the plant is actually being supplied by the natural fertiliser.

Figure 2.4: Sample of compost created Figure 2.5: A homemade compost tum-
through processes involving degradation bler.
of dead organic matter by bacteria and
fungi.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 37

 2.4 Organic compounds ESG49

An organic compound is a compound whose molecules contain C, and usually

at least one C-C or C-H bond. Very small carbon-containing molecules that do
not follow the above rules, such as CO2 and simple carbonates, are considered
inorganic. Life on earth would not be possible without carbon. Other than
water, most molecules of living cells are carbon-based, and hence are referred
to as organic compounds. The main classes of organic compounds we will
investigate in this section include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic
acids.

Each of these classes of compounds consists of large molecules built from

small subunits. The smallest of these subunits is called a monomer. Several
monomers bond together to form polymers. Each of these polymers is char-
acterised by a specific structure owing to the chemical bonds formed. These
structures are related to the function of the compound in living organisms. We
will therefore study each class of compounds under the following headings:

• Molecular make-up: the main elements that make up the class of com-
pounds.
• Structural composition: how the monomers join up together to form
polymers.
• Biological role: the importance of these molecules to animals and plants.
• Chemical test: how to detect the presence of each class of compounds.

Carbohydrates ESG4B

Molecular make-up

Carbohydrates consist of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).

Figure 2.6: A glucose molecule is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

38 2.4. Organic compounds

Structural composition

Carbohydrates are made up of monomers known as monosaccharides. The

monosaccharide that makes up most carbohydrates is glucose. Other monosac-
charides include fructose, galactose and deoxyribose (discussed later). These
monomers can be joined together by glycosidic bonds. When two monosac-
charides are chemically bonded together, they form disaccharides. An example
of a disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar), which is made up of glucose and fruc-
tose. Other dissacharides include lactose, made up of glucose and galactose,
and maltose, made up of two glucose molecules. Monosaccharides and dis-
sachardies are often referred to as sugars, or simple carbohydrates. Several
monosaccharides join together to form polysaccharides. Examples of polysac-
charides you will encounter include glycogen, starch and cellulose. Polysac-
charides are usually referred to as complex carbohydrates as they take longer
to break down.

Figure 2.7: Examples of food sources of various monosaccharides, disaccharides and

polysaccharides.

Role in animals and plants

The main function of carbohydrates is as energy storage molecules and as

substrates (starting material) for energy production. Carbohydrates are bro-
ken down by living organisms to release energy. Each gram of carbohydrate
supplies about 17 kilojoules (kJ) of energy. Starch and glycogen are both stor-
age polysaccharides (polymers made up of glucose monomers) and thus act
as a store for energy in living organisms. Starch is a storage polysaccharide
in plants and glycogen is the storage polysaccharide for animals. Cellulose is
found in plant cell walls and helps gives plants strength. All polysaccharides
are made up of glucose monomers, but the difference in the properties of these
substances can be attributed to the way in which the glucose molecules join
together to form different structures. Below are images of glycogen and starch.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 39

 Figure 2.8: A comparison between starch and glycogen. Glycogen is more extensively
branched than starch.

Chemical tests to identify presence of starch

Substances containing starch turn a blue-black colour in the presence of iodine

solution. An observable colour change is therefore the basis of a chemical test
for the compound.

The adjacent figure shows granules

of wheat starch stained with iodine
solution and photographed through
a light microscope.

In the following investigation we

will test a few different foods for the
presence of starch.

Investigation: Test for the presence of starch (Essential investigation-CAPS)

Aim:

To test for the presence of starch.

Apparatus:

• piece of potato or bread

• lettuce leaf
• petri dish
• iodine solution
• dropper
• other food items of your choosing

40 2.4. Organic compounds

 FACT
Method: Watch one of the
following videos for
a demonstration of
1. Place a piece of potato or bread, the lettuce leaf, and your other food the iodine solution
samples in separate petri dishes. test for starch.
See video: 2CMK
2. Using the dropper add a few drops of iodine solution to the food item in See video:
each petri dish. 2CMM
See video:
2CMN

Figure 2.9: Experimental set-up: test for the presence of starch using iodine solution.

Observations:

Record your observations.

Questions:

Can this method be used to determine how much starch is present? Explain
your answer.

Chemical test to identify presence of reducing sugars

Certain monosaccharides, such as glucose, are known as reducing sugars.

These are defined as sugars that can easily undergo oxidation reactions (i.e.
lose an electron or gain an oxygen atom) and act as a reducing agent. In order
to test for carbohydrates we typically test for the presence of reducing sugars
using either the Benedict’s or Fehling’s test. Both solutions (Benedict’s and
Fehling’s) contain copper sulphate which reacts with reducing sugars to pro-
duce a colour change.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 41

 Investigation: Testing for the presence of reducing sugars (Essential
investigation-CAPS)
FACT
Watch a video
demonstration of
the test for glucose. Aim:
See video: 2CMP
To test for presence of sugars using Benedict’s or Fehling’s test.

Apparatus:

• four heat resistant test tubes

• one beaker
• Bunsen burner or water bath with hot water (+50 ◦ C)
• test tube rack (if using a water bath)
• glucose solution
• albumen solution or egg white
• starch solution
• water
• Benedict’s solution OR Fehling’s solution
• marking pen to mark the test tubes
• thermometer
• 10 ml syringe or measuring cylinder

Safety precautions:

• Follow the safety procedures (listed in Chapter 1) when lighting your

Bunsen burner. Do not light it in a shelf or enclosed space. Remove all
notebooks, papers and excess chemicals from the area. Tie back any long
hair, dangling jewelry and loose clothing and never leave an open flame
unattended while it is burning.
• When heating your test tubes in the heated water in the beakers ensure
that the mouth of the test tubes point away from you and fellow learners.
• When handling the test tubes, especially when they are hot, use a test
tube holder and wear goggles.

Method:

Prepare a water bath by filling a beaker to the halfway mark with water. Place
the beaker on a tripod stand over a Bunsen flame as shown in Figure 2.10. This
will serve as your water bath.

Whilst waiting for the water to reach the desired temperature, carry out the
following instructions:

1. Label the test tubes 1–4.

42 2.4. Organic compounds

 2. Using the syringe or measuring cylinder, add the following to the test
tubes:
• test tube 1: 5 ml of 1% starch solution
• test tube 2: 5 ml of 10% glucose solution
• test tube 3: 5 ml 1% albumen solution
• test tube 4: 5 ml water
3. Add 5 ml Benedict’s solution to each tube.
4. Place the test tubes in the beaker of hot water on the tripod.
5. Use a thermometer to monitor the water temperature and adjust the flame
to maintain the water temperature at approximately 50◦ C.
6. If using the water bath, place the test tubes into the test tube rack and
place into the water bath with temperature set to 50◦ C.
7. After about 5 minutes, when a colour change has occurred in some of the
test tubes, extinguish the flame, or remove the test tubes from the water
bath.
8. Place the four test tubes in a test tube rack and compare the colours.

Figure 2.10: Test for reducing sugars using Benedict’s test

Results:

Construct a table to record the results of this experiment. It is important to

observe and record any changes that have taken place.

Tube number Observations in each tube

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 43

FACT
Watch a video Questions:
demonstration of
the test for reducing
sugars. 1. What colour changes (if any) did you observe after heating the samples
See video: with Benedict’s solution?
2CMQ
See video: 2CMR 2. The three solutions tested are examples of the chemical substances found
in cells: glucose, starch, protein (albumen). Which of the samples tested
FACT positive when the Benedict’s solution was added and the test tube was
When drawing heated?
organic molecules,
it can easily get 3. Other than the colour, what change took place in the consistency of the
confusing writing Benedict’s solution?
out all of the ’C’s
4. What can you conclude from the investigation?
and ’H’s for carbon
and hydrogen 5. Why was water included in test tube 4?
respectively.
Scientists overcome
this by drawing the
carbon backbone,
and leaving out the Lipids ESG4C
hydrogens. Carbon
will always make 4
bonds with other
atoms, so it is easy Molecular make-up
to figure out how
many hydrogens Lipids contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) but have less oxygen
there must be. The
than carbohydrates. Examples of lipids in the diet include cooking oils such as
carbon is indicated
by a point, and the sunflower and olive oil, butter, margarine and lard. Many nuts and seeds also
bonds between contain a high proportion of lipids.
carbon molecules
are indicated by Structural composition
lines joining the
points.
Triglycerides are one of the most common types of lipids. Triglyceride molecules
are made up of glycerol and three fatty acids (Figure 2.11). The fatty acid tails
are made up of many carbons joined together. The number of carbons in the
fatty acid chains can differ.

Figure 2.11: A triglyceride molecule.

44 2.4. Organic compounds

Role in animals and plants FACT
You will learn about
the important role
Lipids are an important energy reserve and contain 37.8 kilojoules (kJ) of en-
that lipids play in
ergy per gram. Triglyceride lipids are broken down to release glycerol and fatty cell membranes in
acids. Glycerol can be converted to glucose and used as a source of energy, the following
however the majority of energy provided by lipids comes from the breakdown chapter on the basic
units of life.
of the fatty acid chains. Some fatty acids are essential nutrients that cannot
be produced by the body and need to be consumed in small amounts. Non-
essential fatty acids can be produced in the body from other compounds.

Lipids are important for the digestion and transport of essential vitamins, help
insulate body organs against shock and help to maintain body temperature.
Lipids also play an important role in cell membranes.

Saturated and unsaturated fats

Carbon can form four bonds with other atoms. Most carbons in a fatty acid
chain are bonded to two adjacent carbons, and to two hydrogen atoms. When
each carbon atom in a fatty acid chain forms four single bonds and has the
maximum number of hydrogen atoms, the fatty acid chain is called saturated
because it is ”saturated” with hydrogen atoms. However, sometimes two adja-
cent carbons will from a double bond. In this case the carbons taking part in
the double bond are each joined to only one hydrogen. Fatty acids that have
carbon-carbon double bonds are known as unsaturated, because the double
bond can be ’broken’ and an additional bond with hydrogen can be made.
Double bonds are stronger than single bonds and they give the fatty acid chain
a ’kink’. These kinks mean that the molecules can not pack together tightly,
and the lipids are more fluid. This is why unsaturated fats tend to be liquid at
room temperature, while saturated fats tend to be solid. Fatty acid chains with
many double bonds are called poly-unsaturated fatty acids.

Figure 2.12: Fatty acids can be saturated, mono-unsaturated or polyunsaturated de-

pending on the number of double bonds present. Double bonds result in ”kinks” in
the fatty acid chain.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 45

FACT Cholesterol
You will learn more
about how
Cholesterol is an organic chemical substance known as a sterol. You are not
cholesterol can clog
arteries and lead to required to understand its molecular makeup or its structural composition. It
heart disease in the is an important component in cell membranes. The major dietary sources of
chapter on cholesterol include cheese, egg, pork, poultry, fish and shrimp. Cholesterol is
transport systems in
carried through the body by proteins in the blood known as lipoproteins. A
animals
lipoprotein is any combination of lipid and protein.
FACT
Translucent means Cholesterol is carried in the blood through the body by high density lipopro-
that an object lets tein, low density lipoprotein and through triglycerides.
some light through.
1. Low density lipoprotein (LDL): Low density lipoprotein transports choles-
terol around the body. It has a higher proportion of cholesterol relative
to protein. It is often known as ”bad” cholesterol because higher levels
of LDL are associated with heart disease.
2. High density lipoprotein (HDL): High density lipoprotein is the small-
est of the lipoproteins. It has a high proportion of protein relative to
cholesterol and is therefore often known as the ”good” cholesterol. HDL
transports cholesterol away from cells and to the liver where it is broken
down or removed from the body as waste.

High levels of LDL can cause heart disease. Cholesterol builds up in blood
vessels that carry blood from the heart to the tissues and organs of the body,
called arteries. This leads to a hardening and narrowing of these vessels, which
interferes with the transport of blood, and can potentially lead to a heart attack.
The biggest contributor to the amount of cholesterol in your blood is the type of
fats you eat. Saturated fats are less healthy than unsaturated fats as they increase
the amount of LDL cholesterol in your blood.

Chemical test to detect the presence of lipids

The test for lipids relies on the fact that lipids leave a translucent ‘grease spot’
on brown paper bags, while non-lipid substances do not.

Investigation: Test for the presence of lipids (Essential investigation-CAPS)

Aim:

To test for the presence of lipids.

Apparatus:

• piece of paper or ”fish-and-chips” paper bag

• food item e.g fries, piece of cooked meat, etc
• 10 ml of cooking oil (positive control)
• 10 ml water (negative control)

46 2.4. Organic compounds

 FACT
Method: Watch a video
demonstrating the
test for lipids.
1. Positive control: add cooking oil to brown paper bag until it is soaked up. See video: 2CMS
The part of the paper that soaks up oil should be translucent compared
to the part that does not.
2. Negative control: wet the paper with water. The paper may become wet
and soggy, but should not become translucent.
3. Experimental samples: stain the brown paper bag with the food item to
be tested and hold it up to the light. If it is translucent, similar to the
positive control, the food item contains lipid.

Observations:

Record your observations, noting any key differences between the controls and
the experimental sample.

Investigation: Alternative methods for testing for lipids

An alternative method to test for the presence of lipids in a sample, is to crush

or dissolve the sample in ethanol. Fats and lipids dissolve in alcohol. Once
your ethanol solution has been prepared, there are two ways of testing whether
this sample contains lipids:

1. Filter the ethanol solution through filter paper: lipids that have dissolved
in the ethanol will cause filter paper to go translucent. Once the alcohol
evaporates away, a translucent spot will remain.
2. Add the ethanol sample to water: lipids cannot dissolve in water. There-
fore, if the ethanol solution contains lipids, the lipids will precipitate out
of solution when mixed with water, causing the solution to go milky.

Proteins ESG4D

Molecular make-up

Proteins contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and may
have other elements such as iron (Fe), phosphorous (P) and sulfur (S).

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 47

FACT Structural composition
Because the
sequence of amino
Proteins are made of amino acids. There are 20 common amino acids from
acids determines
the way that a which all proteins in living organisms are made. Nine of them are considered
protein folds, if you essential amino acids, as they cannot by synthesised in the body from other
start with a certain compounds, and must be obtained from the diet. Amino acids are bonded
peptide chain, you
together by peptide bonds to form peptides. A long peptide chain forms a
will always get the
same protein, which folds into a very specific three-dimensional shape. This three-
three-dimensional dimensional shape is completely determined by the identity and order of the
structure! amino acids in the peptide chain. We often refer to four different levels of
protein structure (Figure 2.13):

Figure 2.13: The primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary levels of protein structure.

48 2.4. Organic compounds

 • Primary structure: This refers to the sequence of amino acids joined to- FACT
gether by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain. Some proteins have Meat or vegetables:
which is a better
fewer than a hundred amino acids, while others have several thousand.
source of protein?
• Secondary structure: This is the first level of three dimensional folding. Both animal protein
It is driven completely by hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding usually and protein from
vegetables is good
results in regions of the chain coiling and other regions forming sheets.
for health. But each
• Tertiary structure: This is the second level of three dimensional folding type comes with
and is the overall final shape of the protein molecule. The secondary other nutrients. So
which ’package’ of
structures and unstructured regions of the chain further fold into a glob-
nutrients-meat or
ular shape, driven by hydrophobic interactions (non-polar regions trying vegetables is better
to escape the water in the cell environment) and electrostatic interactions for health?
(polar and charged regions wanting to interact with the water environ- • A 180 gram
ment and each other). steak
provides 40
• Quaternary structure: Some proteins are complex: two or more peptide
g of protein
chains fold into their tertiary structures, then these complete structures BUT also
associate together by hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions to form provides 38
the final protein. g of fat
which is
more than
Role in animals and plants the Recom-
mended
Dietary
Proteins are important in several crucial biological functions. Proteins are found Allowance
in hair, skin, bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments and other structures and per- • The same
form key structural and mechanical functions. Proteins are also important in amount of
cell communication and in the immune system. Proteins can also act as an salmon gives
energy reserve when broken down through digestive processes. Each gram 34 g of
protein and
of protein can be broken down to release 17 kJ of energy. Certain proteins
18 g of fat.
called enzymes are important in catalysing cellular reactions that form part of
• A cup of
metabolism. cooked
lentils has 18
g of protein
and 1 g of
Proteins are essential to fat.
any diet. A lack of protein
results in a disease called
kwashiorkor (Figure 2.14)
or marasmus (Figure 2.15).
Marasmus is caused by a
general nutritional
deficiency (starvation), and
kwashiorkor is caused by a
deficiency in protein
specifically.
Figure 2.14: Child suffer- Figure 2.15: Child suffer-
ing from kwashiorkor ing from marasmus

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 49

FACT Chemical test to detect the presence of protein
Watch a video
demonstration of
The Biuret Test for proteins using involves testing for the presence of the pep-
the Biuret test for
protein. tide bond. Biuret reagent is a copper-based reagent that turns purple when
See video: 2CMT bound to protein in an alkaline solution (Figure 2.16). The more peptide bonds
present, the greater the intensity of the purple colour, indicating a higher pro-
tein concentration.

The presence of protein can also be detected using Millon’s reagent. Millon’s
reagent reacts with tyrosine amino acids, common to most proteins, and results
in the formation of a reddish-brown precipitate when heated.

Table 2.5 below summarises the major tests and their expected results in the
presence and absence of protein.

Test reagent Positive result Negative result

Biuret reagent Violet/purple colour Blue colour
Millon’s reagent Red-brown colour White colour

Table 2.5: Observable colour changes when testing for the presence of protein.

Investigation: Test for the presence of proteins

Aim:

To use the Biuret test or Millon’s reagent to test for the presence of proteins.

Apparatus:

1. Bunsen burner and a beaker containing water

2. or water bath with hot water (50◦ C)
3. Dropper or plastic pipette
4. Test tubes:
• two with albumin solution (positive control)
• two with sugar water (negative control)
• test tubes with samples to be tested for the presence of protein
• test tube with Millon’s Reagent
• test tube with solution for Biuret test

( NOTE: The Millon’s Reagent and Biuret’s solution in this experiment should
be prepared for you by your teacher).

50 2.4. Organic compounds

Method:

Test for protein using Millon’s reagent

WARNING! Millon’s reagent is highly toxic! Avoid breathing in its fumes.

1. Using the dropper or pipette, add a few drops of Millon’s Reagent to the
test tube containing albumin.
2. Using the dropper or pipette, add a few drops of Millon’s Reagent to the
test tube containing sugar water.
3. Using the dropper or pipette, add a few drops of Millon’s Reagent to the
test tube containing samples of your food to be tested.
4. Heat the mixtures in boiling water for 5 minutes.
5. Observe any colour changes.

Test for protein using the Biuret test

1. Using the dropper or pipette, add a few drops of the Biuret solution to
the test tube containing albumin.
2. Using the dropper or pipette, add a few drops of the Biuret solution to
the test tube containing sugar water.
3. Using the dropper or pipette, add a few drops of the Biuret solution to
the test tube containing samples of your food to be tested.
4. Observe any colour changes.

Figure 2.16: Biuret test: this is the expected colour change if protein is present

Observations:

Record your observations, noting any key differences between the positive con-
trol, negative control and experimental samples

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 51

FACT
View a video
Enzymes ESG4F
demonstration of
the experiment to
test for proteins: Enzymes are protein molecules that help chemical reactions in living organ-
See video: isms to take place. The term enzyme has a specific meaning: an enzyme is
2CMV
a biological catalyst that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without
being used up in the chemical reaction itself. Let us analyse this definition in
FACT
Learn about what greater detail.
enzymes are and
how they work. Biological: Enzymes are protein molecules which are made of long chains of
See video: amino acids. These fold into unique three-dimensional structures with a region
2CMW
known as an active site where reactions take place.

Catalyst: Enzymes speed up chemical reactions without being used up in the

reaction themselves. All chemical reactions require a certain minimum amount
of energy to take place. This energy is known as the free energy of activation.
Enzymes lower the energy of activation thus speeding up chemical reactions
(Figure 2.17).

Figure 2.17: Enzymes lower the activation energy, thus making reactions occur faster.

Enzymes are not consumed by the reactions they catalyse: they do not alter the
equilibrium of reactions, thus they catalyse both forward and reverse reactions.
The direction in which a reaction proceeds is determined by concentration of
the substrates and the products of the reactions.

Enzymes may be involved in reactions that break down or build up molecules.

The breakdown reactions are known as catabolic reactions. The building up
reactions are known as anabolic reactions.

The ‘lock and key’ model of enzyme action

Enzymes are highly specific regarding the reactions they catalyse. The speci-
ficity depends on the bonds formed between the active site of an enzyme and
its substrate. Active sites have a specific shape that allows binding of a very
specific substrate.

52 2.4. Organic compounds

The highly specific nature of the enzyme-substrate binding has been compared
to a ”lock and key” with the enzyme as the ’lock’ and the substrate as the ’key’
(Figure 2.18). The substrate binds the active site to form an enzyme-substrate
complex. The reaction takes place, then the product leaves the active site as
it no longer fits the ’lock’ in the same way as the substrate did. The enzyme
remains unchanged.

Figure 2.18: This diagram illustrates the ‘lock-and-key’ model of enzyme action.

Investigation: Investigating how biological washing powders work

Aim:

To test how enzymes in biological washing powders work.

Apparatus:

• two soft boiled eggs (hard boiled eggs contain denatured proteins that do
not cause stains)
• two beakers
• biological washing powder (with enzymes)
• non-biological washing powder (older type of washing powder)
• water
• two measuring spoons

Method:

1. Label 3 beakers ’Bio’, ’Non-Bio’ and ’control’ which will contain biologi-
cal washing powder, non-biological washing powder and water (negative
control) respectively.
2. In the beaker labelled ’Bio’ dissolve 5 g of biological washing powder in
30 ml water.
3. In the beaker labelled ’Non-Bio’ dissolve 5 g of non-biological washing
powder in 30 ml water.
4. Pour 30 ml of tap water into the control beaker.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 53

 5. Scoop out a small amount of egg yolk.
6. Place a teaspoon with the egg yolk in each of the beakers.
7. Leave the spoons in the beakers for 1 to 2 hours.
8. Observe your results.

Results:

1. Write down your observations.

2. Suggest a reason for your observations.
3. Write a conclusion for the investigation.

Enzymes in everyday life

The properties of enzymes to control reactions have been widely used for com-
mercial purposes. Examples of some of these uses are listed below:

• Biological washing powders contain enzymes such as lipases (breaks

down lipids) and proteases (breaks down protein), which assist in the
breakdown of stains caused by foods, blood, fat or grease. These biolog-
ical washing powders save energy as they are effective at low tempera-
tures.
• Meat tenderisers contain enzymes which are obtained from fruits such
as papaya or pineapple. When used in meat tenderisers these enzymes
soften the meat.
• Lactose-free milk is manufactured primarily for people who are lactose
intolerant. Lactose intolerant individuals lack the enzyme lactase that
digests lactose (milk sugar). Lactose is pre-digested by adding lactase to
the milk.

Factors affecting enzyme action

1. Temperature

In humans, enzymes function best at 37◦ C (Figure 2.19). This is the optimum
temperature. At very high temperatures proteins denature; this means that the
hydrogen, hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions that result in the protein’s
three-dimensional shape break down, unravelling the protein into its primary
structure, a long chain of amino acids. When a protein is denatured, the shape
of its active site, as well as the rest of the protein shape is altered. The substrate
can no longer fit in the active site of the enzyme and chemical reactions cannot
take place. Low temperatures can slow down or even inactivate enzymes, as
low temperature means less available kinetic energy, so that even the lower
energy of activation that the enzyme allows is not available. The first graph
shows the effect of temperature on enzyme activity.

54 2.4. Organic compounds

2. pH FACT
The optimal pH and
temperature for an
Enzyme activity is sensitive to pH. Enzymes have an optimum pH as shown on
enzyme will be
the graph, but they can function effectively within a pH range. The effective- determined by the
ness of the enzyme falls sharply when the pH is outside its optimum range. An kind of living thing
enzyme can become denatured when exposed to a pH outside its pH range, it is found in. The
enzymes in the
as pH affects the charge on some amino acids, and therefore affects the elec-
human body have
trostatic interactions holding the tertiary structure together. The second graph an optimum
shows the effect of pH on enzyme activity. temperature of 37
◦
C. Bacteria that
live in compost
heaps have
enzymes with an
optimal range in the
40’s, and bacteria
called
hyperthermophiles
(lovers of very high
temperatures) that
live in hot springs
have enzymes with
optimum
temperatures above
80 ◦ C.

Figure 2.19: Graphs showing the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity
respectively.

In the investigation that follows, the effect of temperature on catalase enzyme

activity will be investigated. Hydrogen peroxide is potentially toxic and so
living tissues contain an enzyme named catalase to break it down into non-
toxic compounds, namely water and oxygen. You will study the effect of the
enzyme catalase on the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide. You will further
examine the effect of pH and temperature on enzyme activity.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 55

 Investigation: Investigating the effect of catalase from chicken liver on hy-
drogen peroxide
FACT
What are the best
conditions for
catalase enzyme? Aim:
What happens
when an enzyme or
To demonstrate the effect of catalase on hydrogen peroxide.
living tissue is put in
hydrogen peroxide?
Find out in this Apparatus:
video.
See video: 2CMX
• 10 ml measuring cylinders
• pipette
• 3% Hydrogen peroxide solution
• scalpel
• forceps
• balance
• chicken liver at room temperature
• boiled chicken liver
• frozen chicken liver
• stirring rod

Method:

Follow the instructions below:

• Cut two square pieces weighing 0.1 g from the fresh liver sample and
place each in a separate 10 ml measuring cylinder.
• Use a clean measuring cylinder to measure 3 ml water. Pour into one of
the fresh liver-containing cylinders. This is your negative control.
• Use a clean measuring cylinder to measure 3 ml hydrogen peroxide. Pour
into the remaining fresh liver-containing cylinder. This is your positive
control.
• Wait for four minutes and then measure and record the height of the
resulting oxygen bubbles in each cylinder.

Questions:

1. Name the three variables that must remain stable throughout these exper-
iments and explain why they must be kept stable.
2. What kind of reaction is taking place?
3. How could you make this experiment more accurate?
4. In addition to temperature, what other factors influence the rate of reac-
tion?

56 2.4. Organic compounds

Investigation: PART B
FACT
DNA can also be
Aim: found inside
chloroplasts and
mitochondria.
To demonstrate the effect of temperature on catalase activity.

Method:
• Add 3 ml of hydrogen peroxide to three separate 10 ml graduated mea-
suring cylinders. Mark one cylinder ”frozen chicken liver”; the second
”boiled chicken liver” and the third ”room temperature chicken liver”.
• Cut a 0.1 g square from each of the frozen and boiled and room temper-
ature chicken livers. Add the liver pieces to the correspondingly labelled
measuring cylinder with hydrogen peroxide in it.
• Leave the pieces of liver for four minutes and measure the height of bub-
bles produced.

Questions:
1. Give reasons for the differences observed across the three measuring
cylinders.
2. Name the dependent and independent variables in this experiment.
3. How could you make this experiment more accurate?
4. What would you conclude from your observations?

Nucleic acids ESG4G

Nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, are large organic molecules that are
key to all living organisms. The building blocks of nucleic acids are called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide is made up of a sugar, a phosphate and a nitroge-
nous base. Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester bonds, which
join the phosphate of one nucleotide to the sugar of the next. The phosphate-
sugar-phosphate-sugar strands form a ”backbone” upon which the nitrogen-
containing bases are exhibited. Nucleic acids are therefore polymers made up
of many nucleotides. Nucleic acids do not need to be obtained from the diet
because they are synthesised using intermediate products of carbohydrate and
amino acid metabolism.

Nucleic acids include:

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): which contains the ’instructions’ for the

synthesis of proteins in the form of genes. DNA is found in the nucleus
of every cell, and is also present in smaller amounts inside mitochondria
and chloroplasts.
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA): is important in transferring genetic information
from DNA to form proteins. It is found on ribosomes, in the cytoplasm
and in the nucleus.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 57

FACT
The structure and
function of the
nucleus will be
explained in details
in the next chapter:
The basic units of
life.

Figure 2.20: Schematic diagram of DNA and RNA: DNA is double stranded and RNA
is single-stranded.

2.5 Vitamins ESG4H

Vitamins are organic compounds required by organisms as vital nutrients in

limited amounts. Vitamins are therefore essential to a balanced diet. Vita-
mins have a variety of functions in the body. Some vitamins are coenzymes,
which means that they help enzymes to catalyse a reaction efficiently. Some
are responsible for regulating metabolism or act as regulators of cell and tissue
growth and differentiation.

Figure 2.21: Sources of essentials vitamins.

58 2.5. Vitamins
 Vitamin Role Food sources Deficiency
disease
Vitamin A Needed for proper liver, carrots, night blindness
functioning of eyes egg
Vitamin B (A Carbohydrate, protein, grains, B1- beriberi,
group of lipid, nucleic acid and potatoes, B3- pellagra,
vitamins with alcohol metabolism, bananas B6, B9, B12-
related neurotransmitter synthesis anaemia
functions) and nerve function, red
blood cell production
Vitamin C Involved in iron citrus fruit scurvy (results
metabolism, plays a role in (oranges, in bleeding
the immune system, helps lemons etc), gums)
with the formation of tomatoes
collagen for wound repair
Vitamin D Important in absorption of full cream rickets
minerals from the gut (such milk, oily fish (resulting in
as calcium and phosphate), soft bones,
works together with with bowed
calcium and phosphorus in legs and
bone / teeth hardening widened
wrists)
Vitamin E Acts as an anti-oxidant margarine, depressed
soybean oil, immune
fortified system,
cereals, anaemia, poor
condensed nerve
cow’s milk, conduction
cheese, orange
juice

2.6 Recommended Dietary Allowance ESG4J

In order to ensure that we consume adequate quantities of all the food types,
nutritionists have compiled a list of guidelines known as the Recommended
Dietary Allowance (RDA). The RDA defines the required intake of each nutrient
type to meet the basic nutrient needs of almost all individuals in a gender group
at a given life stage. Food companies are required to advertise the nutrient
composition on all products sold. This allows consumers to decide whether to
purchase the food item. Table 2.6 shows the recommended dietary intake for
males or females between 19 and 30 years old.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 59

 Recommended dietary allowance of vitamins and minerals

Nutrient RDA (Male) RDA (Female) Unit Top Sources

Vitamins
Vitamin A 900 700 micrograms carrots, carrot
juice, turkey,
pumpkin
Vitamin C 75 75 milligrams orange juice,
grapefruit
juice, bell
peppers
Vitamin D 5 5 micrograms cereals,
mushrooms,
yeast,
salmon,
swordfish,
trout, fish
liver oil
Vitamin E 15 15 milligrams fortified
cereals,
tomato paste,
sunflower
seeds
Minerals
Calcium 1000 1000 milligrams fortified
cereals, cow’s
milk, cheese,
orange juice
Iodine 150 150 micrograms iodised salt
Iron 18 18 milligrams liver,
pilchards, red
meat, spinach
Phosphorous 700 700 milligrams maize-meal,
milk, wheat
flour
Potassium 4700 4700 milligrams potatoes,
bananas,
tomato paste,
orange juice
Sodium 1500 1500 milligrams onion soup
mix, table salt

Table 2.6: RDA for males and females between 19 years and 30 years.

60 2.6. Recommended Dietary Allowance

Macronutrients FACT
Did you know?
Malnutrition, which
The table below shows the relative quantities of macronutrients recommended
is the lack of a
for average adult (25-year old) male and female individuals. balanced diet, is a
major problem in
South Africa. Key
Substance Amount Amount Sources of vitamins have been
added to wheat and
(males) (females) nutrient
maize-meal in order
Water 2 L/day 2 L/day water to provide the
Carbohydrates 300 g/day 230 g/day rice, potatoes, recommended
pasta, bread, amounts. Iodine has
been added to salt.
mealie meal,
The nutritional
fruits needs of new-born
Protein 56 g/day 46 g/day duck, chicken, babies are unique.
turkey, beef, A major challenge
in South Africa is to
fish, eggs,
encourage women
legumes to breastfeed
(pulses and children for their
lentils), nuts, first six months after
seeds, milk birth. Only 25% of
babies are breastfed
Fat 70 g 70 g sunflower oil, in this way. This
olive oil, leads to high levels
butter, of malnutrition,
margarine, diarrhoea and poor
growth.
lard, avocados,
coconut, nuts,
seeds, oily fish
Cholesterol As low as As low as egg yolk,
possible possible chicken giblets,
turkey giblets,
beef liver

Working out your daily nutrient intake

Figure 2.22:
Breastfeeding
From our understanding of recommended dietary allowance we can under-
infants for first 6
stand what it is we consume and how important it is to our diet. The activity months of life is
below requires you to use the information provided in these tables (and any vital to the infants’
other information you can find) in order to evaluate your diet with regards to survival.
the recommended daily allowances.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 61

 Activity: Measuring your daily nutrient intake (Essential investigation-
CAPS)
FACT
What makes up a
balanced diet?
See video: 2CMY 1. Keep a food diary for 3 days by writing down the food you eat. Make
sure to note the time you eat, the type of food you eat, and how much of
it you consume.
2. Pick one of the days you recorded (that is the most typical of your normal
diet), and draw a pie chart with the energy component of each food
item you consumed. Make sure your pie chart includes a key. (See the
Introduction to Life Skills Chapter if you are unsure of how to do this.)
3. Draw another table with each food class (vitamins, proteins, carbohy-
drates, etc) listed. In one column, list the recommended dietary al-
lowance and in the next column list the estimated amount of the food
type you consume on a daily basis.
4. Which food types do you consume in excess? Which ones do you con-
sume too little of? What are the consequences of each?

The table below lists the energy components of some common food items.
Study it and answer the following questions:

1. Which food has the highest energy value? Why?

2. Name the key food items you would include in a balanced diet

Nutrient composition of some common foods

Food type Energy Protein Carbohydrate

Total Sodium Iron Vitamin Vitamin
(kJ) (g) (g) Fat (mg) (mg) A C (mg)
(g) (IU)
rice, brown 969 5 48 2 10 0.9 0 0
(250 ml)
Muffin, 824 4 34 5 317 1.1 24 1
blueberry
(50 g)
Beansprouts(250 274 6 14 0 12 2.5 41 21
ml)
Carrots raw 145 1 8 1 35 0.4 22644 7
(1 medium)
Apples, raw, 341 0 21 2.6 0 0.2 73 8
with skin
(7cm
diameter)
Egg white, 69 3 0 0 54 0 0 0
raw (1 egg)
Lamb stew 914 33 0 9 69 2.7 0 0
(250 ml)
Chicken 218 30 0 10 69 0.6 107 0
roasted (1/2
breast)

62 2.6. Recommended Dietary Allowance

 FACT
2.7 Summary ESG4K Watch this
interesting summary
about biological
molecules.
• Cells are made up of organic and inorganic molecules which in turn are See video: 2CMZ
made up of atoms bonded together.
• Living organisms need to consume organic and inorganic compounds,
which they break down for energy and use as building blocks for the
components of life.
• Essential compounds are those that a living organism cannot build itself
from other molecules, but must obtain from its environment.
• Plants may require a supply of inorganic nutrients through natural and
non-natural fertilisers. An excess of non-natural fertilisers supplied to
plants may result in eutrophication of rivers and lakes.
• Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are key organic molecules required for
growth and survival of living organisms. All three are large molecules
(polymers) made up of smaller molecules (monomers). We can test foods
for the presence of these molecules.
• Each of these compounds has essential functions in living organisms, for
example: fats (storage); proteins (growth); carbohydrates (energy); nu-
cleic acids (store genetic information); vitamins (variety of functions in
the body). An inadequate supply of these can result in diseases of mal-
nutrition (e.g kwashiorkor, marasmus, scurvy, rickets etc).
• The class of proteins known as enzymes is important in speeding up
chemical reactions in living organisms. Enzymes work under specific pH
and temperature conditions known as ‘optimal conditions’. They may
become denatured or deactivated under unfavourable conditions.
• The Recommended Dietary Allowance is a measure of how much of
the various organic and inorganic nutrients we require in our diet. The
specific allowance is different across age groups and sexes. It is a useful
guide to maintaining a balanced diet.

Exercise 2 – 1: End of chapter exercises

1. Which one of the following is not a biological role of water?

a) prevents deficiency diseases
b) dissolves biochemical compounds
c) provides a medium in which chemical reactions take place
d) involved in the hydrolysis of foodstuffs
2. Which combination of the following substances is best to prevent rickets?
a) magnesium, phosphorus and carrots
b) phosphorus, calcium and fish liver oil
c) iron, calcium and liver
d) iodine, iron and oranges

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 63

 3. The diagram below is a schematic drawing, which means that the
molecules represented may not resemble their actual chemical shape.
Use the information provided in the diagram to answer the following
questions:

a) What is the polymer A that is found in an animal cell?

b) What is the function of polymer A in the body?
c) What could polymer B be?
4. The table below gives nutrients present in various dry seeds.

The following histogram shows the different amounts of nutrients found

in one of the four seeds.
The chart shows the nutrients found in:

a) green peas
b) sunflower seeds
c) maize
d) peanuts

64 2.7. Summary
5. The graph below illustrates that enzymes:
a) are pH-specific
b) catalyses a specific substrate
c) are denatured at high pH
d) are sensitive to low pH

6. The following diagrams show the enzyme lock-and key method of action.
Label each of the letters.

7. Explain briefly how you would test for glucose.

8. Study the graph below. The graph shows total protein (in grams) present
in a 100 grams of different food items. Use the graph to answer questions
below.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 65

 a) Name the two foods from which vegetarians would obtain the most
protein.
b) Which foods contains only 2% protein?
c) Which food would be the best for a non-vegetarian person who is
suffering from kwashiorkor and anaemia?
d) Name and explain the process which proteins undergo when heated
excessively.
9. Study the information in the following diagrams and the table below, for
three different meals X, Y and Z.

Meals Energy (kJ) Vitamin C (mg) Calcium (mg)

X 2900 25 70
Y 2100 47 265
Z 2600 40 170

a) Name three polysaccharide carbohydrates in meal X.

b) Giving one reason for each answer, which meal will:
i. provide the greatest source of energy?
ii. be most suitable for the development of healthy bones and
teeth?
iii. be least suitable for people who are prone to scurvy?
c) Meal Z is relatively low in lipids (fat) yet high in energy content.
Which of the food components in Z provides the energy?
d) Which of the three meals can be regarded as the healthiest?
Give three reasons for your answer.

66 2.7. Summary
10. The following information (given in the table below) appeared on a box
of breakfast cereal. Use this information in the table to assist you in
answering the questions that follow.

a) How many servings does a person need to provide the RDA of en-
ergy?
b) Which organic compounds are the most important energy
providers?
c) How much energy do the vitamins in the cereal provide?
d) What deficiency disease could result if a person does not obtain
adequate amounts of vitamin B1?
e) Explain the role of iron in the diet.
f) Consider the RDA of energy (3125 kJ). Do you think this amount is
realistic for your requirements? Explain your answer.
11. The histograms below show the percentage of carbohydrates, fats, pro-
teins and water in eight types of foods.

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 67

 From the information provided in the histograms above, name two types
of food that:

a) Contain more than 25% of a nutrient that is involved in the forma-

tion of an insulating layer
b) Would best help to prevent kwashiorkor
c) Will form only monosaccharides and amino acids after digestion
d) Are not involved in the formation of cell membranes
e) Contain more than 50% of a nutrient which is the primary source
of energy

12. The diagram shows the apparatus used in various organic food tests.
Study it and answer the questions that follow:

a) Name the nutrients tested for in each of the experiments numbered

A, B, C and D.
b) Identify the chemicals numbered 1, 2 and 3.
c) State the colour change for a positive reaction in each of the test
tubes used in the experiments numbered B, C and D.
d) Identify each of the compounds A, B and C. In each case give a
reason for your answer.
Which compound (A, B or C)
i. serves as a main source of energy in cellular respiration
ii. is most likely to form part of an enzyme

68 2.7. Summary
 13. The figure below shows the differences between the upper and lower
basin of a water body.

a) What has caused the key

differences between the
upper and lower basin?
b) What could have been
added to the water in the
lower basin to cause it to
look milky-green?

Figure 2.23

Check answers online with the exercise code

below or click on ’show me the answer’.
1. 2CN2 2. 2CN3 3. 2CN4 4. 2CN5 5. 2CN6 6. 2CN7
7. 2CN8 8a. 2CN9 8b. 2CNB 8c. 2CNC 8d. 2CND 9a. 2CNF
9b. 2CNG 9c. 2CNH 9d. 2CNJ 10a. 2CNK 10b. 2CNM 10c. 2CNN
10d. 2CNP 10e. 2CNQ 10f. 2CNR 11a. 2CNS 11b. 2CNT 11c. 2CNV
11d. 2CNW 11e. 2CNX 12a. 2CNY 12b. 2CNZ 12c. 2CP2 12d. 2CP3
13. 2CP4

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 69

 CHAPTER 3

Cells: the basic units of life

3.1 Overview 72
3.2 Molecular make up of cells 72
3.3 Cell structure and function 82
3.4 Cell organelles 92
3.5 Summary 104
3.6 End of chapter exercises 105
 3 Cells: the basic units of life

3.1 Overview ESG4M

Introduction ESG4N

”In the year of 1657 I discovered very small living creatures in rain water.” —
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the Father of Microbiology, on discovering cells.
Together with Robert Hooke’s discoveries, van Leeuwenhoek’s findings laid
the foundations of microbiology.

Key concepts
• The invention of microscopes allowed us to see life at the microscopic
level.
• Cell walls are present in plants, bacteria and fungi and provide a rigid
support structure.
• Cell membranes are semi-permeable and have a fluid rather than a fixed
structure. Substances move across them by diffusion, osmosis, facilitated
transport and active transport.
• Cells contain organelles with structures adapted to perform specific func-
tions within the cell.
• Cells differ in size, shape and structure in order to carry out specialised
functions. Cells with similar structures and functions associate to form
tissues.
• Plant and animal cells differ in many crucial ways.

The previous chapter discussed the various organic molecules that make up liv-
ing organisms. In this chapter we will look at the cellular level of organisation
of living things.

atom →molecule→cell→tissue→organ→system→organism→ecosystem

3.2 Molecular make up of cells ESG4P

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms. Cells
are made up of the compounds you learnt about in the previous chapter: car-
bohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids and water. The word ’cell’ was first
used by the 17th century scientist Robert Hooke to describe the small pores in
a cork that he observed under a microscope. Cells are very small structures.

72 3.1. Overview
The human body is made up of 1013 cells. Each of these is too small to see with FACT
the human eye and it is through the development of microscopic techniques Sections for TEM
have to be so thin
that we have been better able to visualise and understand them.
that they have to be
prepared using a
Microscopy ESG4Q special piece of
equipment called
an ultramicrotome.

Early attempts to magnify images of objects through grinding of glass lenses

FACT
eventually gave rise to the earliest microscope. In 1600, Anton van Leeuwen- Transmission
hoek, a Dutch microbiologist used a simple microscope with only one lens electron
to observe blood cells. He was the first scientist to describe cells and bacte- microscopes can
ria through observation under microscope. By combining two or more lenses, magnify an image
50 million times.
the magnification of the microscopes was improved, thus allowing scientists to
view smaller structures.

The dissecting microscope is an optical microscope used to view images in

three dimensions at low resolution. It is useful for low-level magnification
of live tissue. The development of the light microscope, (Figure 3.5) which
uses visible light to magnify images allowed for up to 1000X magnification of
objects through which scientists were able to view individual cells and internal
cell structures such as the cell wall, membrane, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
However, although the light microscope allowed for 1000X magnification, in
Figure 3.4:
order to see even smaller structures such as the internal structure of organelles,
Transmission elec-
microscopes of greater resolving power (with up to 10 000X magnification) tron microscope
were required. in use.

With the development of electron microscopes the microscopic detail of or-

ganelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts became easier to observe. The
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) was developed first, followed by the
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). TEM is used to view extremely thin sec-
tions of material. Beams of electrons pass through the material and are focused
by electromagnetic lenses. In SEM the electrons are bounced off the surface
of the material and thus produce a detailed image of the external surface of
the material. They produce a 3D image by picking up secondary electrons
knocked off the surface with an electron collector. The image is then amplified
and viewed on a screen. Examples of each of the image types produced by
these microscopes are given in Figures 3.1 to 3.3.

Figure 3.1: SEM: A natu- Figure 3.2: SEM: These Figure 3.3: TEM: Image
ral community of bacteria pollen grains show the of chloroplast, showing thy-
growing on a single grain of characteristic depth of field lakoid discs within a eu-
sand. of SEM micrographs. karyotic cell.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 73

 The apparatus most commonly used in lab microscopy exercises is a simple
light microscope. Figure 3.1 shows an annotated diagram of a light microscope
with a description of the function of each part. The main parts are described in
the table that follows and the function of each part is explained.

Figure 3.5: Light microscope

74 3.2. Molecular make up of cells

 Part of the microscope Description
Ocular lens/ eyepiece - A cylinder containing two or more
lenses.
- These lenses are held at the correct
working distance.
- The ocular lens/eyepiece helps to
bring the object into focus.
Revolving nose piece The revolving nose piece holds the
objectives in place so that they can
rotate and can be changed easily.
Objective The objective magnifies the objects.
There are normally three objectives
present:
• 4X magnification
• 10X magnification
• 40X magnification

Coarse adjustment screw The coarse adjustment screw is used

for the initial focus of the object. By
moving the stage up and down,
bringing the object closer to or further
away from the objective lens.
Fine adjustment screw The fine adjustment screw is used for
the final and clear focus of the object.
Frame - A rigid structure for stability.
- The frame is supported by a
U-shaped foot leading to the base of
the microscope.
Light source / mirror - Provides a source of light so that the
object can be viewed.
Diaphragm and condenser The diaphragm and condenser control
the amount of light which passes
through the slide.
Stage - The microscope slide is placed here.
- The stage contains a clip or clips to
prevent the slide from moving around.
- There is a hole in the stage which
allows light through.

Table 3.1: The parts of a microscope.

NOTE:
The ocular, rotating nosepiece and objectives are held above the stage by the
arm.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 75

FACT How to use a microscope correctly
WARNING: if using
a mirror for
illumination instead 1. When handling or carrying the microscope, always do so with both
of a light bulb, hands. Grasp the arm with one hand and place the other hand under
never reflect direct the base for support.
sunlight as you
could damage your 2. Turn the revolving nosepiece so that the lowest power objective is in
eyes. position.
3. Place the microscope slide on the stage and and fasten it with the stage
clip(s).
4. Look through the eyepiece and adjust the diaphragm for the greatest
amount of light.
5. While looking at the slide on the stage from the side, turn the coarse
adjustment screw so that the stage is as close to the objective lens as
possible. WARNING: Make sure you do not touch or damage the slide.
6. Slowly turn the coarse adjustment screw until the image comes into focus.
7. Now use the fine adjustment screw to move the stage downwards until
the image is clearly visible. Never move the lens towards the slide.
8. You can readjust the light source and diaphragm for the clearest image.
9. When changing to the next objective lens use the fine adjustment screw
to focus the image. WARNING: Never use the coarse adjustment screw
for the strongest objective lens.
10. Do not touch the glass part of the lenses with your fingers.
11. When finished, move the stage and objective as far away from each other
as possible and remove the slide.
12. Disconnect the power source and cover the microscope.
13. Carry the microscope by holding it firmly by the ”arm” and ”base” and
when walking it should be near your chest.

NOTE:
Remember that microscopes are expensive scientific equipment and need to
be handled with care to prevent damaging them. Proper lens paper should be
used when cleaning dust or dirt off any lenses. Avoid getting moisture on the
objective lenses. Dust and moisture are the biggest enemies of microscopes.

76 3.2. Molecular make up of cells

Differences between the light microscope and transmission electron micro-
scope

Property Light Microscope Transmission Electron

Microscope
Source Light Beam of electrons
Resolution (how far Under optimal Resolution of a
apart two objects must conditions (clean lenses, transmission electron
be in order to be oil immersion), the microscope is about
distinguished as resolution is 0,2 0,05 nanometres (nm)
separate) micrometres or 2 which is about 0,5
thousands of a millionth of a millimetre.
millimetre This means that a
transmission electron
microscope has about
10 000 times the
resolving power of a
light instrument
Material (alive/ dead) Alive or dead. Bright Dead. Electron
field or phase contrast microscope images are
microscopes enable produced by passing an
viewer to observe living electron beam through
cells. Specimens need to tissues stained with
be stained. heavy metals.

Example of
microscope image Bacterial spores as seen Chlamydomonas
under light microscope. reinhardtii, a single
celled green algae, as
seen under the
transmission electron
microscope.

Calculating magnification ESG4R

Microscopes magnify an image using a lens found in the eye-piece, which is

also known as the ocular lens. The image is further magnified by the objective
lens. Thus the magnification of a microscope is: magnification power of the
eye-piece x the power of the objective lens.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 77

 Example: if the eyepiece magnification is 5X and the objective lens’ magnifica-
tion is 10X, the image of the object viewed under the microscope is 50X bigger
than the object:

overall magnification = power of eyepiece × power of objective

= 5 × 10
= 50 × the original size

Calculating the field of view

When viewing an object through a microscope, the diameter of the circle

through which you view the object is known as the field of view.

As the magnification increases, the field of view decreases.

To measure the field of view, use a microscope slide with a tiny ruler printed
on it. For example, the size of the field of view shown below under low power
magnification is approximately 1 mm.

Figure 3.6: Field of view is approximately 1 mm.

Once the size of the field of view is known, we can estimate the size of the
objects being viewed under the microscope. At 10 X magnification, the field of
view is 1,0 mm. If the magnification is increased to 100 X, what will the new
field of view be?

1,0 mm at 10 X magnification

current magnification
new field of view = × current field of view
new magnification

x mm at 100 X magnification

current magnification
new field of view = × current field of view
new magnification
10
x= × 1,0 mm
100
= 0,1 mm

78 3.2. Molecular make up of cells

If magnification is increased 10-fold, the field of view will decrease 10-fold.
Thus it will become 0.1 mm. What this means is that at higher magnification,
we are able to see objects of smaller and smaller size within our field of view.
This is why at higher magnification, the field of view becomes smaller.

At 500 X magnification, the field of view of a microscope is 0,05 mm. What

will the field of view be at 100X magnification?
500
x= × 0,05 mm
100
= 0,25 mm

Calculating magnification and using scale bars

When drawing cells or cellular structures, your diagrams will usually be much
larger than the actual size of the structures you will be drawing. The magnifi-
cation is given by:
drawing size
magnification =
actual size

When a scale bar is provided with the diagram, the magnification is given by:

scale given
magnification = drawing size ×
measured length of scale

Worked example 1: Calculating overall magnification

QUESTION

Calculate the overall magnification of a compound light microscope with a

magnification of 10 X due to the eyepiece and a magnification of a 100X due
to the objective lens.

SOLUTION

Using the formula:

overall magnification = power of eyepiece × power of objective

= 10 × 100
= 1000 × the original size

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 79

 Worked example 2: Calculating size of object from its microscopic image

QUESTION

If the measured length of the magnified beetle larva image shown below was
2 centimetres (20 mm), the ocular magnification of the microscope is 5 X and
you are using an objective lens magnification of 10 X, what is the actual length
of the larva in millimetres?

Figure 3.7: A beetle larva as seen under a light microscope.

SOLUTION

Step 1: Calculate the total magnification

Use the same formula as above

overall magnification = power of eyepiece × power of objective

= 5 × 10
= 50 × the original size

Step 2: Now calculate the size of the object

If the image is 50 X larger than the object, what is the size of the object?
Calculate this by simple proportion given in the formula below.

size of image
Size =
overall magnification
20 mm
=
50
= 0,4 mm

80 3.2. Molecular make up of cells

Worked example 3: Calculating actual size given of a structure given scale
bar on an image

QUESTION

Calculate the actual length of AB from the image shown in the micrograph
given with the scale bar given below.

Figure 3.8: Electron micrograph showing rough endoplasmic reticulum with a scale
bar given

SOLUTION

Step 1: Measure the length AB shown in the diagram

This should be approximately 20 mm

Step 2: Work out the length AB

Given that the measured length of the scale bar is approximately 5 mm, work
out the length AB:

length of AB on diagram
Size = × number on scale bar
measured length of scale bar
20 mm
= × 500 nm
5 mm
= 2000 nm
= 2 µm

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 81

FACT
DNA (the hereditary 3.3 Cell structure and function ESG4S
information of cells)
is passed from
’parent’ cells to
’daughter’ cells
during cell division.
Cell theory ESG4T
You will learn more
about this in the
following chapter:
Cell division. The cell theory developed in 1839 by microbiologists Schleiden and Schwann
describes the properties of cells. It is an explanation of the relationship between
cells and living things. The theory states that:

• all living things are made of cells and their products.

• new cells are created by old cells dividing into two.
• cells are the basic building blocks of life.

The cell theory applies to all living things, however big or small. The modern
understanding of cell theory extends the concepts of the original cell theory to
include the following:

• The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent

cells.
• Energy flow occurs in cells through the breakdown of carbohydrates by
respiration.
• Cells contain the information necessary for the creation of new cells. This
information is known as ’hereditary information’ and is contained within
DNA.
• The contents of cells from similar species are basically the same.

Cells are the smallest form of life; the functional and structural units of all living
things. Your body contains several billion cells, organised into over 200 major
types, with hundreds of cell-specific functions.

Some functions performed by cells are so vital to the existence of life that all
cells perform them (e.g. cellular respiration). Others are highly specialised
(e.g. photosynthesis).

Figure 3.9 shows a two-dimensional drawing of an animal cell. The diagram

shows the structures visible within a cell at high magnification. The structures
form the ultrastructure of the cell.

82 3.3. Cell structure and function

 FACT
The human body
cannot break down
the cellulose in cell
walls because we
do not produce the
enzyme cellulase.

Figure 3.9: Diagram of the cell ultrastructure of an animal cell.

We will now look at some of the basic cell structures and organelles in animal
and plant cells.

Cell wall ESG4V

The cell wall is a rigid non-living layer that is found outside the cell membrane
and surrounds the cell. Plants, bacteria and fungi all have cell walls. In plants,
the wall is comprised of cellulose. It consists of three layers that help support
the plant. These layers include the middle lamella, the primary cell wall and
the secondary cell wall.

Middle lamella: Separates one cell from another. It is a thin membranous layer
on the outside of the cell and is made of a sticky substance called pectin.

Primary cell wall: Is on the inside of the middle lamella and is mainly com-
posed of cellulose.

Secondary cell wall: Lies alongside the cell membrane. It is is made up of a

thick and tough layer of cellulose which is held together by a hard, waterproof
substance called lignin. It is only found in cells which provide mechanical
support in plants.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 83

 Figure 3.10: Scanning electron microscope micrographs of diatoms showing the exter-
nal appearances of the cell wall. Scale bar: A, B, D: 10 um, C 20 um

Functions of the cell wall

• The main function of the wall is to protect the inner parts of the plant
cell, it gives plant cells a more uniform and regular shape and provides
support for the plant body.
• The cell wall is completely permeable to water and mineral salts which
allows distribution of nutrients throughout the plant.
• The openings in the cell wall are called plasmodesmata which contain
strands of cytoplasm that connect adjacent cells. This allows cells to
interact with one another, allowing molecules to travel between plant
cells.

Cell membrane ESG4W

The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, physically separates the
intracellular space (inside the cell) from the extracellular environment (outside
the cell). All plant and animal cells have cell membranes. The cell membrane
surrounds and protects the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is part of the protoplasm and
is the living component of the cell.

The cell membrane is composed of a double layer (bilayer) of special lipids

(fats) called phospholipids. Phospholipids consist of a hydrophilic (water-loving)
head and a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail. The hydrophobic head of the
phospholipid is polar (charged) and can therefore dissolve in water. The hy-
drophobic tail is non-polar (uncharged), and cannot dissolve in water.

The lipid bilayer forms spontaneously due to the properties of the phospholipid
molecules. In an aqueous environment, the polar heads try to form hydrogen
bonds with the water, while the non-polar tails try to escape from the water. The
problem is solved by the formation of a bilayer because the hydrophilic heads
can point outwards and from hydrogen bonds with water, and the hydrophobic
tails point towards one another and are ’protected’ from the water molecules
(Figure 3.11).

84 3.3. Cell structure and function

 FACT
Recall the structure
if lipid molecules
from the previous
chapter on the
chemistry of life.

FACT
Watch a video
about the cell
membrane.
See video: 2CPB
Figure 3.11: The lipid bilayer showing the arrangement of phospholipids, containing
hydrophilic, polar heads and hydrophobic, non-polar tails.

All the exchanges between the cell and its environment have to pass through the
cell membrane. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions (e.g. hy-
drogen, sodium), small molecules (oxygen, carbon dioxide) and larger molecules
(glucose and amino acids) and controls the movement of substances in and out
of the cells. The cell membrane performs many important functions within the
cell such as osmosis, diffusion, transport of nutrients into the cell, processes of
ingestion and secretion. The cell membrane is strong enough to provide the
cell with mechanical support and flexible enough to allow cells to grow and
move.

Structure of the cell membrane: the fluid mosaic model

S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model of the cell
membrane in 1972. This model describes the structure of the cell membrane
as a fluid structure with various protein and carbohydrate components diffusing
freely across the membrane. The structure and function of each component of
the membrane is provided in the table below. Table 3.2 refers to the compo-
nents of the cell membrane shown in the diagram in Figures 3.11 and 3.12.

Figure 3.12: Fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 85

FACT Component (see Structure Function
A further Figure 3.12)
description of the
Phospholipid Consists of two layers of It is a semi-permeable
fluid mosaic model
can be viewed at: bilayer phospholipids. Each structure that does not
See video: 2CPC phospholipid has a polar, allow materials to pass
hydrophilic through the membrane
FACT (water-soluble) head as freely, thus protecting the
Learn about the well as a non-polar, intra and extracellular
different ways that
hydrophobic environments of the cell.
molecules can travel
across cell (water-insoluble) tail.
membranes. Membrane These are proteins found Act as carrier proteins
See video: 2CPD proteins spanning the membrane which control the
from the inside of the movement of specific
cell (in the cytoplasm) to ions and molecules
the outside of the cell. across the cell
Membrane proteins have membrane.
hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions that
allow them to fit into the
cell membrane.
Glycoproteins Consist of short These proteins are useful
carbohydrate chains for cell-to-cell
attached to polypeptide recognition.
chains and are found on
the extracellular regions
of the membrane.
Glycolipids Carbohydrate chains Act as recognition sites
attached to for specific chemicals
phospholipids on the and are important in
outside surface of the cell-to-cell attachment to
membrane. form tissues.

Table 3.2: Structure and function of components of the cell membrane.

Movement across membranes ESG4X

Movement of substances across cell membranes is necessary as it allows cells

to acquire oxygen and nutrients, excrete waste products and control the con-
centration of required substances in the cell (e.g oxygen, water, hormones,
ions, etc). The key processes through which such movement occurs include
diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active transport.

1. Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of substances from a region of high concentration to

low concentration. It is therefore said to occur down a concentration gradient.
The diagram below shows the movement of dissolved particles within a liquid
until eventually becoming randomly distributed.

86 3.3. Cell structure and function

 FACT
Watch diffusion
taking place by
clicking on the
following link.
See video: 2CPF

Figure 3.13: Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concen-
tration to a lower concentration. It is a passive process (i.e. does not require input of
energy).

Diffusion is a passive process which means it does not require any energy in-
put. It can occur across a living or non-living membrane and can occur in a
liquid or gas medium. Due to the fact that diffusion occurs across a concen-
tration gradient it can result in the movement of substances into or out of the
cell. Examples of substances moved by diffusion include carbon dioxide, oxy-
gen, water and other small molecules that are able to dissolve within the lipid
bilayer.

Investigation: Observing diffusion

Aim:

To observe diffusion.

Apparatus:

• 500 ml beaker
• large funnel
• plastic straw
• potassium permanganate crystals

Method:

1. Fill a beaker with water and allow it to stand for a few minutes so that
water movement stops.
2. Place a large funnel into the water so that it touches the bottom of the
beaker. Drop a few small potassium permanganate crystals through the
straw. Remove the funnel carefully and slowly.
3. Observe the size of the area that is coloured by the potassium perman-
ganate at the beginning of the experiment, after 5 minutes and then after
20 minutes.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 87

FACT
Watch osmosis Questions:
taking place by
clicking on the
following link. 1. What do you observe happening in the beaker?
See video: 2CPG
2. What can you conclude based on your observations?
3. Explain how using hot water would affect the results of this experiment
(remember that when you explain you need to give a reason for your
answer).

2. Osmosis

When the concentration of solutes in solution is low, the water concentration

is high, and we say there is a high water potential. Osmosis is the move-
ment of water from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower
water potential across a semi-permeable membrane that separates the two re-
gions. Movement of water always occurs down a concentration gradient, i.e
from higher water potential (dilute solution) to lower potential (concentrated
solution). Osmosis is a passive process and does not require any input of en-
ergy. Cell membranes allow molecules of water to pass through, but they do
not allow molecules of most dissolved substances, e.g. salt and sugar, to pass
through. As water enters the cell via osmosis, it creates a pressure known as
osmotic pressure.

Figure 3.14: Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of high water potential to
an area of low water potential across a semi-permeable membrane.

In biological systems, osmosis is vital to plant and animal cell survival. Figure
3.15 demonstrates how osmosis affects red blood cells when they are placed
in three different solutions with different concentrations.

88 3.3. Cell structure and function

Figure 3.15: The effect of hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic solutions on red blood
cells.

Hypertonic (concentrated) Isotonic Hypotonic (dilute)

The medium is The water concentration The medium has a
concentrated with a lower inside and outside the higher water potential
water potential than inside cell is equal and there (more dilute) than the
the cell, therefore the cell will be no nett water cell and water will
will lose water by movement across the move into the cell via
osmosis. cell membrane. (Water osmosis, and could
will continue to move eventuality cause the
across the membrane, cell to burst.
but water will enter and
leave the cell at the
same rate.)

Plant cells use osmosis to absorb water from the soil and transport it to the
leaves. Osmosis in the kidneys keeps the water and salt levels in the body and
blood at the correct levels.

Investigation: Predicting the direction of osmosis

Aim:

To predict the direction of osmosis.

Apparatus:

• 500 ml beaker
• large potato
• potato peeler/scalpel
• two pins
• concentrated sucrose/sugar solution. To obtain this, add 100 g of sugar
to 200 ml of water.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 89

FACT
Watch an Method:
illustration of
diffusion and
osmosis. 1. Peel off the skin of a large sized potato with a scalpel/potato peeler.
See video: 2CPH
2. Cut its one end to make the base flat.
3. Make a hollow cavity in the potato almost to the bottom of the potato.
4. Add the concentrated sugar solution into the cavity of the potato, filling it
about half way. Mark the level by inserting a pin at the level of the sugar
solution (insert the pin at an angle into the cavity at the level) (Figure 3.16
A).
5. Carefully place the potato in the beaker containing water.
6. Observe what happens to the level of the sugar solution in the potato.
7. After 15 to 20 minutes, mark the level by inserting the second pin at the
level of the sugar solution (insert as the first pin) (Figure 3.16 B).

Figure 3.16: Using a potato to investigate osmosis.

Questions:

1. What do you observe happening to the level of the solution inside the
potato?
2. What conclusion can you draw based on your observation?
3. What conditions were met in this experiment that makes this type of
transport different to diffusion?

90 3.3. Cell structure and function

3. Facilitated diffusion FACT
ATP and ADP are
Facilitated diffusion is a special form of diffusion which allows rapid exchange molecules involved
with moving energy
of specific substances. Particles are taken up by carrier proteins which change within cells. You do
their shape as a result. The change in shape causes the particles to be released not need to know
on the other side of the membrane. Facilitated diffusion can only occur across these names in full
living, biological membranes which contain the carrier proteins. A substance is and will learn more
about them later.
transported via a carrier protein from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration until it is randomly distributed. Therefore movement is
down a concentration gradient.

Figure 3.17: Facilitated diffusion in cell membrane, showing ion channels and carrier
proteins.

Examples of substances moved via facilitated diffusion include all polar molecules
such as glucose or amino acids.

4. Active transport

Active transport is the movement of substances against a concentration gradi-

ent, from a region of low concentration to high concentration using an input of
energy. In biological systems, the form in which this energy occurs is adeno-
sine triphosphate (ATP). The process transports substances through a mem-
brane protein. The movement of substances is selective via the carrier proteins
and can occur into or out of the cell.

Figure 3.18: The sodium-potassium pump is an example of primary active transport.

Examples of substances moved include sodium and potassium ions as shown

in Figure 3.18

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 91

FACT
REVISIONYou may 3.4 Cell organelles ESG4Y
have encountered
the terms
cytoplasm,
nucleoplasm and We will now look at the key organelles that make up the cell. It is important to
protoplasm earlier bear in mind that structure and function are closely related in all living systems.
in Grade 9.
When studying each organelle, ensure that you observe the specific structures
Cytoplasm is the
part of the cell that (from micrographs) that allow the organelle to perform its specific function.
is within the cell
membrane and
excludes the Cytoplasm ESG4Z
nucleus.
Nucleoplasm is the
substance of the cell The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It consists of up to
nucleus, i.e. 90% water. It also contains dissolved nutrients and waste products. Its main
everything within
the nucleus that is
function is to hold together the organelles which make up the cytoplasm. It also
not part of the nourishes the cell by supplying it with salts and sugars and provides a medium
nucleolus. for metabolic reactions to occur.
Protoplasm is the
colourless material
All the contents of prokaryotic cells are contained within the cytoplasm. In
comprising the
living part of a cell, eukaryotic cells, all the organelles are contained within the cytoplasm except
including the the nucleolus which is contained within the nucleus.
cytoplasm, nucleus
and other Functions of the cytoplasm
organelles.
• The cytoplasm provides mechanical support to the cell by exerting pres-
sure against the cell’s membrane which helps keep the shape of the cell.
This pressure is known as turgor pressure.
• It is the site of most cellular activities including metabolism, cell division
and protein synthesis.
• The cytoplasm contains ribosomes which assist in the synthesis of pro-
tein.
• The cytoplasm acts a storage area for small carbohydrate, lipid and pro-
tein molecules.
• The cytoplasm suspends and can transport organelles around the cell.

Nucleus ESG52

The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains all the cell’s genetic
information in the form of DNA. The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor
that distinguishes eukaryotes from prokaryotes. The structure of the nucleus is
described below:

Nuclear envelope: two lipid membranes that are studded with special proteins
that separates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm.

Nuclear pores: tiny holes called nuclear pores are found in the nuclear enve-
lope and help to regulate the exchange of materials (such as RNA and proteins)
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

92 3.4. Cell organelles

Chromatin: thin long strands of DNA and protein. FACT
During cell division,
Nucleolus: the nucleolus makes RNA another type of nucleic acid. DNA contracts and
folds to form distinct
Schematic Diagram Micrograph structures called
chromosomes. The
chromosomes are
formed at the start
of cell division.

FACT
The genetic material
of eukaryotic
organisms is
separated from the
cytoplasm by a
membrane whereas
the genetic material
Figure 3.20: An electron mi- of prokaryotic
Figure 3.19: Diagram showing the basic structures crograph of a cell nucleus organisms (like
of the animal cell nucleus. showing a densely staining bacteria) is in direct
nucleolus. contact with the
cytoplasm.

FACT
Functions of the nucleus Mitochondria also
contain DNA,
• The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and called
facilitate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle (which you will mitochondrial DNA,
learn about in the next chapter). (mtDNA) but it
makes up just a
• The nucleus controls the metabolic functions of the cell by producing small percentage of
mRNA which encodes for enzymes e.g. insulin. the cell’s overall
• The nucleus controls the structure of the cell by transcribing DNA which DNA content. All
mitochondrial DNA
encodes for structural proteins such as actin and keratin. in humans is
• The nucleus is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is im- derived from the
portant for the construction of ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site of pro- mother’s side.
tein translation (synthesis of proteins from amino acids).
FACT
• Characteristics are transmitted from parent to offspring through genetic Powering the cell:
material contained in the nucleus. mitochondria
See video: 2CPJ

Mitochondria ESG53

A mitochondrion is a membrane bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells.

This organelle generates the cell’s supply of chemical energy by releasing en-
ergy stored in molecules from food and using it to produce ATP (adenosine
triphosphate). ATP is a special type of ”energy carrying” molecule.

Structure and function of the mitochondrion

Mitochondria contain two phospholipid bilayers: there is an outer membrane,

and an inner membrane. The inner membrane contains many folds called
cristae which contain specialised membrane proteins that enable the mitochon-
dria to synthesise ATP. Inside the inner membrane is a jelly-like matrix.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 93

FACT Listed from the outermost layer to the innermost compartment, the compart-
In Life Sciences it is ments of the mitochondrion, are:
important to note
that whenever a • Outer mitochondrial membrane
structure has an
increased surface • Intermembrane space
area, there is an • Inner mitochondrial membrane
increase in the • Cristae (folds of the inner membrane)
functioning of that
structure. • matrix (jelly-like substance within the inner membrane)

Schematic Diagram Micrograph

Figure 3.22: Electron mi-

crograph of a mitochon-
drion.
Figure 3.21: The major structures of the mitochondrion
in three dimensions.

The table below relates each structure to its function.

Structure Function Adaptation to function

Outer mitochondrial Transfer of nutrients Has large number of
membrane (e.g lipids) to channels to facilitate
mitochondrion. transfer of molecules.
Intermembrane space Stores large proteins Its position between two
allowing for cellular selectively permeable
respiration. membranes allows it to
have a unique composition
compared to the cytoplasm
and the matrix.
Inner membrane Stores membrane Contains folds known as
proteins that allow for cristae which provide
energy production. increased surface area, thus
enabling production of ATP
(chemical potential energy).
Matrix Contains enzymes that The matrix is contains a
allow for the high quantity of protein
production of ATP enzymes which allow for
(energy). ATP production.

94 3.4. Cell organelles

Endoplasmic reticulum ESG54

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells only.

The ER has a double membrane consisting of a network of hollow tubes, flat-
tened sheets, and round sacs. These flattened, hollow folds and sacs are called
cisternae. The ER is located in the cytoplasm and is connected to the nuclear
envelope. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: smooth and rough
ER.

Smooth ER: does not have any ribosomes attached. It is involved in the synthe-
sis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids and steroids. It is also responsible for
metabolism of carbohydrates, regulation of calcium concentration and detoxi-
fication of drugs.

Rough ER: is covered with ribosomes giving the endoplasmic reticulum its
rough appearance. It is responsible for protein synthesis and plays a role in
membrane production. The folds present in the membrane increase the sur-
face area allowing more ribosomes to be present on the ER, thereby allowing
greater protein production.

Schematic Diagram Micrograph

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 95

FACT
The Golgi body was Ribosomes ESG55
discovered by the
Italian physician
Camillo Golgi. It
Ribosomes are composed of RNA and protein. They occur in the cytoplasm
was one of the first and are the sites where protein synthesis occurs. Ribosomes may occur singly
organelles to be in the cytoplasm or in groups or may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
discovered and thus forming the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are important for
described in detail
protein production. Together with a structure known as messenger RNA (a type
because it’s large
size made it easier of nucleic acid) ribosomes form a structure known as a polyribosome which is
to observe. important in protein synthesis.

Diagram: Free Ribosome Diagram: Polyribosome

Figure 3.23: Free ribosomes found within Figure 3.24: Diagram of several ribo-
cytoplasm. somes joined together on a strand of
mRNA to form a polyribosome.

Golgi body ESG56

The Golgi body is found near the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum. The
Golgi body consists of a stack of flat membrane-bound sacs called cisternae.
The cisternae within the Golgi body consist of enzymes which modify the pack-
aged products of the Golgi body (proteins).

Schematic Diagram Micrograph

Figure 3.25: Diagram showing Golgi bod-

ies found in animal cells.
Figure 3.26: TEM Micrograph of
Golgi body, visible as a stack of
semicircular black rings near the
bottom.

96 3.4. Cell organelles

Functions of the Golgi body

It is important for proteins to be transported from where they are synthesised

to where they are required in the cell. The organelle responsible for this is the
Golgi Body. The Golgi body is the sorting organelle of the cell.

Proteins are transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) to the
Golgi. In the Golgi, proteins are modified and packaged into vesicle. The
Golgi body therefore receives proteins made in one location in the cell and
transfers these to another location within the cell where they are required. For
this reason the Golgi body can be considered to be the ’post office’ of the cell.

Vesicles and lysosomes ESG57

Vesicles are small, membrane-bound spherical sacs which facilitate the metabolism,
transport and storage of molecules. Many vesicles are made in the Golgi body
and the endoplasmic reticulum, or are made from parts of the cell membrane.
Vesicles can be classified according to their contents and function. Transport
vesicles transport molecules within the cell.

Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body and contain powerful digestive en-
zymes that can potentially digest the cell. Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi
body or the endoplasmic reticulum. These powerful enzymes can digest cell
structures and food molecules such as carbohydrates and proteins. Lysosomes
are abundant in animal cells that ingest food through food vacuoles. When a
cell dies, the lysosome releases its enzymes and digests the cell.

Vacuoles ESG58

Vacuoles are membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelles that occur in the cyto-

plasm of most plant cells, but are very small or completely absent from animal
cells. Plant cells generally have one large vacuole that takes up most of the
cell’s volume. A selectively permeable membrane called the tonoplast, sur-
round the vacuole. The vacuole contains cell sap which is a liquid consisting
of water, mineral salts, sugars and amino acids.

Figure 3.27: A vacuole.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 97

 Functions of the vacuole

• The vacuole plays an important role in digestion and excretion of cellular

waste and storage of water and organic and inorganic substances.
• The vacuole takes in and releases water by osmosis in response to changes
in the cytoplasm, as well as in the environment around the cell.
• The vacuole is also responsible for maintaining the shape of plant cells.
When the cell is full of water, the vacuole exerts pressure outwards, push-
ing the cell membrane against the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor
pressure.
• If there is not sufficient water, pressure exerted by the vacuole is reduced
and the cells become flaccid causing the plant to wilt.

Centrioles ESG59

Animal cells contain a special organelle called a centriole. The centriole is a

cylindrical tube-like structure that is composed of 9 microtubules arranged in
a very particular pattern. Two centrioles arranged perpendicular to each other
are referred to as a centrosome. The centrosome plays a very important role
in cell division. The centrioles are responsible for organising the microtubules
that position the chromosomes in the correct location during cell division. You
will learn more about their function in the following chapter on Cell Division.

Figure 3.28: A TEM micrograph of a cross-section of a centriole in an animal (rat) cell.

Plastids ESG5B

Plastids are organelles found only in plants. There are three different types:

1. Leucoplasts: White plastids found in roots.

2. Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids found in plants and algae.
3. Chromoplasts: Contain red, orange or yellow pigments and are common
in ripening fruit, flowers or autumn leaves.

98 3.4. Cell organelles

 FACT
The colour of plant
flowers such as an
orchid is controlled
by a specialised
organelle in a cell
known as the
Figure 3.29: Plastids perform a variety of functions in plants, including storage and chromoplast.
energy production.

Chloroplast

The chloroplast is a double-membraned organelle. Within the double mem-

brane is a gel-like substance called stroma. Stroma contains enzymes for pho- FACT
tosynthesis. Suspended in the stroma are stack-like structures called grana (sin- This video shows
gular = granum). Each granum is a stack of thylakoid discs. The chlorophyll the fascinating inner
life of a cell:
molecules (green pigments) are found on the surface of the thylakoid discs. See video: 2CPK
Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun in order for photosynthesis to take
place in the chloroplasts. The grana are connected by lamellae (intergrana).
The lamellae keep the stacks apart from each other.

The structure of the chloroplast is neatly adapted to its function of trapping

and storing energy in plants. For example, chloroplasts contain a high density
of thylakoid discs and numerous grana to allow for increased surface area for
the absorption of sunlight, thus producing a high quantity of food for the plant.
Additionally, the lamellae keeping the thylakoids apart maximise chloroplast ef-
ficiency, thus allowing as much light as possible to be absorbed in the smallest
surface area.

Schematic Diagram Micrograph

Figure 3.31: Electron mi-

crograph of chloroplast with
grana and thylakoids.

Figure 3.30: Structure of chloroplast.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 99

 The differences between plant and animal cells ESG5C

Now that we have looked at the basic structures and functions of the organelles
in a cell, you would have noticed that there are key differences between plant
and animal cells. The table below summarises these differences.

Animal Cells Plant Cells

Do not contain plastids. Almost all plants cells contain
plastids such chloroplasts,
chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
No cell wall. Have a rigid cellulose cell wall in
addition to the cell membrane.
Contain centrioles. Do not contain centrioles.
Animals do not have Contain plasmodesmata and pits.
plasmodesmata or pits.
Few vacuoles (if any). Large central vacuole filled with
cell sap in mature cells.
Nucleus is generally found at the Nucleus is found near the edge
centre of the cytoplasm. of the cell.
No intercellular spaces found Large intercellular air spaces
between the cells. found between some cells.

Investigation: Examining plant cells under the microscope

Aim:

To study the microscopic structures of plant cells.

Apparatus:

• onion
• blade
• slides and coverslips
• brushes
• compound microscope
• tissue paper
• forceps
• dropper
• iodine solution
• watchglass
• petri dish containing water

100 3.4. Cell organelles

Method:

1. Peel off the outer most layer of an onion carefully, using a pair of forceps.
2. Place the peeled layer in a watchglass containing water. Make certain
that the onion peel does not roll or fold.
3. Using a scalpel or a thin blade, cut a square piece of the onion peel
(about 1 cm2 ).
4. Remove the thin transparent skin from the inside curve of a small piece
of raw onion and place it on a drop of iodine solution on a clean slide.
5. Cover the peel with a coverslip ensuring that no bubbles are formed.
6. Using a piece of tissue paper wipe off any excess iodine solution remain-
ing on the slide.
7. Observe the onion skin under low power of the microscope and then
under high power.
8. Draw a neat diagram of 5-10 cells of the typical cells you can see.

Figure 3.32: Onion cells stained with methylene blue.

Investigation: Examining animal cells under the microscope

Aim:

To study the microscopic structures of human cheek cells under a compound

microscope.

Apparatus:

• clean ear bud

• clean slide
• methylene blue

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 101

 • dropper
• water
• tissue paper
• forceps
• microscope

Method:

1. Place a drop of water on a clean glass slide.

2. Using a clean ear bud, wipe the inside of your cheek. The ear bud will
collect a moist film.
3. Spread the moist film on a drop of water on a clean glass slide, creating
a small smear on the slide.
4. Use a coverslip to cover the slide gently.
5. Place one or two drops of stain on the side of the cover slip.
6. Use a piece of tissue to remove the excess dye.
7. Observe the cheek cells under low power magnification and then under
high power magnification.

Questions:

1. What are the shapes of epidermal cells of the onion peel and the human
cheek cells?
2. Why is iodine used to stain the onion peel?
3. What is the difference between the arrangement of cells in onion cells
and in human cheek cells?
4. Why is a cell considered the structural and functional unit of living
things?

Figure 3.33: Cheek epithelial cells.

102 3.4. Cell organelles

Project: Cell organelles

You are required to compile a report on one of the organelles you have studied
in class, or any other organelle you choose. Your report must include the
following information.

• Past
– The discovery of the organelle
– All past understanding of the organelles structure and/or function
that has now changed
– The importance of the discovery of the organelle to cell science
Present
• – The presently understood structure and function of the organelle
– A 2-dimensional picture of the organelle showing all the relevant
structures of the organelle
– An electron-microscope picture of the organelle showing the struc-
ture of the organelle
– An understanding of the importance of the organelle to human sur-
vival
• Future
– What remains to be discovered or fully understood?
– Any important role of the organelle could potentially play with the
development of future technology (i.e. in industry or medicine).
• Any other additional information or interesting facts you wish to in-
clude.

Project: Diagrams of cells

Diagrams of the cell are very well understood but they often give us the wrong
impression about how complicated cells really are. This assignment will help
you understand the complexity of cells.

1. Find and submit a hard copy of five micrographs showing different cell
organelles.
2. Draw and label two organelles to demonstrate your drawing, labelling
and interpretive skills.

Pay close attention to the following:

• The organelles should each comfortably occupy an A5 page.

• The organelles must each have a heading that includes the view, title and
magnification.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 103

FACT
Revise everything • Drawings must follow the drawing skills you have learnt. One drawing
you have learnt
must be the same size as the micrograph, the other must be exactly half
about cells by
watching this video. the size.
See video: 2CPM • Your drawings must have a correct scale line.
• State the source of your micrographs according to the Harvard conven-
tion.
• Marks will be awarded for neatness: present your work as a uniform set.
• You must select hard copies well so that are of high quality and can be
easily recognisable.
• Your images may be of the same organelle but only if the images show
some significant variation.

3.5 Summary ESG5D

The discovery of cells:

• All living organisms are made of cells.

• Cells are very small therefore magnifying instruments such as lenses and
microscopes are used to view them.
• By using a light microscope the simple features of cells can be studied.
The light microscope uses a beam of light focused by various glass lenses.
• Electron microscopes have higher power of magnification than the ordi-
nary light microscope, therefore allowing us to see very small structures
inside the cells. These microscopes use a beam of electrons focused by
electromagnets to magnify objects instead of light rays and lenses.
• Robert Hooke (1665) used a light microscope to examine non-living cork
cells.
• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to observe living cells
using a microscope.
• The development of cell theory was from the study of microscopic cells.

Cell structure and function

• All cells have the same basic structure. They are all surrounded by a cell
membrane and contain cytoplasm and organelles.
• Cells have different sizes, shapes and structures in order to carry out
specialised functions.
• The cell membrane is made of phospholipids and proteins and controls
substances which move in and out of the cell.
• The structure of the cell membrane is referred to as the Fluid Mosaic
Model.

104 3.5. Summary

 • The nucleus is made up of a nuclear membrane with nucleopores, chro-
matin material and the nucleolus inside the nucleoplasm.
• Mitochondria release chemical potential energy (ATP) for the cell during
cellular respiration.
• Ribosomes are important for protein production.
• Cytoplasm is used for storage and circulation of various materials.
• Endoplasmic reticulum transports substances from one part of the cell to
another.
• The Golgi body modifies, secretes, packages and distributes various or-
ganic molecules (proteins and lipids) around the cell.
• Vacuoles are used for storage. In plant cells these are large, whilst in
animal cells, if present, are very small.
• Lysosomes are mainly found in animal cells.
• Centrioles are only found in animal cells.
• The cell wall is found only in plant cells and is made up of cellulose. The
cell wall gives the plants shape, support and protection.
• Plastids are found only in plant cells. There are three types of plastids:
– chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and their function is the production
of food by photosynthesis
– chromoplasts give colour to fruits and flowers
– leucoplasts are white and are used mainly for starch storage

3.6 End of chapter exercises ESG5F

Exercise 3 – 1:

1. Examine the three images below. Use calculations Explain which organ-
ism would be the smallest when viewed with the naked eye. Show all
the calculations you used to arrive at your answer.

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 105

 2. Below is a three-dimensional diagram of the cell. Provide the name and
function of the following numbered structures:

The following difficult to distinguish structures have been done for you:
• 4-vesicle: spherical sacs that facilitate storage, metabolism and
transport of molecules.
• 7-cell membrane: selectively permeable to control the passage of
substances into and out of the cell.
• 10-vacuole: storage of sugars, minerals and pigments and help
maintain water balance in the cell.
• 12-lysosome: contain powerful digestive enzymes that digest dam-
aged cell structures and food molecules.
3. Multiple answers are provided for each question. Write only the letter of
the correct answer next to the corresponding number.
a) Active transport is the movement of a substance from a:
i. high concentration to a low concentration.
ii. high water potential to a low water potential.
iii. isotonic solution.
iv. low concentration to a high concentration.
b) Protoplasm consists of:
i. nucleoplasm and nucleolus.
ii. cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
iii. cytoplasm and organelles.
iv. membranes and organelles.
c) This organelle is responsible for transporting substances around the
cell:
i. ribosome
ii. Golgi body
iii. nucleus
iv. endoplasmic reticulum

106 3.6. End of chapter exercises

 d) The nucleus does not control:
i. hereditary transmission
ii. cellular respiration
iii. metabolism
iv. structure
e) The energy that a molecule possesses while moving:
i. potential energy
ii. kinetic energy
iii. magnetic energy
iv. mechanical energy
f) Which of the following is not a product of cellular respiration?
i. CO2
ii. H2 O
iii. O2
iv. ATP

4. Give the correct biological term for each of the following. Write only the
term next to the relevant question number.

a) Part of the cell that consists of about 90% water.

b) Often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.
c) Pigment found in green plants.
d) The part of a plant cell that is composed of cellulose.
e) The fluid inside the vacuole.
f) The movement of a substance against a concentration gradient.
g) The structure that distributes substances made in the cell.

5. Choose the correct option for each of the following questions. Write only
the term next to the relevant question number.

a) What structure contains DNA and regulates most of the processes

within the cell?
i. mitochondria
ii. chloroplast
iii. nucleus
iv. nucleolus
b) What is a cell membrane?
i. thin flexible barrier around the cell that regulates transport
ii. rigid cover that provides support for the cell
iii. the place where light energy, water and carbon dioxide are used
iv. special organelle that converts solar energy to chemical energy

Chapter 3. Cells: the basic units of life 107

 c) Which two organelles contain their own DNA genome, separate
from the nuclear genome?
i. lysosomes and transport vesicles
ii. endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
iii. cilia and flagella
iv. mitochondria and chloroplast
v. ribosomes and vacuoles
6. Tabulate four differences between animal and plant cells.
7. a) Name a structural adaptation of the mitochondria that makes it
suited to its function:
b) Name one structural adaptation of chloroplasts.

Check answers online with the exercise code

below or click on ’show me the answer’.
1. 2CPN 2a. 2CPP 3a. 2CPQ 3b. 2CPR 3c. 2CPS 3d. 2CPT
3e. 2CPV 3f. 2CPW 4a. 2CPX 4b. 2CPY 4c. 2CPZ 4d. 2CQ2
4e. 2CQ3 4f. 2CQ4 4g. 2CQ5 5a. 2CQ6 5b. 2CQ7 5c. 2CQ8
6. 2CQ9 7a. 2CQB 7b. 2CQC

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

108 3.6. End of chapter exercises

 CHAPTER 4

Cell division

4.1 Overview 110

4.2 The cell cycle 110
4.3 The role of mitosis 115
4.4 Cancer 116
4.5 Summary 124
4.6 End of chapter exercises 124
 4 Cell division

4.1 Overview ESG5G

Introduction ESG5H

In this unit you will learn how we are able to replicate our cells through the
process of cell division called mitosis. Mitosis is absolutely vital to the survival
of all organisms, as without it unicellular organisms would not be able to re-
produce and multicellular organisms would not be able to grow or heal after
damage. However, uncontrolled mitosis can result in cancer, a potentially fatal
condition. In this chapter we will review the stages of mitosis in plants and
animal cells. We will then discuss how cancer is caused and some treatments
that are available.
Key concepts
• The cell cycle is divided into two main stages: interphase and the mitotic
phase.
• During interphase cells grow in size and replicate their DNA.
• Chromosomes are present in the nuclei of all cells and consist of two
chromatids joined by a centromere.
• Mitosis is the process by which cells distribute their replicated DNA to
two daughter cells.
• The mitotic phase consists of five stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase and cytokinesis.
• Mitosis is the means of reproduction in unicellular organisms that un-
dergo asexual reproduction.
• Mitosis is required for growth and repair in multicellular organisms.
• Cancer is a disease of uncontrolled mitosis.
• Cancer is caused by carcinogens and is treated through surgery, radiation
and chemotherapy.

4.2 The cell cycle ESG5J

The cell cycle is the series of events that takes place in a cell that results in
DNA replication and cell division. There are two main stages in the cell cycle.
The first stage is interphase during which the cell grows and replicates its DNA.
The second phase is the mitotic phase (M-Phase) during which the cell divides
and transfers one copy of its DNA to two identical daughter cells.

110 4.1. Overview

Figure 4.1 provides a brief overview of what takes place during each of the key FACT
events of the cell cycle. Some cells no
longer need to
divide and exit the
cell cycle. These
cells may exit the
cell cycle
permanently, such
as neurons, or they
may exit the cell
cycle temporarily.
These cells are said
to be in G0 . G0 is
not a stage of the
cell cycle.

FACT
In cells without a
nucleus (prokaryotic
cells e.g. bacteria),
there are many
copies of the DNA
floating around the
whole cell. The
prokaryotic cell
cycle occurs
Figure 4.1: The sequence of events in the cell leading to division of a cell into two through a process
daughter cells is known as the cell cycle and is shown above. termed binary
fission. In cells with
a nucleus
(eukaryotes) all the
Interphase ESG5K DNA is inside the
nucleus and so a
more complicated
cell cycle is
Interphase is the longest phase of the cell cycle. During this phase the cell required for
grows to its maximum size, performs its normal cellular functions, replicates its replication.
DNA, and prepares for cell division. This stage is divided into three parts: G1 ,
G2 and S phases.

G1 phase: Occurs just after the two daughter cells have split and the cells have
only one copy of their DNA. Cells in this stage synthesise proteins and increase
in size. Cells can remain in this stage for a long time.

S phase: Is the stage during which DNA replication occurs. The cell makes an
identical copy of each of its chromosomes. Chromosomes are found inside the
nucleus of the cell and consist of long strands of DNA that contain the genetic
information of the cell.

G2 phase: Occurs after the DNA had been duplicated in S phase. During this
phase the cell may continue to grow and undergo normal cellular functions.
Towards the end of this phase the cell will start to replicate its organelles in
preparation for mitosis.

Interphase (G1 , S and G2 phases) accounts for approximately 90% of the cell
cycle, with the other 10% being taken up by mitosis.

Chapter 4. Cell division 111

FACT
Learn about Mitotic Phase ESG5M
chromosomes in
this video.
See video:
2CQD The mitotic phase (M phase) is composed of two tightly coupled processes:
mitosis and cytokinesis. During mitosis the chromosomes in the cell nucleus
FACT separate into two identical sets in two nuclei. This is followed by cytokine-
Human cells have sis in which the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane split into two cells
46 chromosomes.
containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. We will now
(23 from the mother
and 23 from the describe what takes place during the stages of M-phase, which includes the
father). four broad phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) and
the fifth phase of cytokinesis:

1. prophase
2. metaphase
3. anaphase
4. telophase
5. cytokinesis

1. Prophase

During prophase, the chromatin material shortens and thickens into individual
chromosomes which are visible under the light microscope. Each chromosome
consist of two strands or chromatids joined by a centromere (Figure 4.2 ).

Figure 4.2: Chromosome structure showing (1) Chromatid, (2) Centromere, (3) Short
and (4) Long arms of chromosome.

As prophase progresses, the nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrates. In

animal cells the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles. The centrioles
give rise to the spindle fibres which form between the poles. In plant cells there
are no centrioles to move to the poles, so spindle fibres form in the cytoplasm.

112 4.2. The cell cycle

 Schematic diagram: animal cell Micrograph: plant cell FACT
HINT: The stages of
the cell cycle
(interphase,
prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase,
telophase) can be
remembered by
using the
mnemonic IPMAT.

2. Metaphase

During metaphase, chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell. The chro-
mosomes appear in a straight line across the middle of the cell. Each chromo-
some is attached to the spindle fibres by its centromere.

Schematic diagram: animal cell Micrograph: plant cell

3. Anaphase

During anaphase the chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by
the shortening of the spindle fibres. The chromatids are now called daughter
chromosomes.

Schematic diagram: animal cell Micrograph: plant cell

Chapter 4. Cell division 113

FACT 4. Telophase
In plant cells there
are no centrioles to
During telophase, a nuclear membrane reforms around the daughter chromo-
move to the poles,
so spindle fibres somes that have gathered at each of the poles. The daughter chromosomes
form in the uncoil to form chromatin once again. The nuclear membrane reforms.
cytoplasm.

FACT Schematic diagram: animal cell Micrograph: plant cell

See mitosis in
action.
See video: 2CQF

5. Cytokinesis

The cytoplasm then divides during a process called cytokinesis. Cytokinesis is

not a stage of mitosis but the process of the cytoplasm splitting into two. In an
animal cell the cell membrane constricts. This invagination or in-folding of the
cytoplasm divides the cell in two. In a plant cell a cross wall is formed by the
cell plate dividing the cytoplasm in two.

Schematic diagram: animal cell Micrograph

There are now two genetically identical daughter cells which are identical to
the parent cell and to each other.

114 4.2. The cell cycle

 FACT
4.3 The role of mitosis ESG5N Hair has the highest
rate of mitosis. An
average hair grows
0.3 mm every day
The process of mitosis is essential for growth and repair processes of eukaryotic and 1 cm every
organisms: mitosis is how we are able to replace our fingernails and hair as well month.
as how our skin is replaced. The table below summarises the role of mitosis in
various processes in eukaryotic organisms.

Living Process Role of Mitosis

Development and growth The number of cells increases by
mitosis enabling organisms to
grow from a single cell to a
complex multicellular organism.
Cell replacement Cells are constantly lost and
replaced by new ones in the
body, for example in the skin and
in the gut. In addition, red blood
cells live for only four months,
and are replaced by mitosis.
Replacement of damaged plant Some organisms use mitosis to
or animal tissue (regeneration) replace body parts. For example
starfish replace lost arms by
mitosis.
Asexual reproduction Some organisms such as the
hydra use mitosis to produce
genetically identical offspring.
The process is known as
budding. Mitosis is also the
method by which yeast cells
multiply.

Table 4.1: The role of mitosis in eukaryotic organisms.

Figure 4.3 shows asexual reproduction in a ciliate organism. Asexual reproduc-

tion uses mitosis.

Figure 4.3: Asexual reproduction: ciliate undergoing cytokinesis.

Chapter 4. Cell division 115

 4.4 Cancer ESG5P

Introduction ESG5Q

Cancer is a group of diseases characterised by uncontrolled cell division which

leads to growth of abnormal tissue. This means that a cancer is essentially a dis-
ease of mitosis. Cancer begins when a single cell is transformed, or converted
from a normal cell to a cancer cell. Cancer cells grow and divide uncontrol-
lably to form a mass of cancer cells called a tumour. As the tumours grow,
they squash healthy cells, steal their nutrients and prevent them from working
normally. Cancer cells differ from normal cells in a number of ways:

1. Cancer cells don’t listen to signals to stop growing: Normal cells listen
to signals from the body to stop growing and dividing. However cancer
cells do not respond to signals from the body and keep on dividing.
2. Cancer cells grow new blood vessels: As the tumour grows larger, it be-
gins to release proteins from the cell to attract new blood vessels. Blood
vessels draw nutrients away from healthy cells and therefore starve them
while allowing the growth of the tumour. The new blood vessels also
enable cancer cells to enter the bloodstream and spread to other parts of
the body.
3. Cancer cells spread around the body: Another feature of cancer cells is
that they can spread around the body (metastasise). Tumours that have
the ability to spread to other parts of the body are called malignant. Can-
cer cells can spread to surrounding tissues via the bloodstream or via the
lymph system.

Figure 4.4: Benign tumours are unable to metastasise. Malignant tumours are able to
metastasise away from the original tumour site.

116 4.4. Cancer

As previously mentioned, cancer cells are malignant which means they are FACT
able to invade tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Some tumours Watch some videos
to learn more about
cannot spread to other tissues and are called benign tumours. Benign tumours
how normal cells
are non-cancerous. turn cancerous.
See video:
Types of cancers 2CQG
See video:
2CQH
Cancer can affect almost any tissue in the body. A list of some common cancers See video: 2CQJ
includes: See video: 2CQK

• Breast cancer FACT

There are hundreds
• Lung cancer of different types of
cancer. For a
• Oesophageal cancer
comprehensive list
• Leukaemia (blood cancer) visit: http:
//en.wikipedia.
• Melanoma (skin cancer)
org/wiki/List_
of_cancer_types
Cancers often spread to different organs, however it remains the same type of
cancer as the original cancer, it is simply referred to as a metastasis. There- FACT
fore melanoma (skin cancer) that spreads to the liver is not liver cancer, but a Watch this video to
learn more about
melanoma metastasis to the liver. how gene mutations
and cancer.
See video:
Causes of cancer ESG5R 2CQM

Cancer is caused by agents called carcinogens. Carcinogens cause cancer by

damaging DNA which can no longer code for the important regulatory func-
tions of the cell cycle. Some viruses can also increase the likelihood of getting
certain types of cancer. Human papillomavirus (HPV), the disease that causes
genital warts, can increase a woman’s risk of cervical cancer, and infection with
hepatitis B or C increases the risk of liver cancer. In addition, some people are
born with genetic mutations that they have inherited from their parents that
increase their chances of getting cancer. However a genetic predisposition to
cancer does not mean that you will get cancer. If you have a family history of
cancer it simply means it is more important for you to limit your exposure to
carcinogens. Examples of some carcinogens include:

• cigarette smoke
• radiation
• x-rays
• UV light
• food additives
• several dangerous chemicals

Chapter 4. Cell division 117

FACT
Carcinogens can Beliefs and attitudes concerning cancer ESG5S
cause a DNA
mutation that
occurs in one of There are some common misconceptions about cancer:
several genes that
normally function to
control growth. E.g • It is people’s fault if they get cancer: Although there are ways to try and
the BRCA1, or decrease your risk of getting cancer, it is not always possible. Cancer is
”Breast Cancer
Gene”. The BRCA1
caused by random mutations in DNA, and sometimes people get cancer
gene normally purely by chance.
functions to • Cancer is a death sentence: Sometimes when the cancer is very ad-
suppress tumour
formation; but if a
vanced there is not much to be done to save a person, but there are many
genetic mutation cancers that respond well to treatment when detected early. Depending
occurs it does not on the type and the stage of the cancer, people can survive cancer and
work properly, and go on to live healthy happy lives.
tumour formation
can begin. • If someone in your family has cancer you might get it too: Although
Mutations in this there are some cancers that are more common in certain families due to
gene does not mean an inherited genetic mutation, a family history of cancer does not mean
that a person will
than you will also get cancer. However, if a certain type of cancer runs
develop breast
cancer, but they in your family it is good to see a doctor for regular screenings.
have an increased • Cancer is contagious and you can catch it from others: Cancer cannot
risk for breast
be spread from one person to another.
cancer.
• A positive attitude can cure cancer: There is plenty of evidence that a
positive attitude can help a person with cancer feel better and stay health-
ier for longer, however it is not the only factor that determines whether
someone will recover or not.
• Only old people get cancer: Although cancer is more common in older
people, children and babies can also get cancer. Leukaemia is a common
childhood cancer.
• Only females get breast cancer: Although breast cancer is more common
in females, males can also get breast cancer.
• Only pale people get skin cancer: Although skin cancer is more common
in people with light skin (melanin, the pigment that makes your skin dark
is also protective), people with dark skin can also get skin cancer.

Cancer treatment ESG5T

Cancer is usually treated using conventional methods that are based on West-
ern evidence-based medicine. However, many people like to use a holistic
approach to treat cancer, and therefore also use indigenous methods to man-
age symptoms. The following sections will introduce some conventional and
indigenous methods for treating cancer.

118 4.4. Cancer

 FACT
Conventional methods ESG5V Chemotherapy
targets cells that are
rapidly dividing so
patients undergoing
The conventional medical approaches to treating cancer include radiation ther-
chemotherapy often
apy, chemotherapy and surgery. lose their hair and
feel nauseous
1. Radiation therapy (because the
intestinal lining in
the stomach is
Radiation therapy is the use of high energy electromagnetic radiation to kill killed).
cancer cells. The radiation damages the DNA inside the cancer cells, causing
them to die. Radiation damages healthy cells too; therefore the treatment is
targeted directly at the tumour.

Figure 4.5: Radiation therapy uses high Figure 4.6: Chemotherapy is the use of
energy electromagnetic radiation to kill chemical treatments targeted at cancer
cancer cells. cells.

2. Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is the use of special drugs to treat cancer. Most chemother-

apy drugs are cytotoxic (toxic to cells) and work by damaging the cell’s DNA.
Chemotherapy specifically tries to prevent cell division, and so it is very toxic
to cancer cells which are characterised by uncontrolled cell division. However,
unfortunately, these drugs also damage healthy cells that divide rapidly, such
as blood cells and cells found in hair follicles, lining the mouth, stomach and
intestine and the skin. Because of the damage to rapidly dividing healthy cells,
the side-effects from chemotherapy include hair loss, mouth ulcers, nausea,
sores, anaemia and infections due to a lowered immune system.

A combination of drugs which act in slightly different ways to halt cell division
are often given together. Patients often receive chemotherapy according to a
regime, where they receive doses of chemotherapy for a time period, followed
by a break that allows the healthy cells in their bodies to recover. Usually
a chemotherapy regime consists of a few cycles of chemotherapy doses and
breaks for recovery.

Chapter 4. Cell division 119

FACT 3. Surgery
Some people are
born with mutations
Surgery involves removal of either the whole tumour, part of the tumour and
in genes involved in
regulating the cell sometimes even whole organs or body parts. When a small section of the
cycle. For example tumour is removed this is called biopsy. Frequently surgery is followed by
in colorectal cancer either radiation therapy or chemotherapy and sometimes both.
(cancer of the
colon) some people
have mutations in Indigenous methods ESG5W
the mismatch repair
genes. Mismatch
repair genes fix
damaged DNA. If
they are not In addition to the conventional methods of treatment described, many people
working properly it seek alternative forms of treatment. In South Africa, individuals commonly use
enhances a person’s traditional medicines like African Potato (Hypoxis hemerocallidea) and ”Cancer
risk of getting
cancer. People who bush” (Sutherlandia frutescens), to boost the immune system while undergoing
have a close family conventional treatments.
member who got
cancer when they
were under 40 years
of age need to be
regularly tested for
damaged genes.

Figure 4.7: African potato is used as a rem- Figure 4.8: ”Cancer bush” used in certain
edy against cancer in some forms of tradi- forms of indigenous treatments for cancer.
tional medicine.

The cancer bush (Sutherlandia frutescent, uNwele) is an indigenous medicinal

plant which the Khoi and Nama people used to wash wounds and to reduce
high fevers. The early settlers also used this bush to treat chicken pox, eye prob-
lems and internal cancers. Cancer patients often lose weight and suffer muscle
wastage and a tonic made from this bush may improve appetite, decrease anx-
iety and slow down the weight loss.

Prevention of cancer ESG5X

The risk of developing any one of the many types of cancer can be reduced by
eating a healthy diet, exercising regularly and avoiding smoking and alcohol.
The sooner cancer is detected the easier it is to treat. Therefore it is also ad-
visable for people to get regular screenings. The following page contains some
guidelines to lower your risk of developing cancer:

120 4.4. Cancer

• Avoid smoking: avoid smoking cigarettes and avoid enclosed areas where FACT
people smoke (this avoids passive smoking). Watch this video
about how our
• Avoid alcohol: limit alcohol, as excessive alcohol consumption can lead bodies help protect
to increased risk of oesophageal, liver and breast cancer. us from cancer
despite the constant
• Healthy diet: avoid (or limit) very processed foods or burnt food, both of
bombardment of
which contain carcinogens. environmental
• Regular physical activity: partake in physical activity on a regular basis. carcinogens.
See video:
Regular exercise improves general health and helps one to maintain an
2CQN
ideal body weight, thereby lowering the risk of many cancers.
• Sun protection: limit exposure to the sun and damage by ultraviolet ra-
diation. Try to stay out of the sun between 10 am and 3 pm, wear high
SPF sunscreen that protects against UVA and UVB, and wear a hat, sun-
glasses, and protective clothing.
• Regular screenings: cell or tissue abnormalities can sometimes be de-
tected before they become cancerous. Regular pap smears can prevent
cervical abnormalities developing into cervical cancer and getting moles
and skin conditions checked can prevent dangerous skin cancer. Can-
cer can also be detected at the early treatable stages by going for regular
mammograms (for breast cancer), or prostate exams (for prostate cancer)
as adults. The frequency of these exams will be age and risk dependent.

Ways to decrease cancer risk

Avoid smoking Avoid excessive Eat a healthy diet

alcohol consumption

Regular physical Sun protection Regular screenings

activity

Chapter 4. Cell division 121

 Activity: Cancer and smoking

Aim:

Investigating the relationship of smoking and cancer.

Instructions:

Look at the graph below and answer the questions that follow:

Figure 4.9: Graph showing correlation between smoking and lung cancer (courtesy
NHI).

Questions:

1. In what year was the first incidence of lung cancer seen in male smokers?
2. How many years was this after the introduction of cigarettes?
3. In which year did the average number of cigarettes smoked per year reach
a peak?
4. Approximate how many years it takes most male smokers to develop can-
cer? Clue: Compare the number of years seen between the two line
graphs for 1000, 2000, 3000 and 4000 cigarettes per year. Add the years
together and divide by 4 to get the average time (in years) taken for smok-
ers to develop cancer.
5. What can you say about the shape of the two graphs? Do they look
similar or different? What does this mean?
6. What was the death rate from lung cancer in 1950? Express your answer
as a percentage and show your working.
7. Suggest a reason why the number of cigarettes smoked shows a decrease
after 1945.

122 4.4. Cancer

Activity: Research on cancer

Aim

To research and present information on one of the human cancers

Resources required

1. Science journals such as ”New Scientist”, ”Scientific American” and any

other journals you can find.
2. Use the Internet widely including the websites below:
• Howard Hughes Medical Institute: contains links for educators and
learners on a variety of approaches to determining causes and po-
tential cures for cancer: http://www.hhmi.org/
• Whitehead Institute for cancer research. This is one of the world’s
leading cancer research labs where you can find interactive videos,
links to other resources and information about a variety of cancers:
http://wi.mit.edu/

Instructions

Using the resources available, you are required to research ONE of the cancers
affecting humans. In particular you are required to:

• Write a report under the following main headings:

– Discuss the major causes of the cancer: Discuss cancer with re-
spect to its genetic and/or environmental causes and how the cancer
spreads within a particular individual.
– Describe the common beliefs and attitudes concerning the particu-
lar cancer you have chosen to research: Present the popular (com-
mon) attitudes people have about cancer, its treatment and how
cancer is caused in the first place.
– Describe the major forms of treatment available : What are the
major treatments available. Provide an analysis of these under the
sub-headings ”Modern biotechnological methods” and ”Traditional
methods”.
– Describe the prevalence of the cancer type: Prevalence refers to
how common a cancer is in a particular location. Provide statistics
in the form of histograms and pie charts of how prevalent the cancer
is in different age groups, races and genders.
• At the end of your report, provide a complete list of references of web-
sites, articles and other sources of information used in compiling the re-
port.
• Include any pictures, diagrams and information that you think may be
relevant to your report.

Chapter 4. Cell division 123

 4.5 Summary ESG5Y

Mitosis and the cell cycle

• During interphase the DNA replicates.
• The process of mitosis occurs in four stages: prophase, metaphase; anaphase
and telophase.
• Cytokinesis differs in plant and animal cells. In animal cells the cyto-
plasm invaginates and divides the cell in two, and in a plant cell the cell
is divided in two by the cell plate which forms the cell wall.
• Mitosis ensures growth of tissues and organisms.
• Damaged and worn out tissues are repaired and replaced by new cells
through mitosis.
• Single-celled (unicellular) organisms like amoeba often reproduce asexu-
ally by mitosis.

Cancer
• Cancer is caused by DNA mutations.
• Abnormal and uncontrolled cell division results in tumour formation.
• Tumours affect the functioning of the tissue or organ.
• Cancer cells can enter the bloodstream or lymph and spread to distant
parts of the body and form new tumours (metastasise).
• Cancers are caused by substances called carcinogens.
• Carcinogens such as certain chemicals, radiation, viruses and genetics
can be the cause of certain cancers.
• Cancers can be treated by various methods including surgery, radiation,
chemotherapy and traditional medicines.

4.6 End of chapter exercises ESG5Z

Exercise 4 – 1:

1. Multiple answers are provided for each of the questions below. You are
required to choose the most appropriate answer for each question. Write
down the letter only.
a) During which stage does DNA replication occur?
i. prophase
ii. anaphase
iii. metaphase
iv. none of the above

124 4.5. Summary

 b) Which of the following statements is correct?
i. The chromosomes shorten and thicken during prophase.
ii. The nucleolus reappears following telophase.
iii. Interphase is characterised by little cellular activity, as the cell
is resting to prepare for the next mitotic event.
iv. All of the above.
c) Which of the following is not true?
i. Only plant cells grow a cell plate.
ii. Animal and plant cells both contain centrioles.
iii. Metaphase is is when the chromosomes line up on the equator
of the cell.
iv. All of the above.
d) There are two copies of DNA in the cell during:
i. G1 phase
ii. telophase
iii. G2 phase
iv. all of the above

2. Study the onion root-tip slides below and Identify the stage of mitosis
(most stages are represented more than once).

i ii iii

iv v vi

3. What is the difference between a benign and a malignant tumour?

4. Name five preventative measures or behaviours that will decrease your
chances of developing cancer.

Chapter 4. Cell division 125

 5. Cancer in South Africa. Look at the following table showing the percent-
age of deaths by cancer type in South Africa in 2000.
Cause of death Percentage in all Percentage in Percentage in
people men women
Tracheal/ 16.5 21.9 10.9
Bronchal/ Lung
cancer
Oesophageal 13.4 16.7 9.9
cancer
Cervical cancer 8.4 17.2
Breast cancer 7.7 0.2 15.6
Liver cancer 6.4 7.8 4.9
Colorectal Cancer 6.2 5.4 6.9
Prostate cancer 6.1 11.8
Stomach cancer 5.6 6.5 4.7
Pancreatic cancer 3.7 3.7 3.7
Leukaemia 3.5 3.8 3.2

a) What medical procedures should women take to detect breast can-

cer early?
b) Draw a bar graph to show the percentage deaths for each type of
cancer for men and women.
c) Which type of cancer is the most common in:
i. men
ii. women

Check answers online with the exercise code

below or click on ’show me the answer’.
1a. 2CQP 1b. 2CQQ 1c. 2CQR 1d. 2CQS 2. 2CQT 3. 2CQV
4. 2CQW 5a. 2CQX 5b. 2CQY 5c. 2CQZ

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

126 4.6. End of chapter exercises

 CHAPTER 5

Plant and animal tissues

5.1 Overview 128

5.2 Tissues 129
5.3 Plant tissues 129
5.4 Animal tissues 144
5.5 Applications of indigenous knowledge and
biotechnology 152
5.6 The leaf as an organ 159
5.7 Summary 164
 5 Plant and animal tissues

5.1 Overview ESG62

Introduction ESG63

‘If you want to understand function, study structure.’- Francis Crick in his book
”What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery” (1988).

The relationship between structure and function is important to understanding

this chapter and is important to the study of Life Sciences in general. This
chapter requires you to build on the concepts you understood in the section on
cell structure.
Key concepts

• Tissues are group of similar cells that are structurally adapted to perform
a particular function.
• Cells are adapted for specific functions through a process of cell differen-
tiation.
• Examples of plant tissues include: xylem, phloem, parenchyma, col-
lenchyma, sclerenchyma, epidermis and meristematic tissue.
• Examples of animal tissues are: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, mus-
cle tissue and nerve tissue.
• Various plant tissues are important ingredients in traditional medicine.
• Biotechnology is a modern science that involves manipulating the prop-
erties of tissues and cells.
• Many tissues group together to form an organ, which has a very specific
role in an organism.
• The leaf is an example of a plant organ that is made up of a number of
tissues that collectively enable the process of photosynthesis.

Previous chapters have discussed the molecular and cellular levels of organi-
sation of living organisms. In this chapter we will examine how similar cells
associate together to form tissues.

atom →molecule→cell→tissue→organ→system→organism→ecosystem

128 5.1. Overview

 FACT
5.2 Tissues ESG64 There are over
200 000 types of
plant species in the
world. Green plants
Tissues are made up of a group of similar cells that are adapted for a partic- provide the Earth’s
ular function. Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of oxygen, and also
multiple tissues. directly or indirectly
provide food for all
animals because of
their ability to
photosynthesise.
Plants also provide
the source of most
of our drugs and
medicines. The
scientific study of
plants is known as
botany.

FACT
Learn more about
plant tissues:
See video: 2CR3

Figure 5.1: The diagram above depicts how several cells adapted for the same function
work in conjunction to form tissues, and together form an organ.

In this chapter we will be studying plant and animal tissues, starting with plant
tissues.

5.3 Plant tissues ESG65

Plants are typically made up of roots, stems and leaves. Plant tissues can be
broadly categorised into dividing, meristematic tissue or non-dividing, perma-
nent tissue. Permanent tissue is made up of simple and complex tissues.

It is important that for each tissue type you understand:

• where it is located
• what its key structural features are and how these relate to function
• how each tissue type looks under the microscope
• how to draw biological diagrams of each structure

Figure 5.2 provides an overview of the types of plant tissues being studied in
this chapter.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 129

 Figure 5.2: The diagram above depicts how several cells adapted for the same function
work in conjunction to form tissues.

Meristematic tissue ESG66

Meristematic tissue is undifferentiated tissue. Meristematic tissue contains ac-

tively dividing cells that result in formation of other tissue types (e.g. vascular,
dermal or ground tissue). Apical meristematic tissue is found in buds and grow-
ing tips of plants. It generally makes plants grow taller or longer. Lateral meris-
tematic tissue make the plant grow thicker. Lateral meristems occur in woody
trees and plants. Examples of lateral meristematic tissue include the vascular
cambium that results in the rings you see in trees, and cork cambium or ’bark’
found on the outside of trees.

Diagram Micrograph

Figure 5.4: Micrograph of meristematic

Figure 5.3: Meristematic cells in the tissue.
growing root-tip of the onion, from a
longitudinal section.

130 5.3. Plant tissues

The following table highlights how the structure of the meristematic tissue is
suited to its function.

Structural adaptation Function

Cells are small, spherical or This allows for close packing of a
polygonal in shape. large number of cells.
Vacuoles are very small or Vacuoles provide rigidity to cells
completely absent. thus preventing rapid division.
Large amount of cytoplasm and a The lack of organelles is a feature
large nucleus. of an undifferentiated cell. Large
amount of nuclear material
contains the DNA necessary for
division and differentiation.

Table 5.1: Structural adaption and function of meristematic tissue.

Meristematic tissue is found in root tips as this is where roots are growing and
where dividing cells are produced. Figure 5.5 shows a micrograph image of a
root tip.

Figure 5.5: Image shows meristematic tissue in a root tip as observed under an electron
microscope.

Permanent tissues ESG67

The meristematic tissues give rise to cells that perform a specific function. Once
cells develop to perform this particular function, they lose their ability to divide.
The process of developing a particular structure suited to a specific function is
known as cellular differentiation. We will examine two types of permanent
tissue:

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 131

 1. Simple permanent tissues
• epidermis
• parenchyma
• collenchyma
• sclerenchyma
2. Complex permanent tissues
• xylem vessels (made up of tracheids and vessels)
• phloem vessels (made up of sieve tubes and companion cells)

Epidermis tissue ESG68

The epidermis is a single layer of cells that covers plants’ leaves, flowers, roots
and stems. It is the outermost cell layer of the plant body and plays a protective
role in the plant. The function of key structural features are listed in Table 5.2.

Structure Function
Layer of cells covering surface of Acts as a barrier to fungi and other
entire plant. microorganisms and pathogens.
Layer is thin and transparent. Allow for light to pass through,
thereby allowing for
photosynthesis in the tissues
below.
Epidermal tissues have abundant Leaf trichomes trap water in the
trichomes which are tiny hairs area above the stomata and
projecting from surface of prevent water loss.
epidermis. Trichomes are
abundant in some plant leaves.
Root hairs are elongations of Root hairs maximise the surface
epidermal cells in the root. area over which absorption of
water from the soil can occur.
Epidermal tissues in leaves are The waxy outer layer on the
covered with a waxy cuticle. epidermis prevents water loss from
leaves.
Epidermal tissues contain guard Guard cells control the opening
cells containing chloroplasts. and closing of the pores known as
stomata thus controlling water loss
in plants.
Some plant epidermal cells can The bitter taste of the substances
secrete poisonous or bad-tasting deter browsing and grazing by
substances. animals.

Table 5.2: Table showing structural adaptations of epidermis tissue.

132 5.3. Plant tissues

 FACT
The chemicals in
trichomes make
plants less easily
digested by hungry
animals and can
also slow down the
growth of fungus on
the plant. As such
they act as a form of
protection for the
plant against
predation.

Figure 5.6: Scanning electron microscope image of Nicotiana alata (tobacco plant)
upper leaf surface, showing trichomes (also known as ‘hairs’) and a few stomata.

Guard cells and Stomata ESG69

A stoma is a pore found in the leaf and stem epidermis that allows for gaseous
exchange. The stoma is bordered on either side by a pair of specialised cells
known as guard cells. Guard cells are bean shaped specialised epidermal
cells, found mainly on the lower surface of leaves, which are responsible for
regulating the size of the stoma opening. Together, the stoma and the guard
cells are referred to as stomata.

The stomata in the epidermis allow oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour
to enter and leave the leaf. The guard cells also contain chloroplasts for photo-
synthesis. Opening and closing of the guard cells is determined by the turgor
pressure of the two guard cells. The turgor pressure is controlled by movements
of large quantities of ions and sugar into the guard cells. When guard cells take
up these solutes, the water potential decreases causing water to flow into the
guard cells via osmosis. This leads to an increase in the swelling of the guard
cells and the stomatal pores open.

Figure 5.7: Stomata in a tomato leaf as Figure 5.8: Microgrpah of Arabidop-

seen under a scanning electron micro- sis thaliana stoma showing two guard
scope. cells exhibiting green fluorescence, with
chloroplasts staining red.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 133

 Activity: Practical investigation of leaf epidermis

Aim:

To observe epidermal cells and stomata.

Materials:

• leaves of Agapanthus, Wandering Jew (Tradescantia ) or similar plants

that have epidermis that strips off easily
• microscopes
• microscope slides and cover slips
• dissecting needles
• scissors

Instructions:

1. Rip a piece of leaf lengthwise and check for ’thinner bits’ near the edges,
which will be epidermal tissue (ensure that you have lower epidermis
because this is where the guard cells are found).
2. Use the scissors to cut off a small section of epidermis and mount it in
water on a microscope slide. Cover with a cover slip.
3. Focus the slide on low power and search for a section of the sample that
does not have air bubbles over the stomata.
4. Enlarge the part of the specimen you chose and focus on high power.
5. Adjust lighting if necessary and draw one stoma and its guard cells. Label
all parts.

Questions:

1. Describe the shape of the guard cells and normal epidermal cells.
2. Which epidermal cells have chloroplasts?
3. Describe the wall thickness around the guard cells and account for any
visible differences.

We will now look at parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells. To-

gether these tissue types are referred to as ground tissues. Ground tissues are
located in the region between epidermal and vascular tissue.

134 5.3. Plant tissues

Parenchyma tissue ESG6B

Parenchyma tissue forms the majority of stems and roots as well as soft fruit like
tomatoes and grapes. It is the most common type of ground tissue. Parenchyma
tissue is responsible for the storage of nutrients.

Figure 5.9: Parenchyma tissue found in cells responsible for storage.

Parenchyma
Structure Function
Thin-walled cells. Thin walls allow for close packing
and rapid diffusion between cells.
Intercellular spaces are present Intercellular spaces allow diffusion
between cells. of gases to occur.
Parenchyma cells have large This allows the cells to store and
central vacuoles. regulate ions, waste products and
water. Also function in providing
support.
Specialised parenchyma cells This allows them to perform a
known as chlorenchyma found in photosynthetic function and
plant leaves contain chloroplasts. responsible for storage of starch.
Some parenchyma cells retain the Allows replacement of damaged
ability to divide. cells.

Table 5.3: Structure and function of parenchyma.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 135

 Activity: Observing parenchyma cells.

Aim:

To observe the structure of fresh parenchyma cells.

Materials:

• banana
• petri dishes or watch glasses
• dissection needles
• iodine solution
• microscopes, microscope slides and cover slips

Instructions:

1. Use the dissecting needle to lift off a small piece of the soft banana tissue.
2. Put the sample onto a petri dish or watch glass and mash it slightly using
the dissecting needle (and a pencil if you want).
3. Lift a small sample of the tissue onto a microscope slide on which you
already have placed a drop of iodine solution. Put the cover slip on.
4. Observe the cells under low power and find a section where the cells are
lying separate, not all over each other.
5. Enlarge this section and focus carefully to see if you can find nuclei in
some of the cells (they will be bigger than the purple plastids and trans-
parent).
6. Draw 2 or 3 cells and label.

Questions:

1. Describe the shape of the cells and their wall thickness.

2. What are the plastids called which appear purple and what is their func-
tion?

Collenchyma tissue ESG6C

Collenchyma is a simple, permanent tissue typically found in the shoots and

leaves of plants. Collenchyma cells are thin-walled but the corners of the cell
wall are thickened with cellulose. This tissue gives strength, particularly in
growing shoots and leaves due to the thickened corners. The cells are tightly
packed and have fewer inter-cellular spaces.

136 5.3. Plant tissues

 Collenchyma FACT
Diagram Micrograph Collenchyma tissues
make up the strong
strands observed in
stalks of celery.

FACT
The growth of
collenchyma tissue
is affected by
mechanical stress
on a plant. For
instance if the plant
is constantly shaken
Figure 5.11: Light microscope image by the wind the
Figure 5.10: Collenchyma cells are walls of
of collenchyma cells.
thin walled with thickened corners. collenchyma may
be 40–100% thicker
than those that are
not shaken.

Collenchyma FACT
Learn more about
Structure Function
permanent simple
Cells are spherical, oval or This allows for close packing to tissues.
polygonal in shape with no provide structural support. See video: 2CR4
intercellular spaces.
Corners of cell wall are thickened, Provides mechanical strength.
with cellulose and pectin deposits.
Cells are thin-walled on most sides. Provides flexibility, allowing plant
to bend in the wind.

Table 5.4: Structure and function of collenchyma tissue.

Sclerenchyma tissue ESG6D

Sclerenchyma is a simple, permanent tissue. It is the supporting tissue in plants,

making the plants hard and stiff. Two types of sclerenchyma cells exist: fibres
and sclereids.

Sclerenchyma fibres are long and narrow and have thick lignified cell walls.
They provide mechanical strength to the plant and allow for the conduction of
water.

Sclereids are specialised sclerenchyma cells with thickened, highly lignified

walls with pits running through the walls. They support the soft tissues of pears
and guavas and are found in the shells of some nuts.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 137

FACT Sclerenchyma
A useful way to Diagram Micrograph
remember the
difference between
collenchyma and
sclerenchyma is to
remember the 3 Cs
pertaining to
collenchyma:
thickened at
corners, contain
cellulose, and
Figure 5.12: Figure 5.13: Cross- Figure 5.14: Sclereid.
named
collenchyma.
Sclerenchyma tissue section of sclerenchyma
provides support in fibres.
plants.

Sclerenchyma
Structure Function
Cells are dead and have lignified This provides mechanical strength
secondary cell walls. and structural support. The lignin
provides a ’wire-like’ strength to
prevent from tearing too easily.
Sclereids have strong walls which Provide the hardness of fruits like
fill nearly the entire volume of the pears. These structures are used to
cell. protect other cells.

Table 5.5: Structure and function of sclerenchyma tissue.

Sclerenchyma tissues are important components in fabrics such as flax, jute and
hemp. Fibres are important components of ropes and mattresses because of
their ability to withstand high loads. Fibres found in jute are useful in process-
ing textiles, given that their principal cell wall component is cellulose. Other
important sources of fibres are grasses, sisal and agaves. Sclereid tissues are the
important components of fruits such as cherries, plums or pears.

Activity: Observing sclerenchyma in pears

Aim:

To observe sclerenchyma stone cells (sclereids) in pears.

Materials:

• soft, ripe pear

• microscopes, microscope slides and cover slips
• iodine solution
• dissecting needles or forceps

138 5.3. Plant tissues

Instructions:

1. Use the forceps or needle to lift a small piece of soft pear tissue onto your
microscope slide.
2. Add a drop of iodine solution.
3. Mash the tissue slightly to separate the cells.
4. Cover with a cover slip and observe under low power. You should fo-
cus on the groups of dark ”stones” that appear amongst the rounded
parenchyma cells of the pear. Try to find one or two stone cells or scle-
reids that are separate from the rest.
5. Enlarge a good specimen (or focus on the edge of a group where one
cells sticks out) and adjust the lighting.
6. Look carefully while you focus up and down to see the long, narrow PITS
running through the extremely thick walls of these cells.
7. These ”stone cells” are called sclereids. They are a modified form of scle-
renchyma found in pears, guavas and the shells of nuts for extra support.
8. Also observe the large round cells around the sclereids.

Questions:

1. Do you see cytoplasm inside the stone cells? Are they living or dead
cells?
2. What tissue type do the large round cells around the sclereids belong to?

Activity: To investigate sclerenchyma fibres

Aim:

To see sclerenchyma fibres in tissue paper.

Materials:

• cheap toilet paper (single ply)

• iodine solution or water
• microscopes and slides

Instructions:

1. Tear a tiny piece of toilet paper off the sample and mount it in water or
iodine solution.
2. Place on a cover slip and examine under the microscope on low power.
3. Focus on the torn edge of the paper and observe the long sclerenchyma
fibres.
4. Observe on high power.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 139

 Questions:

1. Describe the shape of these cells.

2. Are they living or dead cells?
3. Suggest their function.

We will now examine the complex permanent tissues. Remember the differ-
ence between simple and complex permanent tissues is that simple permanent
tissues are made up of cells of the same type whereas complex permanent
tissues are made up of more than one cell type that combine to perform a
particular function. We will examine the vascular tissues, xylem and phloem
tissues next.

Xylem tissue ESG6F

Xylem has the dual function of supporting the plant and transporting water and
dissolved mineral salts from the roots to the stems and leaves. It is made up
of vessels, tracheids, fibres and parenchyma cells. The vessels and tracheids
are non-living at maturity and are hollow to allow the transport of water. Both
vessels and tracheids have lignin in their secondary walls, which provides ad-
ditional strength and support.

Xylem vessels are composed of a long chain of straight, elongated, tough, dead
cells known as vessel elements. The vessel elements are long and hollow (lack
protoplasm) and they make a long tube because the cells are arranged end to
end, and the point of contact between two cells is dissolved away. The role
of xylem vessels is to transport water from roots to leaves. Xylem vessels often
have patterns of thickening in their secondary walls. Secondary wall thickening
can be in the form of spirals, rings or pits.

Diagram Micrograph

Figure 5.15: Longitudinal section

through a xylem vessel to show hollow Figure 5.16: Xylem vessel fibres with
lumen to allow for transport of water rings of lignin thickening.
and nutrients.

140 5.3. Plant tissues

Tracheids have thick secondary cell walls and are tapered at the ends. The thick FACT
walls of the tracheids provide support and tracheids do not have end openings In addition to
transporting water
like the vessels. The tracheids’ ends overlap with one another, with pairs of pits
and mineral salts
present which allow water to pass through horizontally from cell to cell. from roots to leaves,
xylem also provides
support to plants
Structure Function and trees because of
Long cells Form effective conducting tubes its tough lignified
vessel elements.
for water and minerals
Dead cells: no cytoplasm No obstruction to water transport
Thick, lignified walls Support the plant and are strong
enough to resist the suction force
of transpiration pull, so they don’t
collapse
Pits in cell walls Allow lateral water transport to
neighbouring cells
Tracheids have tapered ends Improved flexibility of the stem in
wind
Vessels elements have open ends Water is transported directly to the
next cell
No intercellular spaces Added support for the stem
Living parenchyma cells in Form vascular rays for water
between xylem transport to the cortex of the stem
Patterns of secondary wall Improve flexibility of the stem in
thickening wind and allow the stem to stretch
as it lengthens

Table 5.6: Structure and function of xylem tissue.

Activity: Observing the patterned secondary walls in the xylem of fresh

plant tissue

Aim:

To observe the patterned secondary walls in the xylem of fresh plant tissue.

Materials:

• celery stalk, rhubarb stalks or pumpkin stems (macerated - chop them

across and boil them in water for 3 minutes, then add an equal amount
of glycerine. Cool before using. It can be stored for a few months in the
refrigerator.)
• microscopes and slides
• dissecting needles
• petri dishes or watch glasses
• eosin solution

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 141

FACT
Do you remember Instructions:
that sucrose is made
up of glucose and
fructose 1. Lift a small piece of celery / any other tissue chosen from the dish and
monosaccharides? transfer it to a watch glass or petri dish.
Plants transport
sucrose rather than 2. Use the dissecting needle and a pencil to tease the tissue apart (separate
glucose because it is the thread-like, thicker cells away from each other). Try to get the long
less reactive and has cells away from each other, otherwise bundles will be too thick to al-
less of an effect on low you to see individual cells. Ignore the thin walled parenchyma cells
the water potential.
around them.
3. Transfer the plant tissue to a microscope slide and add eosin solution.
Separate a bit more if necessary.
4. Examine under low power, focusing on the bundles of xylem vessels.
Look for long bundles of fairly wide cells with thickening in the form of
rings or spirals. Do not confuse xylem vessels with the more common
and much narrower sclerenchyma fibres - fibres have walls all the same
thickness, have no spirals or rings and they are pointed at the end. If
necessary, make a second slide if you did not find xylem.
5. Move a good part to the centre and enlarge. Examine the secondary walls
of these cells.

Questions:

1. Describe the shape of xylem vessels.

2. What secondary walls patterns do you see?
3. Suggest the function of such secondary walls.

Phloem tissue ESG6G

Phloem tissue is the living tissue responsible for transporting organic nutrients
produced during photosynthesis (mainly as the carbohydrate sucrose) to all
parts of the plant where these are required. The phloem tissue is made up of
the following major types of cells:

• sieve elements: these are conducting cells which transport sucrose.

• parenchyma cells: which store food for transport in phloem.
• companion cells: are associated with parenchyma cells and control the
activities of sieve tube elements, since the latter have no nuclei. Com-
panion cells are responsible for providing energy to the sieve elements
to allow for the transport of sucrose. Companion cells play an important
role in loading sieve tubes with sucrose produced during photosynthesis.
Companion cells and sieve tube elements are connected via connecting
strands of cytoplasm called plasmodesmata.
• fibres: unspecialised cells and supportive cells.

142 5.3. Plant tissues

 Diagram Micrograph

Figure 5.17: Longitudinal section: Figure 5.18: Cross-section: the arrow

phloem tissue transports nutrients indicates the location of the phloem in
throughout the plant. the vascular bundle.

In the table below, the key structural features of the phloem are related to their
function.

Structure Function
Companion cells
Contain large number of Due to absence of organelles or
ribosomes and mitochondria. nuclei in sieve tubes, companion
cells perform cellular functions of
the sieve tube.
Has many plasmodesmata Allows transfer of
(intercellular connections) in the sucrose-containing sap over a large
wall attached to the sieve tube. area.
Sieve tubes
Sieve tube elements are long Form good conducting tubes over
conducting cells with cellulose cell long distances. Allows for transfer
walls. over a large area.
They are living cells with no Allows for more space to transport
nucleus or organelles such as sap. It is also why sieve elements
vacuoles or ribosomes. need companion cells to carry out
all cellular functions.

Table 5.7: Structure and function of phloem tissue.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 143

FACT
Watch a video
about the different
tissue types in
animals
See video: 2CR5

Figure 5.19: Xylem and phloem are the main transport vessels in plants. The figure
above shows how vascular tissues are arranged in a vascular bundle.

5.4 Animal tissues ESG6H

Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a particular function. We will
be examining human tissues as an example of animal tissues.

Human bodies, like most animal bodies, are made up of four different types of
tissue:

1. Epithelial tissue forms the outer layer of the body and also lines many of
the bodies cavities where it has a protective function.
2. Connective tissue assists in support and protection of organs and limbs
and depending on the location in the body it may join or separate organs
or parts of the body.
3. Muscle tissue enables various forms of movement, both voluntary and
involuntary.
4. Nerve tissue is responsible for the carrying of electrical and chemical
signals and impulses from the brain and central nervous system to the
periphery, and vice versa.

We will now look at each tissue type, examining its structure and function as
well as its specific location in the body. You will be expected to recognise
microscope images of each tissue type and produce biological drawings.

144 5.4. Animal tissues

 FACT
Epithelial tissue ESG6J Pseudostratified
epithelium refers to
epithelium
consisting of one
Epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover surfaces (e.g. skin) and line layer but looking as
though it consists of
tubes and cavities (e.g. digestive organs, blood vessels, kidney tubules and
more than one layer.
airways). Epithelial tissue usually consists of a single layer of cells, however in
certain cases there may be more than one layer. All epithelial tissues are free
FACT
surfaces attached to the underlying layers of a basement membrane. The skin is the
largest human
There are different types of epithelial tissue which are named according to the organ.
number of layers they form and the shape of the individual cells that make
up those layers. Simple epithelium refers to a single layer of cells. Stratified
epithelium refers to two or more layers of cells. Squamous epithelium refers
to flattened cells, cuboidal epithelium refers to cells that are cube-shaped and
columnar epithelium refers to vertically elongated cells. Ciliated epithelium
refers to epithelial cells that contain many tiny hair-like projections.

Figure 5.20: The different types of epithelial tissue found in mammals.

General functions of epithelial tissue

• Provides a barrier between the external environment and the organ it

covers.
• Specialised to function in secretion and absorption.
• Protects organisms from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.
• Excretes waste products such as sweat from the skin.

The different types of epithelial tissue are classified according to their shape.
The major categories we are going to examine are squamous, columnar and
cuboidal epithelium.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 145

 Squamous Epithelium

Location in body Structure Function

Simple: capillaries, Thin and flat cells that are Responsible for diffusion.
alveoli (in lungs); elliptically shaped and lie on Thin structure allows for
basement membrane. movement of substances
Simple squamous across the cells.
epithelium is one-cell thick.
stratified: skin Stratified squamous Provides a protective
epithelium consists of many covering.
layers of thin, flat cells.

Diagram Microscopic image

Cuboidal Epithelium

Location in body Structure Function

Kidney tubules or Cube-like in structure; may Serve a protective function
glands (regions of occasionally have structures against bacteria and the
the body called microvilli on surface wearing away of certain
responsible for to aid absorption. organs by lining various
excretion). structures. Also prevent
water loss.

Diagram Microscopic image

146 5.4. Animal tissues

Columnar Epithelium

Location in body Structure Function

Digestive tract, Elongated cells, nuclei Main function is protective.
reproductive located at the base of the Prevents against bacterial
organs cell. Cells connected by infection. Can also secrete
tight junctions and receive mucus to protect surface
their nutrients from the from damage.
basement membrane.

Diagram Microscopic image

A sub-type of columnar epithelium called ciliated columnar epithelium is

found in some places in the body. Ciliated columnar epithelium contain little
finger-like projections called cilia. These cilia beat in a wave-like motion to
move particles, mucus or other substances around the body. Ciliated epithe-
lium is found in the trachea and bronchi of the respiratory system and in the
fallopian tubes of the female reproductive tract.

Muscle tissue ESG6K

There are three types of muscle tissue:

1. skeletal
2. smooth
3. cardiac

Skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated. Striated muscle cells are striped, with
regular patterns of proteins responsible for contraction. Striated muscle con-
tracts and relaxes in short bursts, whereas smooth muscle contracts for longer.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 147

 1. Skeletal muscle is a voluntary muscle. It is striated in appearance. Skeletal
muscle tissue has regularly arranged bundles. It is anchored by tendons and
is used to effect skeletal muscle movement, such as locomotion, and maintain
posture. The muscles have a reflex action but can also respond to conscious
control.

2. Smooth muscle is an involuntary, non-striated muscle with tapered ends. It

is found within the walls of blood vessels such as arteries and veins. Smooth
muscle is also found in the digestive system, urinary tract and in the trachea. It
is responsible for involuntary rhythmic contractions of peristalsis, required for
moving food down the alimentary canal, and for the dilation and construction
of blood vessels to control blood pressure.

3. Cardiac muscle is the major tissue making up the heart. It is an involuntary

muscle that is striated in appearance. However, unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle connects at branching, irregular angles. The connected branches help
with coordinated contractions of the heart.

Diagram Micrograph

Nervous tissue ESG6M

Cells making up the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are
classified as nervous tissue. In the central nervous system, nervous tissue forms
the brain and spinal cord. In the peripheral nervous system the nervous tissue
forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, which include the sensory and
motor neurons.

148 5.4. Animal tissues

The function of nerve tissue is to transmit nerve impulses around the body.
Nerves consist of a cell body (soma), dendrites, which receive impulses, and
axons which send impulses. The axons of neurons are surrounded by a myelin
sheath. The myelin sheath consists of layers of myelin, a white fatty substance.
The myelin sheath’s main function is to insulate nerve fibres and it also in-
creases the speed of the impulses transmitted by the nerve cell. There are three
types of nerve cells: sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons.

Sensory neuron Motor neuron Interneuron

Sensory neurons are These neurons are very Motor neurons carry
responsible for sending short compared to the impulses from the CNS
information about the sensory and motor to muscles or glands. In
environment (called neurons. The connectors most cases the motor
stimuli) to the central or interneurons connect neuron causes muscle
nervous system. They are a sensory neuron with a contraction (movement),
activated by touch, light, motor neuron. The but motor neurons can
temperature, pressure, impulse travels from the also cause secretion of
hearing etc. Sensory cell body at the head end substances by glands.
nerve cells (or sensory along the short axon to The motor neuron causes
neurons) carry impulses the dendrites. a response via chemicals
(electrical signals) from a known as
receptor to the central neurotransmitters.
nervous system (CNS).

Connective tissue ESG6N

Connective tissue is a biological tissue that is important in supporting, con-

necting or separating different types of tissues and organs in the body. All
connective tissue is made up of cells, fibres (such as collagen) and extracellular
matrix. The type of intercellular matrix differs in different connective tissues.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 149

FACT There are different types of connective tissues with different functions. The
All connective following table lists some of the different types of connective tissue.
tissues are
characterised by
cells separated from Connective Structure Function Location Diagram/Photo
each other and tissue type
found in some type Areolar jelly matrix; holds the surrounds
of intercellular
matrix.
(loose has network organs in blood vessels
connective) of elastic place, and nerves
fibres which cushions and found in the
attach protects mesentry
together organs (acts which
as a packing surrounds the
material) intestine
White consists of acts as a in tendons,
fibrous non-elastic shock ligaments and
fibres absorber, many tough
transfers or membrane
absorbs sheaths that
forces surround
organs
Cartilage rubbery gives joints, nose,
matrix, can structure, sternum,
be flexible or shape and trachea
rigid strength;
reduces
friction;
provides
support
Bone tissue made up of provides bones found
collagen strength and all over the
fibres; support; body
mineralised creates red
with calcium blood cells
and and white
phosphates to blood cells
make it solid

Blood ESG6P

Blood is regarded as a specialised form of connective tissue because it origi-

nates in the bones and has some fibres. Blood is composed of red blood cells,
white blood cells and platelets. These components are suspended in a yellow
fluid known as plasma.

150 5.4. Animal tissues

 Electron micrographs of blood cells

Figure 5.22: Scanning electron microscope image

Figure 5.21: Scanning of a white blood cell (right), a platelet (centre) and a
electron microscope im- red blood cell (left).
age of circulating blood
showing several red and
white blood cells.

Red blood cells: called erythrocytes are made in the red bone marrow. They do
not have a nucleus and are biconcave in shape. Their biconcave shape makes
them flexible so that they can squeeze through narrow capillaries. It also gives
them a bigger surface to volume ratio, so that they absorb and release gases
faster. Red blood cells have a short life span of approximately 120 days. Red
blood cells contain the protein known as haemoglobin. Haemoglobin contains
the pigment known as heme that has an iron (Fe) at its centre that combines
with oxygen. Haemoglobin releases oxygen as required and takes up carbon
dioxide. Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and
returns carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

Figure 5.23: Human red blood cells. Figure 5.24: Platelets clumping together to
form a blood smear. Platelets are largely
responsible for wound repair and healing.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 151

FACT White blood cells: Are commonly known as leukocytes and are produced in
The number of the yellow bone marrow and lymph nodes. The cells have one or more nuclei.
leukocytes is often a
White blood cells are slightly larger than red blood cells and are more irregular
measure of disease.
They make up in shape. Their main function is to protect the body from diseases. There are
approximately 1% several types of white blood cells.
of blood in a
healthy adult. A
Platelets: Also known as thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow and
change in the
amount of are fragments of bone marrow cells. They have no nuclei. Platelets assist in the
leukocytes can often clotting of blood and prevent excessive bleeding.
be used to diagnose
disease. Plasma: Plasma is the pale-yellow component of blood that allows the rest of
the components of blood to float in suspension. It makes up about 55% of
FACT total blood volume. It contains dissolved proteins, hormones, urea and carbon
Plasma donations
are important in dioxide. Its main functions are to transport nutrients, cells and metabolic waste
blood transfusion. products and maintain blood volume.
During World War
2, the blood plasma
transferred to
wounded soldiers 5.5 Applications of indigenous knowledge and
was important in biotechnology ESG6Q
saving thousands of
lives.

Traditional medicines ESG6R

In The World Health Organisation definition of traditional medicine, they in-

corporate a list of plant and animal product-based therapies as well as spiritual
Figure 5.25: practices as part of traditional medicine. Up to 80% of people in African and
American Asian countries rely on traditional medicines for their basic health care needs.
wounded sol- In South Africa, broadly, there are two types of practitioners: herbalists and
dier receiving diviners. Herbalists use plants to prescribe remedies to ailments. Diviners are
blood plasma in
said to communicate with ancestral spirits in order to diagnose problems and
August, 1943
ailments. In Africa, traditional healers rely on up to 4000 plants for remedies.
Pygneum, a traditional medicine has been used in Africa and elsewhere to treat
early forms of cancer for example.
FACT
In 2007, a research
Due to the high cost of modern Western health care systems and technologies,
team from
University of there has been a recent focus on researching African traditional remedies and
KwaZulu-Natal medicines. Traditional African medicine may well have healing properties that
found that plant have been recognised through generations of use, and passed on in a cultural
extracts from 16 system. Because of the potential to reach greater masses at lower cost, there has
plants used by local
healers as ’muti’ been an attempt to combine traditional African medicine into the continent’s
were highly health care systems. An example of this a 48-bed hospital that was opened
effective in treating in Kwa-Mhlanga, South Africa, in 2010. The hospital treats patients using a
high blood pressure. combination of traditional methods and Western healing methods.

5.5. Applications of indigenous

152
knowledge and biotechnology
 FACT
Modern biotechnology ESG6S Watch a humorous
video about the
history of
In this section we will examine some aspects of biotechnology that have been vaccination.
See video: 2CR6
applied in modern medicine. Modern medicine is informed by medical re-
search, and medical research is based on the scientific method. Therefore,
these therapies are based on investigations that have results that are repro-
ducible. We will examine five achievements of modern medicine and discuss
the underlying ethical issues these new treatments and technologies present:

1. Immunity and vaccines

2. Antibiotics
3. Blood transfusions
4. Cloning
5. Stem cell research

1. Immunity and vaccines ESG6T

Immunity is the body’s resistance to infection by bacteria, viruses and other

pathogens. The body defends itself against infection through a variety of means,
such as physical, chemical and cellular barriers to infection.

• Physical barriers include the skin, saliva, tears and mucus. They also
include hairs in the lining of the respiratory tract known as cilia.
• Chemical barriers include the various allergic responses that result in in-
flammation or swelling. These are caused by a chemical response system
that results in the body releasing chemicals to attack any foreign objects
entering the body. White blood cells known as eosinophils are normally
responsible for the allergic response.
• Cellular mechanisms exist to fight bacterial infections. These include
neutrophils, macrophages and which attack pathogens and ”engulf” and
eat them through a process of phagocytosis.

The above defence mechanisms

described are part of the innate
immune system. The body also has an
adaptive immune system which
‘remembers’ each pathogen that
invades the body based on the
specific markers on the pathogen.
These markers are known as antigens.
When a foreign organism invades, the
adaptive immune system launches an
antigen-specific response which
destroys the infectious agent. Figure 5.26: Eosinophils are important in
controlling the allergic reaction.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 153

FACT Vaccination is the most effective method of eradicating infectious diseases. It
Learn about the has resulted in the eradication of smallpox throughout the world and has greatly
discovery of
reduced diseases such as polio, measles and tetanus. Vaccination involves in-
penicillin and
antibiotics. jecting components of the infectious agent in a non-toxic form in order to stimu-
See video: 2CR7 late an individual’s adaptive immune system. An immune response is produced
against the vaccine, resulting in the production of T-lymphocyte memory cells.
FACT When a repeat infection occurs, the body is able to mount an effective and
What are blood rapid immune response due to the presence of memory cells.
types? Watch this
video to find out!
See video: 2CR8 2. Antibiotics ESG6V

Antibiotics are another example of a biotechnological advance in medicine.

Antibiotics stop or inhibit the growth of certain disease-producing bacteria.
These substances were originally found in organisms such as fungi and can
now be chemically manufactured. Antibiotics can be administered to patients
intravenously as injections, or in the form of tablets, syrups or suspensions.

Figure 5.27: A vaccination campaign in Figure 5.28: Antibiotics.

the US.

3. Blood transfusions ESG6W

Blood transfusions often save the lives of people whom have lost large amounts
of blood due to trauma caused by accidents and surgery. Before a person
receives blood from a blood donor, the blood has to be typed to see if the
donor is a match for the recipient. Blood is classified based on the presence
of antigens in the red blood cells. An antigen is a molecule recognised by the
immune system. There are four different types of blood groups. Recipients can
only be given blood which is compatible to their own blood.

• Blood Group A has antigen A only

• Blood Group B has antigen B only
• Blood group AB has both antigen A and B
• Blood Group O has neither antigens A or B

5.5. Applications of indigenous

154
knowledge and biotechnology
The table below shows the different ABO Blood Groups and compatibility for
blood transfusions.

Blood group Blood donor (person Blood recipient

giving blood) (person requiring
blood)
A A and AB A and O
B B and AB B and O
AB AB only All groups
O All groups O only

Figure 5.29: Red blood cell compatibility chart. In addition to donating to the same
blood group, type O blood donors can give to A, B and AB; blood donors of types A
and B can give to AB.

Furthermore, the Rhesus factor of both the recipient and donor need to be
determined. The Rhesus factor is another type of antigen found on the surface
of red blood cells. Approximately 85% of the population has this protein and
are know to be Rhesus positive. The remaining 15% of the population are
Rhesus negative because this protein is not present in their red blood cells.

So, blood group A negative means the recipient has antigen A, but does not
have the Rhesus factor, a recipient who is O positive means the recipient has
neither antigen A or B but does have the Rhesus factor. It is important that
a person receiving a blood transfusion receives blood from a donor that is
compatible in both blood group and Rhesus factor.

4. Cloning ESG6X

Cloning is the process by which a genetically identical copy of an organism is

produced. In nature, cloning occurs when organisms such as plants, insects
or bacteria reproduce asexually. The copied material is referred to as a clone.
There are three main types of cloning:

• Gene cloning: involves cloning of small sections or regions of DNA.

• Reproductive cloning: produces copies of whole animals or cells.
• Therapeutic cloning: produces stem cells for experiments to attempt to
replace injured or diseased tissues.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 155

FACT Some plants have been producing identical clones of themselves through natu-
Learn how Dolly the ral processes for millions of years. Through the production of a ‘runner’ (stolon)
Sheep was cloned.
for instance, strawberry crops produce genetically identical offspring. The new
See video: 2CR9
plant is referred to as a clone. Similar cloning occurs in grasses, potato crops
and onions. Artificial cloning occurs through either vegetative propagation
or through tissue propagation. Propagation is the process by which existing
organisms produce more offspring.

Vegetative propagation is an ancient form of cloning plants. It involves taking

a leaf cutting from a plant and growing it into a new plant. Vegetative propa-
gation occurs because of the presence of a mass of unspecialised cells known
as a callus. Callus cells grow, divide and form various specialised cells such as
roots and stems, eventually producing a grown plant.

Figure 5.30: Growing new Plumeria plants from cuttings.

Tissue culture propagation is a more recent practice which involves taking

pieces of specialised roots, isolating the cells and growing them in a nutrient-
rich culture. In the culture, the specialised cells become transformed into undif-
ferentiated cells. These are similar to the calluses formed above. The calluses
then get treated with chemicals that trigger the growth of new plants that are
identical to the original plant from which the root pieces were taken as shown
in the diagram below. This method of cultivating new plants is known as tissue
culture.

Artificial cloning of organisms

The technique used to clone whole animals, such as sheep is referred to as

reproductive cloning. In reproductive cloning, scientists remove a mature so-
matic cell from the organism that is to be cloned. A somatic cell is any cell
in the body that does not serve a reproductive purpose. In these cells, both
sets of chromosomes (from the mother and father) are present. An example of
a somatic cell is a skin cell. The nucleus is removed from the ‘donor’ somatic
cell and added to a ‘recipient’ cell.

The recipient cell is usually an egg cell, from which the nucleus has been
removed, so that only the cytoplasm remains (a denucleated cell). The clone
produced can then be transferred into a surrogate mother’s womb. A surrogate
organism is one which acts as a substitute for another. In this case, the clone is
transferred to a surrogate so the embryo can develop.

5.5. Applications of indigenous

156
knowledge and biotechnology
 FACT
Are you confused
about stem cells?
Watch this
entertaining video
that explains what
stem cells are and
why they are so
exciting.
See video: 2CRB

Figure 5.31: The cloning processes for reproductive and therapeutic cloning. Repro-
ductive cloning is used for cloning of whole organisms e.g Dolly the Sheep.

5. Stem cell research ESG6Y

Stem cells are cells found in all multicellular organisms. Stem cells can differ-
entiate into any type of cell such as a red blood cell, nerve cell, etc. The two
types of stem cells are embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. Embryonic
stem cells can specialise into any cell type, while adult stem cells usually have
some restrictions as to what type of cell they can become. Adult stem cells are
produced in various tissues including the liver and the bone marrow. Embry-
onic stem cells are obtained from embryos and can be created in vitro (in the
laboratory). Multiple embryos are generated through in vitro fertilisation meth-
ods, in which egg cells are harvested from the mother and fertilised by sperm
cells from the father, outside of the body. The embryos that are not implanted
into a patient are frozen or stored. Some of them are destroyed. The potential
uses for stem cells include:

• Spinal cord injury: Repairing damaged nerve tissue after paralysis.

• Brain damage: Replacing or regenerating neurons in degenerative condi-
tions like Parkinson’s disease or after a stroke.
• Cancer: Creating new cells to replace cancerous cells e.g. bone marrow
transplants for people with leukaemia.
• Burn treatment: New skin cells that match the donor may be grafted
onto burn victims.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 157

FACT
Recall that in
Chapter 4 you learnt
that individuals with Figure 5.32 shows how embryonic
cancer can be cells differentiate to form nerve
treated through
chemotherapy and
cells.
radiation. However,
these therapies The use of stem cells and embry-
often destroy onic stem cells in particular, is con-
healthy cells along
troversial, with many people op-
with cancerous
cells. The use of posed to it for moral, religious or
adult stem cells philosophical reasons. The objec-
which derive from tion is largely based on what hap-
the bone marrow pens to the unused embryos.
and liver tissue is Figure 5.32: A) undifferentiated em-
important in bryonic stem cells and B) nerve cells
replacing the forming from embryonic cells.
healthy cells
damaged by
chemotherapy. Ethical issues ESG6Z

The use of science in cloning has created a lot of debate and controversy.
Mainly, the debate is whether the methods used for cloning result in cells that
have the potential to form full-grown organisms. The key ethical questions that
arise are therefore:

• What to do about fused cells (known as embryos) that are not used for
either therapeutic or reproductive purposes?
• By selecting certain genes for reproduction using cloning are we not
favouring certain types of characteristics over others?
• Much of the cloning is conducted by private companies and this raises
concerns that the public might not be able to benefit from the research
being conducted.
• In the case of human cloning, if the embryos created are alive, do they
have the rights of a normal human being?
• Are there better alternatives to stem cell research?

Legislation around stem cell research ESG72

Due to the issue of stem cell research being so controversial, different countries
have very different laws governing how it is to be conducted.

Some European countries such as Finland, Sweden, Belgium, Greece, Britain,

Denmark and Netherlands allow stem cell research using human embryos
while some such as Germany, Austria, Ireland, Italy and Portugal do not.The
United States of America has divided opinions on stem cell research, with some
of its States providing funding for stem cell research while others do not. India,
Iran, South Korea, China and Australia are supportive of stem cell research.
South Africa continues to support stem cell research.

5.5. Applications of indigenous

158
knowledge and biotechnology
 FACT
Potential applications of cloned animals ESG73 In June 2012, the
South African
plastic surgeon, Dr
Reproductive cloning may allow copies of animals to be made for benefits in Ridwan Mia, led a
agriculture and medicine. Sheep such as Dolly have been cloned to overpro- breakthrough
duce a high quantity of a protein important for blood clotting in humans. It surgery, saving the
life of a three year
may soon be possible to clone extinct species of animals. old burn victim by
transplanting skin
Drawbacks of cloning animals may include the fact that most cloned species cells cloned from
are unable to develop into healthy animals. Dolly for example was only one the victim’s cells.
Pippie Kruger, the
of 277 cloned embryos. There have been significant health effects of cloning
burn survivor,
including increase in birth size and a variety of defects in vital organs such as initially had a 10%
the liver, brain and heart. chance of survival.
However, the
doctors obtained
Ethical biotechnology ESG74 some of her skin
cells, transported
them to a laboratory
• In medicine modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such in the USA, where
they were cloned in
areas as: drug production, pharmacogenomics (how a person’s genes
order to produce
affects their response to drugs), and genetic testing (or genetic screening): millions of extra
techniques in molecular biology detect genetic diseases. cells. These cells
were transplanted
• To test the developing foetus for Down syndrome, amniocentesis and
into Pippie,
chorionic villus sampling can be used. resulting in the
complete success of
her skin grafting
surgery.
5.6 The leaf as an organ ESG75

You have learnt about individual tissues found in plants and animals. We will
now look at how tissues join together to form organs. An organ is a collection
of tissues joined together as a structural unit in order to perform a common
function. In later chapters we will look at the various organs found in animals.
In this section, we will discuss how a plant leaf is an example of an organ. We
will present its structure with respect to its functions in photosynthesis, gaseous
exchange and transport.

Leaves are typically found in vascular plants, which have lignified tissues (xylem)
that enable them to conduct water. Leaves are usually flat and thin to allow for
maximum gaseous exchange and capture of light. The organisation of the leaf
has evolved to allow maximum exposure of chloroplasts to light, and to absorb
carbon dioxide. Leaves have stomata, pores found in the leaf epidermis, which
allow the plant to regulate the exchange of carbon dioxide, oxygen and water
vapour with the atmosphere. The shape and structure of leaves varies consid-
erably from one plant to another. This depends on the climate, available light
intensity, presence of grazing animals, nutrients and competition from other
plants. Leaves are either dorsiventral or isobilateral. Dorsiventral leaves have
both surfaces differing from each other in appearance and structure. Isobilat-
eral leaves have both surfaces looking the same. Leaves can also store food and
water and are modified to perform these functions.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 159

 Leaf structure ESG76

The leaf is a collection of tissues which include:

1. The epidermis which covers the upper and lower surfaces.

2. The mesophyll inside the leaf which is rich in chloroplasts.
3. The veins contain the vascular tissue (where xylem and phloem are
present).

1. Epidermis

Epidermal cells form the outer layer covering a leaf, separating internal tissues
from the external environment.

Epidermis tissue has several functions:

• protection against water loss via stomata and a waxy cuticle

• regulation of gaseous exchange
• secretion of metabolic compounds

2. Mesophyll cells

The mesophyll is located between the upper and lower layers of the leaf epider-
mis, and is mostly made up of parenchyma (ground tissue) or chlorenchyma
tissue. The mesophyll is the primary location for photosynthesis and is divided
into two layers, the upper palisade layer and the spongy mesophyll layer.

The upper palisade layer lies beneath the upper epidermis and consists of ver-
tically elongated cells that are tightly packed together to maximise the number
of cells exposed to sunlight. In addition, these cells contain many chloroplasts,
thus maximising their photosynthetic ability. The palisade layer thickness de-
pends on the extent of exposure to the sun. Leaves that are exposed to the sun
have a thicker palisade layer. Those that are typically found in the shade have
a thinner palisade layer.

Beneath the upper palisade layer is the spongy mesophyll. The cells in the
spongy mesophyll are slightly rounder and less densely packed and have air
spaces to allow for gaseous exchange.

3. Vascular Tissue

Vascular tissue is made up of the xylem and phloem vessels you learnt about
earlier in this chapter. Xylem transports water and minerals to the leaf. Phloem
transports dissolved sucrose made in the leaf out of its site of synthesis to
the rest of the leaf. Most leaves have a bundle sheath around the xylem and
phloem, consisting of sclerenchyma or collenchyma, for extra support.

160 5.6. The leaf as an organ

The figures below show the leaf and tissue structure of a dicot plant.

Figure 5.33: Leaf structure.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 161

FACT
You will learn more Transport of substances into and out of the leaf ESG77
about the transport
processes in plants
in: Support and
transport systems in The leaf is designed to transport water, sugars, carbon dioxide and oxygen
plants.
across its surface. Each of these involves separate processes and cells which we
will discuss below.

Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide

Stomata are the site of gaseous exchange in the leaf. There are two major
metabolic processes that take place in plants that involve the exchange of oxy-
gen and carbon dioxide:

• Photosynthesis: takes place during the day when the chloroplasts can ab-
sorb radiant energy from the sun. Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide
and releases oxygen as a by-product. Therefore, during daylight hours,
the concentration of carbon dioxide is low in the leaf and the concentra-
tion of oxygen is high. As a result, during the day, carbon dioxide enters
the leaf and oxygen is released.
• Cellular Respiration: occurs continuously throughout the day and night.
Cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide as a
waste product. During the day, the plant can use some of the oxygen
from photosynthesis for cellular respiration. During the night, when pho-
tosynthesis stops, the concentration of oxygen in the plant drops and the
concentration gradient switches: the concentration of carbon dioxide is
high and the concentration of oxygen is low. Therefore at night time,
oxygen enters the leaves, and carbon dioxide is released.

Movement of water into leaf

Water is constantly being lost by the leaf through transpiration. This results in
the cells in the mesophyll having a lower water concentration than the vascu-
lar bundles. Water thus moves down a concentration gradient from the xylem
vessel into the living cells of the mesophyll layer and to the surface of the
mesophyll cell walls. This causes water to move up from the stem by means
of transpirational pull. The movement of water is maintained because wa-
ter molecules constantly evaporate into leaf inter-cellular air space out of the
stomatal pore and into the atmosphere.

Movement of sugars

Chloroplasts found in the palisade layer capture radiant energy from the sun
to make glucose via photosynthesis. This glucose is used to make the simple
sugar sucrose. Sucrose is transported to the rest of the plant through the phloem
vessels present in the vascular tissue in the leaf. Plants convert sugars to starch
for long-term storage.

162 5.6. The leaf as an organ

Opening and closing of stomata

The opening and closing of the stomata is important for gaseous exchange,
transpiration and the movement of sugars. Stomata open when it is bright and
when there is high humidity. When water concentration in the soil is low,
indicating that the plant is dry, chemical changes in the plant result in the
closing of the stomata.

Activity: Examining leaf structure under a microscope

Aim:

To identify different tissues found in plant leaf.

Questions:

Study the image shown and answer the questions given below.

Figure A Figure B

1. Compare Figures A and B. Which of the numbered structures shown in B

can you identify from Figure A?
2. Which of the numbered structures shown in B are absent in A?
3. The image given in Figure A is of a Spiderworts leaf. They grow in a part
of Canada where the sun shines in the morning and it is cloudy in the
afternoon. Describe what changes you would expect to see to the struc-
tures in the plant leaf during the day. How would these changes compare
to a plant that grows during hot, sunny days and cold, dry nights?

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 163

 5.7 Summary ESG78

• Cells which are similar in structure group together to form tissues per-
forming a particular function. Tissues form organs which combine to
allow organisms to exist.
• Plant and animal cells have structures related to their functions.
• Plant tissues are broadly divided into Dividing or Meristematic and Per-
manent tissues.
• Meristematic cells are small, have high amounts of cytoplasm and a large
nucleus to assist in their role in cell division.
• Permanent tissues are further divided into simple permanent (which have
only one type of cell) and complex permanent (which have different types
of cell coming together to perform a particular function). The simple per-
manent tissues include (with their function in brackets): Epidermis (pro-
tection), Parenchyma (storage), Collenchyma (support) and Sclerenchyma
tissues (strength and structural support). Complex tissues are made up of
the xylem and phloem.
• Xylem tissue is important in the transport of water and mineral salts.
Phloem tissue is structured to allow the transport of organic compounds
required for the plant (typically in the form of sucrose). Together the
parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are referred to as ground
tissue. The xylem and phloem make up the vascular tissue.
• Animal tissues are made up of epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve
tissue.
• Epithelium is made up of flat squamous cells, cuboidal cells or columnar
cells in single or multiple layers. Epithelial cells are involves in secretion
of enzymes, protective substances such as mucus and they provide a
supportive function.
• Muscle tissue is made up of cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle and smooth
muscle. Cardiac and skeletal muscle are striated. Smooth muscle and
cardiac muscle are involuntary muscles whereas skeletal muscle is under
voluntary control.
• Connective tissues are composed of areolar and fibrous connective tis-
sues, cartilage, bone and blood. They provide strength and support, re-
duce friction and act as shock absorbers.
• Blood is made up of red blood cells (transport oxygen), white blood cells
(responsible for immune response) and platelets (important in blood clot-
ting).
• Nerve tissue is responsible for receiving stimuli from the environment
(sensory neurons), processing it (interneurons) and sending impulses to
muscles or glands (motor neurons) so that we can respond to the stimuli.
• Traditional healers and traditional medicine is an application of indige-
nous knowledge of plant and animal tissues.
• Modern Biotechnology is focused on a variety of applications of technol-
ogy.

164 5.7. Summary

 • Vaccines and antibiotics enhance the body’s immunity. Vaccines rely on
T-memory-cell derived immunity to fight subsequent infections.
• Immunity relies on the natural mechanisms (skin, mucus etc) as well as
cellular mechanisms (T-cells and B-cells) fighting viral and bacterial in-
fections.
• Blood transfusion is a way of replacing lost blood. It requires accurate
blood type matching.
• Cloning of plant tissues requires either a piece of the plant tissue through
vegetative propagation or chemical treatment to produce calluses in tis-
sue culture propagation.
• Cloning of animal tissues occurs through the process of reproductive
cloning. It can result in the replacement of a whole organism or, through
therapeutic cloning the creation of stem cells.
• There are broad legal and ethical questions regarding cloning of organ-
isms as well as the use of stem cells. These differ from country to country.

The leaf as an organ

• Plant leaf is an example of an organ, as it consists of a group of tissues

that form part of a structural unit performing a common function.
• Plant leaves are adapted to absorb light in order for photosynthesis to
occur as well as to manufacture sugars for transport to the rest of the
plant.
• The major processes for which leaves are therefore adapted are photo-
synthesis, transpiration and gaseous exchange. Leaves transport oxygen,
carbon dioxide, water and sucrose.
• Water is lost from the plant through transpiration out of stomata in the
leaf. The movement of carbon dioxide and oxygen is through diffusion
in and out of the leaf stomata.
• Sugar manufactured in the leaf is transported through the phloem vessel.
• Stomata open and close in response to a variety of environmental stimuli.

Exercise 5 – 1: End of chapter exercises

1. Answer the following questions based on the drawings below.

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 165

 a) Provide labels for 1, 2, 3 and 4.
b) Which tissue, A or B, is found in the rib cage?
c) Which tissue, A or B, is found in the lining of blood vessels?
2. Tissues come together to form a/an
a) organ
b) organ system
c) body system
d) organelle
3. What kind of tissue can parenchyma tissue be described as being?
a) simple tissue
b) complex tissue
c) xylem
d) phloem
4. Which of the following is not a simple tissue?
a) xylem
b) parenchyma
c) collenchyma
d) sclerenchyma
5. What is the key difference between meristematic and permanent tissue?
a) the ability to conduct photosynthesis
b) the ability to divide
c) the ability to move
d) the complexity to perform a function
6. Which type of tissue has lignified walls?
a) parenchyma
b) collenchyma
c) sclerenchyma
d) cambium
7. Explain the statement ‘Tissues exhibit division of labour’. Give examples.
8. Why do plants have more dead tissues compared to animals?
9. List the characteristics of meristematic tissues.
10. Which tissues are responsible for secondary growth in plants?
11. What are the key features which allow you to tell that a tissue type is
collenchyma?
12. Thando was shown two slides of plant tissues: parenchyma and scle-
renchyma. Which of the features given below would be crucial in identi-
fying sclerenchyma and why?

166 5.7. Summary

 a) location of nucleus
b) size of cells
c) thickness of cell walls
d) position of vacuoles
13. Why do meristematic cells lack vacuoles?
14. Considering the plant leaf as an organ, describe the main tissues that
come together to form the organ. What is the role of each tissue type?
Why are they all important in the functioning of the organ?

Check answers online with the exercise code

below or click on ’show me the answer’.
1a. 2CRC 1b. 2CRD 1c. 2CRF 2. 2CRG 3. 2CRH 4. 2CRJ
5. 2CRK 6. 2CRM 7. 2CRN 8. 2CRP 9. 2CRQ 10. 2CRR
11. 2CRS 12. 2CRT 13. 2CRV 14. 2CRW

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 167

 CHAPTER 6

Support and transport systems in

plants

6.1 Overview 170

6.2 Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants 171
6.3 Transpiration 181
6.4 Wilting and guttation 190
6.5 Uptake of water and minerals in the roots 192
6.6 Summary 198
 6 Support and transport systems in plants

6.1 Overview ESG79

Introduction ESG7B

In the previous chapter, the structure of plant and animal tissue was introduced.
This chapter focuses on the plant tissues that transport food and water around
the plant. As you have previously learnt, plant leaves use sunlight, carbon
dioxide and water to make food (sugars) during photosynthesis. In this chapter
we will examine how the phloem and xylem tissue transport food and water
within the plant. Which cells are responsible for moving food throughout the
plant? How are the tissues adapted for their functions in transporting either
water or food? What do these cells look like under the microscope?

Throughout this chapter we will emphasise the relationship between structure

and function. We will study how different types of leaves are structurally
adapted to minimise water loss. We will also learn how stomata are able to
respond to environmental conditions in order to regulate the rate of water loss
from the leaf during transpiration.

Key concepts

• The plant is made up of the root and stem where tissues with dividing
(meristematic) cells are contained.
• Secondary growth of trees is measurable by observing the annual rings
within tree trunks and can be used to infer climate change.
• Transpiration, the loss of water vapour from plant leaves, is influenced by
factors such as temperature, light intensity, wind and humidity.
• Wilting is a processes that results from loss of water through transpiration
and guttation is a process that results from high root pressure.
• Water and minerals are taken up into the xylem tissue present in roots
and transported to leaves in the plant.
• Manufactured food (sugar) is translocated, via phloem tissue, from sites
of manufacture (in the leaves) to other parts of the plant where sugars are
used or stored.

atom →molecule→cell→tissue→organ→system→organism→ecosystem

170 6.1. Overview

6.2 Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants ESG7C

Differences between Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons

ESG7D

All plants are classified as producing seeds or not producing seeds. Those
that produce seeds are divided into flowering (angiosperms) and non-flowering
(gymnosperms). Flowering plants are further divided into monocotyledonous
and dicotyledonous (monocot and dicot) plants.

Figure 6.1: Flowering plants such as the Figure 6.2: Gymnosperms are non-
acacia tree. flowering plants such as pine trees or
”black spruce” shown above.

In angiosperms, the cotyledon is part of the seed of the plant. The number
of cotyledons (mono- or di-) is used to classify flowering plants. Monocotyle-
donous plants have one cotyledon, dicotyledonous plants have two. Plants
belonging to each group have a number of features in common, such as the
leaf and root structure, the strength of the stem, the flower structure and flower
parts. Some differences between monocots and dicots are summarised in Fig-
ure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: A comparison between monocots and dicots.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 171

 In addition to the differences listed above, monocots and dicots have important
differences in their roots. Monocots have a network of fibrous roots and dicots
have tap roots.

In the previous chapter you learnt about the key plant tissues involved in sup-
port and transport functions, namely the xylem, phloem, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma. Recall that these tissues are involved in both transport and sup-
porting roles in plants. In different parts of the plant, tissues are arranged dif-
ferently. In this section, we will study the overall structure (or anatomy) of
dicotyledonous plants.

Root anatomy ESG7F

Root systems are responsible for the following functions:

• absorption of water and organic compounds.

• anchoring of the plant body to the ground.
• storage of food and nutrients.

When a seed germinates, the first structure to appear is the root or the radicle.
This becomes the primary root. Other roots that branch out of the primary root
are called secondary roots (Figure 6.4). The growing root tip is protected by
the root cap as it moves through the coarse soil. The root cap is slimy in nature
to facilitate easy movement. Above the root cap is the apical meristem. In
this meristematic region, cells divide continuously by mitosis to produce new
cells. In addition to mitosis, newly divided cells undergo elongation in the
same direction of root lengthening.

Figure 6.4: Primary and secondary root system of a cotton plant.

Above the region of cell elongation, thousands of tiny root hairs are found
in the root hair region. The function of the root hairs is to absorb water and
dissolved mineral salts from the soil. As the root grows, it thickens and may
produce lateral roots in the mature region as shown in Figure 6.5.

172 6.2. Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants

 Figure 6.5: The dicotyledonous root.

There are two major types of root system:

1. Taproot system: root system comprising one primary root and many sec-
ondary roots branching off the primary root. Examples of taproots include
carrot and beetroots where the roots serve a storage function. Taproots
are found in dicotyledonous plants.
2. Fibrous root system: system with no dominant primary root but many
secondary roots of similar size. Fibrous (adventitious) root systems are
common in monocotyledons. Examples include coconuts and grasses.

Tissue distribution in the root

The different tissues in the root have a distribution which is common to all
dicotyledonous plants and is shown in Figure 6.6.

Figure 6.6: Dicotyledonous root profile showing the major tissues found in the root
system which also aid in transport.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 173

 The epidermis is a single layer of cells on the outside that protects the inner
tissues. The epidermal layer of the root has no waterproof cuticle as this would
prevent the absorption of water. Structurally, the cells of the root hair (shown
in Figure 6.7) have large central vacuoles and cover a large surface area which
allows water to enter these cells readily via osmosis.

Figure 6.7: Diagram of a root hair cell.

The cortex consists of parenchyma cells. These large, thin-walled cells have
leucoplasts to store starch and large vacuoles to store water and dissolved sug-
ars. Intercellular spaces between parenchyma cells facilitate the movement of
water from the root hair cells on the outside of the plant to the xylem on the
inside of the plant.

The endodermis forms the innermost layer of the cortex. It is a layer of tightly-
packed, modified parenchyma cells. The radial and transverse cell walls are
thickened with a water-impermeable, waxy suberin layer, known as the Cas-
parian strip. This layer helps to regulate the flow of water from the cortex into
the stele, rather than allowing the water to spread to all the root cells. To aid
in directing water, there are also thin-walled passage cells in the endodermis,
directly opposite the xylem, allowing water to move into the xylem rapidly.

The stele, or vascular cylinder (responsible for transporting water and miner-
als), consists of the pericycle, phloem, cambium and xylem. The pericycle
is the outermost layer of the stele, and consists of one or more rows of thin-
walled meristematic parenchyma cells. It is in close contact with the xylem
and phloem tissues of the root. It functions in the formation of lateral roots.

The phloem tissue is responsible for transporting food from the leaves of the
plant to the cells of the root. The cambium separates the xylem and phloem
tissues from each other. This is the area where secondary growth of xylem and
phloem tissues occur. Xylem tissue is responsible for transporting water and
dissolved mineral salts to the xylem tissue of the stem and leaves.

174 6.2. Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants

These cells are strengthened with lignin for support. The pits in the cell walls FACT
allow for the lateral movement of water. Figure 6.8 shows stained root tissues Confocal
microscopy is an
visualised by confocal microscopy. It shows the internal structure of root cells,
advanced kind of
including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis and pericycle. microscopy which
allows us to stain
various cell types or
structures with
different colours,
and visualise them
in 3D, using special
lasers and computer
software.

Figure 6.8: Stained root tissues as visualised by confocal microscopy. Colour key:
brown, epidermis; red, cortex; blue, endodermis; green, pericycle.

Stem anatomy ESG7G

Stems usually grow above the soil surface and towards the light from the sun.
Depending on the hardness of the stem, we can distinguish between herba-
ceous stems, which are leafy non-woody structures, and woody stems. Woody
stems are harder than herbaceous stems.

Stems have four main functions.

• Support for the plant as it holds leaves, flowers and fruits upright above
the ground. Stems keep the leaves in the light and provide an attachment
for flowers and fruits.
• Transport of water, mineral salts and sugars between roots and shoots in
the xylem and phloem.
• Storage of nutrients.
• Production of new living tissue: stems contain meristematic tissue which
generates new tissue.

The main stem develops from the plumule of the embryo and the lateral branches
develop from the buds. Nodes and internodes are regions found on the stem.
Nodes are the regions from which leaves and lateral branches develop, and the
regions between nodes are known as internodes (shown in Figure 6.9). Stom-
ata, or pores, can be found in stems of younger plants. We will subsequently
discuss the tissues present in the dicot stem. The trunk of a tree (shown in
Figure 6.10) is the stem.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 175

 Figure 6.9: Stem showing internode and Figure 6.10: Photo of a redwood. The
nodes plus leaf petioles. trunk of the tree is its stem.

The internal structure of the dicotyledonous stem

Figure 6.11 shows a schematic arrangement of tissues in a dicotyledonous stem.

Details of each tissue type are described in this section.

Epidermis: A single layer of cells that covers the stem, and is in turn cov-
ered by a waxy cuticle. The waterproof cuticle helps prevent water loss and
thus prevents the inner tissues drying out. Since the function of the epidermis
is to protect underlying tissues, epidermal cells are tightly packed and have
thickened walls. The epidermis may contain hair-like outgrowths known as tri-
chomes, and stomata with guard cells. Stomata present in the epidermis allow
for transpiration and gaseous exchange for respiration and photosynthesis.

Cortex: A region which comprises of collenchyma and parenchyma.

• Collenchyma: A few layers of living cells that lie under the epidermis.
These cells are not lignified but do have unevenly thickened cell walls.
Collenchyma cells are thickened in the corners, but thin-walled else-
where. The thickened corners strengthen the stem and provide support,
while the thin-walled sections allow for flexibility in the wind. Col-
lenchyma cells contain chloroplasts which produce food for the plant
during photosynthesis.
• Parenchyma: Found beneath the collenchyma cells and makes up the
bulk of the cortex. The cells are thin-walled, and there are intercellular
spaces which are important in gaseous exchange. Parenchyma stores
synthesised organic food (mostly starch) produced elsewhere in the plant.

176 6.2. Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants

 Figure 6.11: Cross-section of a dicotyledonous stem showing tissue distribution.

Vascular cylinder or stele: Comprised of the pericycle, vascular bundles and

pith

• Pericycle: Commonly found in roots and, in lower vascular plants, also

in stems. In higher vascular plants, however, a distinct layer of cells may
not be present. The pericycle, if present, may be composed of either
thin walled parenchyma cells or sclerenchyma cells with relatively thin
or heavily thickened walls. In plants undergoing secondary growth, the
pericycle contributes to the vascular cambium often diverging into a cork
cambium.
• Vascular bundles: Characteristically organised in a ring inside the peri-
cycle of the dicot plant. Mature vascular bundles are made up of water-
conducting xylem, cambium, and food-conducting phloem. The phloem
is located on the outside of the bundle and the xylem towards the centre
(see Figure 6.11). The phloem and xylem is separated by meristematic
tissue known as cambium, which is responsible for secondary thicken-
ing. Xylem has lignified cell walls which helps it fulfil its two important
roles, namely; strengthening and supporting the stem, and transporting
water and minerals from the root system to the leaves. The function of
phloem is to transport synthesised food from the leaves to other parts of
the plant.
• Pith (or medulla): Occupies the large, central part of the stem. The pith is
made up of thin-walled parenchyma cells containing intercellular spaces.
Where the parenchyma extends between vascular bundles as thin bands
it is known as medullary rays, and can be continuous with the pith and
cortex of the parenchyma. The cells of the pith store water and starch,
while the intercellular spaces allow for gaseous exchange. The medullary
rays facilitate transport of substances from xylem and phloem to the inner
and outer parts of the stem.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 177

 Investigation: Examining the structure of the root and stem

Aim:
To examine the structure of the root and stem.

Apparatus:

• light microscope
• scalpel or knife
• celery stalk (stem)
• carrot (root)
• glass slide
• iodine solution (stain) or water
• cover slip
• dissecting needle or tweezers
• paper and pencil
• blotting paper or paper towel or tissue
• for variation you can also try using other vegetables

Method:
Prepare a temporary mount using the irrigation method:

1. Cut a very thin slice (cross section) from the middle of the celery stem and
the carrot root. Although you will not be able to see microscopic details
of the carrot tissue under a microscope, the differentiation by colour will
be evident.
2. Place this section on a glass slide, in the centre.
3. Add a drop of iodine solution on top of the sample to stain it. This makes
it more visible under the microscope. Water can be used if iodine is not
available.
4. Place the coverslip next to the droplet, as shown in the diagram, then
lower it slowly onto the glass slide. This will prevent bubbles forming
under the coverslip. You can use a dissecting needle to lower the the
coverslip into position. The drop will spread outward and suspend the
sample between the slide and the coverslip.

178 6.2. Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants

 5. Call your teacher.
6. Switch on the microscope making sure the lowest objective is in position
(the 4 X objective).
7. Place your slide on the stage.
8. Focus the image under the 4 X objective (lowest objective) and view the
structure of the celery stem. Switch to the 10 X objective to look a little
more closely. To see details of the structure of plant tissue, use the 40 X
objective. Carefully observe all of the parts and different tissues.
9. Once you are able to see specific tissue types, call your teacher.
10. Make a biological drawing of your specimen as viewed under the micro-
scope. Take note of the magnification and draw a scale bar. Label your
diagram according to the tissues you have learnt about.

Secondary growth ESG7H

Plants, like other living organisms need to grow, and they do this by mitosis.
Cell growth is limited to the specialised cells that make up meristematic tissue.
Meristematic tissue consists of small cells that are unspecialised. These cells
divide by mitosis to form new cells that can differentiate i.e. undergo changes
in their structure. When groups of cells differentiate they form specialised tissue
(e.g. xylem, phloem, epidermal cells). There are different types of meristematic
tissue:

• Primary meristematic tissue is found in the tips of roots, stems and buds.
When the cells divide, new cells are produced which causes the plant to
grow in length. This is referred to as primary growth.
• Secondary meristematic tissue originates from permanent tissue, usu-
ally parenchyma tissue which divides by mitosis. Cambium is secondary
meristematic tissue that is found in roots and stems. When these cells
divide by mitosis it results in the plant becoming wider. This is called
secondary growth.

Secondary growth is seen clearly if you examine the stump of a tree. During ev-
ery growing season the stem of a plant increases in width. This is known as sec-
ondary thickening. Towards the end of the first year of growth, the parenchyma
cells between the vascular bundles become meristematic. This means that they
actively start dividing by mitosis, and link up with the cambium that occurs
in the vascular bundles to form a cambium ring in the stem (see Figure 6.12).
The cells in the cambium ring start dividing to form secondary phloem (on the
outside of the cambium ring) and secondary xylem (on the inside of the cam-
bium ring). Each year another ring of secondary phloem and secondary xylem
is formed, making the stem grow wider.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 179

FACT
The vascular
cambium and cork
cambium are
different and should
not be confused!

FACT
Watch this video to
learn about the
oldest trees on
Earth!
See video: 2CRX

Figure 6.12: Process of secondary thickening in stems.

It is not possible to see the layers of secondary phloem but the secondary xylem
layers are visible. These form rings called annual rings which can be used to
work out the age of a plant.

As new rings are formed each year, the older rings are pushed inward and the
xylem vessels collapse due to the pressure. The wood in the centre becomes
denser and harder than the wood at the surface and is called heartwood. The
youngest annual rings found on the outside transport water. This wood is not as
dense and is called sapwood. The light-coloured rings are called spring wood.
They are formed during spring and summer when the growing conditions are
favourable. These rings are therefore relatively broad and light in colour as the
xylem cell walls are thin. The dark-coloured rings are called autumn wood.
They are formed during autumn and winter when the growing conditions are
unfavourable. The rings are therefore relatively narrow and dark in colour as
the xylem cell walls are thick. Rings may be thicker in some years than in
others, depending on the amount of rain and nutrients received.

Figure 6.13: The annual rings in a tree trunk give a measure of the tree’s age as well as
the environmental conditions of the tree’s growth.

180 6.2. Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants

There is another type of cambium in plants called cork cambium. Cork cam- FACT
bium forms when an outer layer of parenchyma in the cortex becomes meris- Turgidity, or turgor
pressure, refers to
tematic and produces cortex cells to the inside and cork cells to the outside.
the water content of
This forms the dry outer cells of the bark on a stem. cells and how this
lends structural
support to the plant.
Investigation: Observing annual tree rings to assess age and climatic condi- When cells absorb
tions water, the vacuoles
fill up and the
cytoplasm
increases, pushing
Aim: against the cell
membranes, which
Background in turn push against
the rigid cell walls.
This makes the cells
Every year a tree forms a new layer of xylem around the trunk. This forms tree rigid, or turgid.
rings, which are visible as circles in a cross section of a tree that has been cut
down. Each tree ring, or wood layer, consists of two colours of wood; light
wood that grows in spring and summer and dark wood that grows in autumn
and winter. Tree rings can be counted to give you a rough estimate of the age
of a tree. Occasionally a tree will form many rings in one year or miss forming
rings in a year. The width of the tree rings is greater in years where good
growing conditions occur. In years with droughts or low temperatures, the
trees will produce narrower rings. Therefore, by looking at the tree rings you
can get an idea of the weather affecting a tree in a particular year. Scientists can
use this information to help determine the weather patterns of the past as well
as events such as forest fires, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. The study
of past events using the growth rings of trees is known as dendrochronology (
dendros = tree, chronos = time).

Method:

1. Examine a section of a tree trunk/stem provided by your teacher and

count the tree rings, starting with the innermost ring. Measure the width
of each ring using a ruler, or make a note of whether a ring is narrow or
wide. Make a note of any scars caused by events such as fires or pests.
2. Draw a bar graph showing the width of your tree rings for every year of
the tree’s life.
3. How old is this tree? What can you say about the climatic conditions
throughout the life of this tree?

6.3 Transpiration ESG7J

Transpiration is a process that involves loss of water vapour through the stomata
of plants. Transpiration is thought to be a ’necessary cost or evil’ to allow the
plant to absorb water from the soil. It is an inevitable process.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 181

FACT Transpiration is important in plants for three major reasons:
Capillary action
occurs when the 1. Cooling of the plant: the loss of water vapour from the plant cools down
adhesion of water
the plant when the weather is very hot.
molecules to the
walls of the vessel is 2. The transpirational pull: when the plant loses water through transpiration
stronger than the from the leaves, water and mineral salts from the stem and roots moves,
cohesive forces or is ‘pulled’, upwards into the leaves. Water and is therefore taken up
between the water
molecules. Have
from the soil by osmosis and finally exits the plants through the stomata.
you ever seen fluid 3. Plant structure: young plants or plants without woody stems require wa-
in a drinking straw ter for structural support. Transpiration helps maintain the turgidity in
move higher than plants.
the level of the fluid
in the glass? This
happens due to Transpirational pull: results from the evaporation of water from the surfaces of
capillary action. the mesophyll layer in the leaf to the atmosphere, through the stomata. Evap-
The narrower the
oration of water from the leaves surface causes a negative pressure (suction
straw, the greater
the capillary action, force) in the xylem that pulls water from the roots and soil. This results in water
and therefore, the being drawn up the xylem vessel.
higher the fluid will
rise in the straw. Transpirational pull draws water from the roots to the leaves because of the
effects of capillary action. The primary forces that create the capillary action
FACT are adhesion and cohesion. Adhesion is the attraction that occurs between
Cohesion refers to
the intermolecular, water and the surface of the xylem, and cohesion is the attraction between
attractive forces that water molecules. We will revisit transpirational pull and capillarity later in the
hold molecules in chapter when we examine how water is transported in the plant.
solids and liquids
together. Imagine a
drop of water on a Factors affecting the rate of transpiration ESG7K
waxy surface like
wax paper. Even if
the drop slides and
There is a close inter-relationship between transpiration and leaf structure. The
rolls around, the
water molecules rate at which transpiration occurs refers to the amount of water lost by plants
will stay together over a given time period. Plants regulate the rate of transpiration by opening
due to the cohesive and closing of stomata (Figure 6.14).
forces. Adhesion is
the ability of a
substance to stick to
an unlike substance.
If you were to take
the same piece of
wax paper and turn
it upside down,
some water droplets
would still adhere to
the paper. This
indicates that there
must be an
attraction between

Figure 6.14: The opening and closing of stomata. Different environmental conditions
trigger both the opening and closing of stomata.

182 6.3. Transpiration

There are, however, a number of external factors that affect the rate of transpi- the water and the
ration, namely: temperature, light intensity, humidity, and wind. wax paper.
However, in this
case the water-water
Temperature cohesive force is
stronger than the
Temperature affects the transpiration rate in two ways. Firstly, at warmer tem- adhesive force
between the
peratures water molecules move faster, and the rate of evaporation from stom-
molecules of the
ata is therefore much faster. Secondly, the water-holding capacity of warm air wax paper and the
is greater than that of cold air. Assuming that cold air and warm air contain water.
the same amount of water, the cold air may be saturated, and therefore have a
shallow water concentration gradient, while the warm air may will be able to
hold more water vapour, and will therefore have a steeper water concentration
gradient.

Figure 6.15: Temperature vs transpiration rate.

Light intensity

At high light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis increases. As photosynthesis

increases, the amount of stored glucose in the guard cells increases. This lowers
the water potential of the leaf (i.e. the contents of the leaf are less dilute). As
the water potential decreases, more water enters the guard cells making them
more turgid. The turgor pressure of the guard cells leads to an opening up of
stomata resulting in transpiration.

Figure 6.16: Transpiration vs light intensity.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 183

 Relative humidity

The amount of water vapour in the air is referred to as the humidity. Water
always moves down a concentration gradient. Therefore when the humidity
is high (lots of water vapour in the air) the water potential gradient between
the inside of the leaf stomata and the atmosphere is shallow and the rate of
transpiration will be low. However, if the atmosphere is dry, there will be a
steep water concentration gradient between the humid inside of the stomata
and the outside air and the rate of transpiration will therefore be fast.

Figure 6.17: Transpiration vs humidity.

Wind

When water is lost from the leaf it forms a thin layer outside the leaf. This re-
duces the water potential between the leaf and the atmosphere outside. When
there is wind, this layer is blown away, thus maintaining the water potential
gradient across the leaf.

Figure 6.18: Wind speed vs transpiration.

184 6.3. Transpiration

 FACT
Measuring the rate of transpiration ESG7M A potometer
provides an indirect
measurement of the
To measure the rate of transpiration we use a piece of equipment called a po- transpiration rate –
tometer. A potometer measures how factors such as light, temperature, humid- it measures how fast
ity, light intensity and wind will affect the rate of transpiration. The main type water is absorbed,
of potometer is the ’bubble’ potometer shown in Figure 6.19. The potometer which is related to
how fast water
measures the amount of water lost from a leafy shoot by monitoring the rate at vapour is being lost.
which an air bubble moves along the narrow tube as the leafy shoot sucks up It cannot measure
water to replace the water lost by the transpiration of the plant. As the leafy how fast water
twig transpires, the air bubble moves to towards the plant. The quicker the air vapour is being
given off directly.
bubble moves, the faster the leafy twig is transpiring.

Figure 6.19: Potometer measures the rate of transpiration.

Investigation: Determining the effect of environmental conditions on tran-

spiration rate using a potometer

Aim:

To determine the effect of environmental conditions on transpiration rate using

a simple potometer.

Apparatus:

• drinking straw or clear plastic tubing

• soft green leafy shoot
• Vaseline
• marking pen

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 185

 • play dough / putti/ Prestick
• plastic bag
• elastic band
• ruler

Method:

A potometer measures the rate of transpiration by measuring the movement of

water into a plant. The following experiment uses a simple hand made potome-
ter. The class will be divided into four groups. Each group will investigate a
different factor and then all the results can be shared at the end of the investi-
gation.

Perform the following steps under water:

1. Cut the stem of the leafy shoot (at an angle to increase the surface area)
under water . The reason we cut it under water is to prevent air bubbles
entering the xylem vessel. You must use a very sharp knife or new scalpel
and cut at an angle in order to increase surface area for water uptake in
the xylem. Florists who cut plants before immersing them in water follow
the same procedure for this reason.
2. Test to make sure the stem of the leafy twig will fit snugly into the top of
the straw.
3. Remove the leafy shoot from the straw and set aside, keeping the stem
submerged, and the leaves above water.
4. Fill the straw with water. Place your finger over one end of the straw to
stop the water from running out.
5. Put the leafy shoot into the open end and seal it with play dough/ putti/
Prestick while removing it from water keeping your finger on the straw.

Perform the following steps above water:

6. Seal with Vaseline. Make sure it is air tight and water tight. If not, all the
water will run out when you take your finger off the straw.
7. Mark the water level on the straw.
8. Place your potometer under one of the following conditions for one hour:

• as is, in a warm, sunny place (no wind)

• as is, in a warm, windy place
• with a plastic bag tied around the leaf, in a warm, sunny place
• a shady place.

9. Every 10 minutes use a marking pen to mark the change in water level
on the straw. Continue taking measurements for 1 hour.
10. Measure the distance the water moves during each time interval.

186 6.3. Transpiration

Results:

Each of the four groups that investigated different environmental conditions

should contribute their results for the final analysis.

1. Draw a table and record the class’ results.

2. Plot a bar graph to compare the total distances the water moved in the
different straws in 1 hour under the four different environmental condi-
tions.
3. At the end of the experiments, all students must plot the following line
graphs:
a) the effect of temperature on the rate of transpiration
b) the effect of light intensity on the rate of transpiration
c) the effect of relative humidity on the rate of transpiration
d) the effect of wind on the rate of transpiration

Observations:

Record your observation from the table, bar graph and line graphs.

Conclusions:

1. What can you conclude from this investigation?

2. Give two ways in which you can improve your experimental results.

Questions:

1. Why is it important to cut the stem at an angle under the water?

2. Which part of the stem does the straw represent?
3. Which four factors are you investigating?
4. Under which condition is the highest rate of transpiration?
5. Name one possible error that could have occurred in your investigation.
6. What are the potential limitations of this investigation?

Investigation: Determining the effect of light intensity on transpiration

Aim:

To determine the effect of light intensity on transpiration.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 187

 Apparatus:

• plants
• plastic bag
• piece of string
• graduated measuring cylinder

Method:

1. Use at least three plants of the same species and as close to the same size
as possible (think of why this might be important).
2. Ensure that all three plants are exposed to the same amount of light.
3. Use clear plastic bags to completely cover all the leaves of each plant.
4. Tie the bottom of the plastic around the main stem of the plant, allowing
the water lost from the plant to collect inside the bag. Try not to crush
the leaves of the plant with the bag.
5. Place the bags on the plants early in the morning. Leave the bags on all
day and check for signs of water drops inside. If there are water drops,
shake the bag so that the water drops to the bottom of the bag.
6. At the end of the day, carefully remove the bags to ensure that you do not
lose any water. It will help if you tilt the plant slightly while removing the
bags.
7. Collect the water inside a measuring cylinder and measure how much
water the plant has lost.
8. Tie a new plastic bag around the plant and leaver overnight. item The
following morning, collect and measure the water that was released by
the plant overnight.

Results:

1. Record the amount of water lost during the day and during the night.
2. Using the three plants, figure out the average water loss for each time
period.
3. Plot a bar graph comparing the average amount of water loss in the day
and night.

Observations:

Write down anything you observed about the plants, the plastic bags and the
rate of water loss from the plant.

Conclusions:

What can you conclude regarding the rate of transpiration at different light
intensities? Was there higher or lower water loss when you left the plant
overnight compared to when you monitored it throughout the day?

188 6.3. Transpiration

Questions:

1. How can you improve this experiment to determine the effects of different
light intensities on transpiration?
2. In this experiment what are the key variables we are controlling for? Have
we properly controlled for these?

Advantages of transpiration Disadvantages of transpiration

Cools the plant down. Excessive water loss causes the
plant to wilt.
Assists in the transport of water
from the soil.
Important for transport of water
through the xylem.
Regulates the concentration of cell
sap.
Distribution of salts and minerals
in the plant.

Table 6.1: Table comparing the advantages and disadvantages of transpiration.

Structural adaptations of plants to reduce rate of transpira-

tion ESG7N

When the rate of transpiration is too high, it can have detrimental effects on
the plant, as you will see in the next section on wilting and guttation. For this
reason, plants have developed structural adaptations to minimise the amount
of water loss.

• Position of stomata: Stomata are found on both surfaces of the leaf but
there are usually more on the ventral (lower) surface of the leaf. This
means that less water vapour is lost because the ventral side of the leaf is
in the shade and therefore does not get as hot.
• Sunken stomata: Some plants such as xerophytes have sunken stomata as
a way of preventing water loss. Xerophytes (pronounced ”zero-phytes”)
are plants that are normally found in hot, dry areas such as deserts. The
sunken stomata creates a small pocket of moist air. The high humidity in
the air pocket reduces the water potential gradient between the leaf air
spaces and the exterior, and therefore decreases the rate of transpiration.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 189

 • Thickened cuticle: Some plants that
occur in dry places have a thick
cuticle that reduces transpiration.
• Hairs on leaves: Hairs trap a small
layer of water vapour that works in
three ways to reduce transpiration:
– creates a pocket of moist air to
reduce the water potential
gradient.
– increases the sheen on leaves to
make them more reflective.
Figure 6.20: Desert plants like cactus
– the combination of the above have thick cuticles to avoid water loss.
effects result in a cooling effect
that also decreases
transpiration.
• Reduction of leaf size: Small leaves
have a smaller surface area for
transpiration to occur.
• Leaf spines: Some plants have spines
instead of leaves. Spines usually
have thicker cuticles and a very
small surface area, which decreases Figure 6.21: Hairy leaves to trap wa-
transpiration. ter.
• Leaf arrangement: Vertical leaf
arrangement (like proteas) decrease
the surface area exposed to the sun
in the heat of the day, In rosette
arrangements the upper leaves shield
the lower leaves from the Sun.
• Rolling of leaves: When leaves roll
up, water vapour gets trapped in the
tunnel made by the leaf, therefore
reducing the water potential
Figure 6.22: Spiny leaves have a small
gradient, and therefore reducing the surface area to decrease transpiration.
rate of transpiration.

6.4 Wilting and guttation ESG7P

We just discussed transpiration, and how leaves are constantly losing water
vapour to the environment. However, what happens when there is not enough
water in the soil to replace the water that was lost? Similarly, what happens
when there is too much water? In the next section we discuss wilting, and why
plants wilt and get ‘floppy’ in hot weather or after a long drought. We will
also look at ways that plants can rid themselves of extra water when there is
too much water in the environment and the plant has to cope with high root
pressure and a low transpiration rate.

190 6.4. Wilting and guttation

Wilting ESG7Q

Plants need water to maintain turgor pressure. Turgor pressure is what provides
the plant with much of its structural support. Have a look at Figure 6.23 which
shows the effect of osmosis on the turgidity of cells.

Figure 6.23: Cells in solutions with different concentrations

Wilting refers to the loss of rigidity or structure of non-woody parts of plants
(Figure 6.24). It occurs when turgidity of plant cells is lost. When a cell absorbs
water, the cell membrane pushes against the cell wall. The rigid cell wall
pushes back on the cell making the cell turgid. If there is not enough water
in the plant, the large central vacuole of the cell shrinks and the cytoplasm
decreases, resulting in decreased pressure being exerted on the cell membrane,
and in turn, on the cell wall. This results in the cell becoming flaccid (floppy).
When the cells of a plant are flaccid, the entire plant begins to wilt. Wilting
occurs due to lower availability of water which may be due to:

• Drought conditions: where the soil moisture drops below conditions that
allow plants to grow.
• Low temperatures: which prevent the plants vascular transport system
from functioning;
• High salinity (salt concentration): which causes water to diffuse from
plant cells to the soil, thus inducing shrinking of cells.
• Bacterial or fungal infections: that block the plant’s vascular system.

Figure 6.24: Crops wilt due to a lack of Figure 6.25: Guttation in plant leaves
water.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 191

 Guttation ESG7R

Guttation is the ”oozing out” or exuding of drops of water on the tips or edges
of leaves of some vascular plants. An example of guttation is visible in Figure
6.25.

Below is an explanation of how guttation occurs:

• At night, when it is dark, less transpiration occurs since the stomata are
closed.
• When soil moisture is very high, water will enter the plant roots because
the water potential of the roots is lower than that of the surrounding soil.
• Thus, water accumulates in the plant, resulting in root pressure.
• The root pressure forces some water to exit the leaf tip or edge structures
called hydathodes or water glands, forming drops.
• Root pressure is what drives the flow of water out of the plant leaves,
rather than transpirational pull.

For guttation to occur there must be a high water content in the soil to create the
root pressure. The transpiration rate must be slow in order for the root pressure
to be higher than the transpirational pull. Guttation must not be confused
with transpiration. Table 6.2 highlights the differences between guttation and
transpiration.

Guttation Transpiration
Occurs early morning and at night Occurs during the day when it is
hot
Takes place through hydathodes Takes place through the stomata
Water is lost in liquid form through Water is lost as vapour via the
the hydathodes stomata
Caused by root pressure Caused by high water potential
Water droplets are found on the Water vapour transpiration takes
margin of the leaf place mostly in the lower surface
of the leaf

Table 6.2: Table comparing guttation and transpiration.

6.5 Uptake of water and minerals in the roots

ESG7S

In the first section of this chapter, we looked at the structure of the dicotyle-
donous root and stem and compared the different cells in the specialised tis-
sues of the plant root and stem. Now we will look at how these specialised
cells help the plant to absorb water from the soil and transport it to the stem,
where it can then be transported to the rest of the plant.

192 6.5. Uptake of water and minerals in the roots

Movement of water through the dicotyledonous root ESG7T

Water is found in the spaces between the soil particles. Water and mineral
salts first enter through the cell wall and cell membrane of the root hair cell
by osmosis. Root hair cells are outgrowths at the tips of plants’ roots (Figure
6.26). They function solely to take up water and mineral salts. Root hair cells
do not perform photosynthesis, and do not contain chloroplasts as they are un-
derground and not exposed to sunlight. These cells have large vacuoles which
allow storage of water and mineral salts. Their small diameter (5-17 microme-
tres) and greater length (1500 micrometres) ensure they have a large surface
area over which to absorb water and mineral salts. Water fills the vacuole of
the root hair cell.

Figure 6.26: Step-by-step transport of water in plants, from the roots to the xylem.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 193

FACT The following list summarises how the root hair is adapted to absorb water from
Learn how water is the soil:
transported from the
soil to the leaves of • There are many, elongated root hairs to increase the total root surface
a plant.
See video: 2CRY area for water absorption.
• They have thin walls to speed up the intake of water by osmosis.
FACT • They have large vacuoles to absorb water quickly and transport it to the
Learn how next cells.
transpiration helps
• The vacuoles have salts, which speed up water absorption from soil wa-
with the transport of
water to the leaves. ter.
See video: 2CRZ • Root hairs do not have cuticles, as this would prevent water absorption.

FACT Water can now move from the root hair cells and across the parenchyma cells of
Capillarity: refers to
the cortex in two major ways. Some water passes through the cells by osmosis.
the ability of a
liquid to flow Most water travels either in, or between the cell walls (of the parenchyma cells)
through narrow by simple diffusion. The water must pass through the endodermis to enter the
spaces (capillary xylem. Once water is in the xylem of the root, it will pass up the xylem of the
pressure).
stem.

Transport of water and minerals to leaves ESG7V

We have dealt with the transport of water in plants from the soil into the root
xylem. Now we need to discuss how the water is transported against gravity
from the roots to the leaves where it is needed for the process of photosynthesis.

Water travels to the leaves via the stem. Recall, that three processes are neces-
sary for the transport of water in plants, namely; transpiration, capillarity and
root pressure. All three of these processes are passive and do not require an
input of energy.

Transpiration: Constant water loss via transpiration from the leaves causes a
negative water pressure in the leaves. The negative pressure in the leaves works
like a ’suction’ force, pulling the water up the stem.

Capillary Action: Water moves up the stem in response to the ’suction’ caused
by transpiration because of two forces: adhesion and cohesion. Cohesion is the
tendency for water molecules to stick together and adhesion is the tendency
for water molecules to stick to other surfaces, such as the inside of the xylem
vessels. Stem xylem is structurally adapted to take advantage of capillarity,
because they are very long with a narrow diameter.

Root Pressure: Water can also be moved up the stem via a ’push’ force from
the roots. Water is constantly being absorbed by the roots due to the negative
water potential in the root cells. This movement of water into the roots can
cause the water pressure inside the roots to become high, resulting in a force
that ’pushes’ water up the stem xylem.

194 6.5. Uptake of water and minerals in the roots

Investigation: Examining water uptake by the stem

Aim:

To examine water uptake by the stem.

Apparatus:

• water
• food colouring dye (available at supermarket)
• white flower on a stem, e.g. Impatiens, carnation or chrysanthemum
• scissors
• two jars, cups or measuring cylinders
• plastic tray
• sticky tape

Method:

1. Fill one jar with plain water, and one with water containing several drops
of food colouring dye.
2. Take the flower and carefully cut the stem lengthwise, either part way up
the stem or right up to the base of the flower (try both, the results will be
different!)
3. Put one half of the stem into the jar containing plain water and one half
of the stem into the jar containing food colouring dye. To make it easier
to insert the stalks without breaking them, it helps to wedge paper under-
neath the jars so that you can tilt them towards each other. Tape the jars
or cylinders down onto a tray so that they do not fall over.
4. Observe the flowers after a few hours and the next day, and note where
the dye ends up in the flower head. You can leave the flowers up to a
week but be sure to make sure that they have enough water.

Variation: Instead of using one cylinder with water and one with food dye, use
two different colour food dyes (e.g. blue and red). At first the flower will show
two separate colours, but as time goes by the whole flower will show both
dyes. This is because water can move sideways between xylem vessels through
openings along their length. The ability of water to move laterally between
vessels is useful for when air becomes trapped in a vessel, causing a blockage.
If you cut the stem right up to the base of the flower, this will limit movement
between the xylem vessels.

Variation: Try using celery stalks with leaves. Cut open the celery stalk (cross-
section) and you will see darker-coloured little holes/ spots. These are the
vessels.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 195

 Results:

Record your observations and results

Conclusions:

What did you conclude from this experiment?

Movement of manufactured food ESG7W

Plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to manufacture glucose, yield-
ing oxygen as a by-product. Sunlight or radiant light is captured by the green
pigment chlorophyll inside of chloroplasts to provide the energy for photosyn-
thesis to occur. Once the food is manufactured in the leaves it needs to be
distributed to the entire plant so that the glucose can be used by each cell for
respiration and some of the photosynthetic products are then stored for later
use.

The glucose is manufactured mainly

in the palisade cells where there are
more chloroplasts, and then passes
into the phloem. Plants usually
transport food in the form of the sugar
sucrose because it is less reactive than
glucose. Sucrose is transported to
where it is needed in the the plant via
phloem sap, and may be stored in
roots, stems or fruit. Transport of food
material from leaves to other parts of
the plant is called translocation.
Understanding the phloem structure is
important to understanding how it Figure 6.27: Aphids feeding on phloem
sap which is rich in sucrose.
transports food.

How the phloem functions

While the transport of water is usually unidirectional in xylem (upward or lat-

eral), the movement of sugars in the phloem is multi-directional, and occurs by
active transport, an energy-dependent process. Sucrose is actively transported
against a concentration gradient into sieve-tube elements. The sieve-tube ele-
ments have no nuclei but the adjacent companion cells do. Companion cells
are closely associated with sieve tubes and carry out all the cellular functions
of the sieve tubes.

196 6.5. Uptake of water and minerals in the roots

The cytoplasm of sieve tubes and companion cells is connected through nu-
merous channels called plasmodesmata. These cytoplasmic connections allow
the companion cells to regulate the content and activity of the sieve tube cyto-
plasm. The companion cells also help load the sieve tube with sugar and the
other metabolic products that they transport throughout the plant. This lowers
the water potential of the sieve-tube element, causing water to move in by os-
mosis, creating a pressure that pushes the sap down the tube. The metabolising
cells of the plant actively transport sugars out of sieve-tube elements, produc-
ing exactly the opposite effect. The diagram below illustrates how the overall
process works.

Figure 6.28: Diagram showing movement in the xylem and phloem vessels. Water
movement is upwards in the xylem and lateral into and out of the phloem. Lateral
movement also occurs into and out of the companion cells accompanying the phloem
vessel.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 197

 6.6 Summary ESG7X

• Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants: Structures discussed in the previous

chapter (collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem) are important
in carrying out the transport functions.
• Root anatomy and function: The root is important in absorption, an-
chorage and storage of food. It is made up of the epidermis, cortex,
endodermis and stele (consisting of xylem, phloem and pericycle).
• Stem anatomy and function: Stems contain an epidermis, cortex and
vascular cylinder (consisting of pericycle, xylem, phloem, cambium and
pith). Stems are important for growth, support, storage and transport of
water, mineral salts and manufactured sugars.
• Secondary growth: Secondary growth is the thickening of the stem or
root as new layers of xylem and phloem are formed by mitosis. It is
carried out by cambium and results in stems and roots becoming thicker
as the plant ages / matures. Secondary thickening results in the annual
rings found in trees that can be used to work out the age of a tree.
• Transpiration: Transpiration is the loss of water from the stomata of
plants. It creates a ’suction’ or transpirational pull that is important for
the movement of water through the plant. Transpiration is affected by en-
vironmental conditions e.g wind, temperature, humidity and light inten-
sity. The rate of transpiration is measured using a potometer. In order to
prevent excessive transpiration, plants have developed adaptations such
as thickened cuticle, position of stomata, hairs on leaves, reduction of
leaf size, leaf spines, leaf arrangements and rolling of leaves.
• Translocation: Translocation is the transport of food material (sugars),
synthesised in the leaves, to other parts of the plant via phloem. This
mode of transport is multi-directional, but requires energy as it occurs
by active transport against a concentration gradient. Phloem vessels con-
sist of sieve-tube elements and companion cells which are connected by
plasmodesmata. Companion cells act as the regulators and energy stores
of the phloem.
• Wilting and guttation are processes of water loss in the plant. Wilting
entails excessive loss of water through plasmolysis resulting in excessive
cell death, at times resulting in death of the entire plant. Guttation is the
release of water via the hydathodes due to high humidity.

198 6.6. Summary

Exercise 6 – 1: End of chapter exercises

1. The water loss in two plants was recorded over a 12 hour period. Study
the information below and then answer the questions that follow. The
results for the two plants were recorded in the following table.

Time of Day 06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00

Water loss in 0,0 0,4 1,6 6,0 9,0 8,0 7,6
Plant A (cm3 )
Water loss in 0,2 0,7 4,0 14,0 19,0 18,2 17,7
Plant B (cm3 )

a) What is the correct biological term for water loss in a plant?

b) From which plant was the greatest amount of water loss recorded?
c) Assuming the plants were kept in identical conditions; suggest two
possible ways that the plant that lost less water may have differed
structurally from the plant that most more water.
d) Which time of day was the greatest water loss recorded for both
Plants A and B. Why do you think this is so?
e) At 18h00 the rate of water loss was lower. Why did this occur?
f) What is the apparatus that was used in the laboratory to measure
the rate of water loss in plants A and B?

2. What do you understand by guttation and how does the process of gutta-
tion occur?
3. Tabulate the differences between guttation and transpiration.
4. Briefly discuss the movement of water through the dicotyledonous root.
5. Give a short explanation for the following:
a) capilliarity
b) dicotyledon
c) transpiration
d) water potential gradient
6. On a hot day in the middle of a drought, what can you expect the leaves
of a plant to look like? Draw a diagram to describe your answer.
7. List the environmental conditions that would result in the highest rate of
transpiration.
8. Name four defining characteristics of a monocotyledonous plant.
9. In a short paragraph, explain how secondary thickening in a stem comes
about.
10. Name and briefly discuss the adaptation of leaves to minimise transpira-
tion.

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 199

 11. Name the two main ways that water can travel through the parenchyma
of the root.
12. Explain the difference between cohesion and adhesion.
13. During transpiration, the movement of water through the xylem is largely
due to:

a) mitosis
b) capillary action
c) osmosis
d) all of the above

14. Stomata:

a) are found in plant roots

b) permit the intake of carbon dioxide
c) prevent the intake of oxygen
d) all of the above

15. Water can be lost by a plant through which process(es)?

a) guttation
b) transpiration
c) condensation
d) a and b

16. What environmental condition(s) always lead to an increase in transpira-

tion rate in each plant tested?

a) heat
b) wind
c) light
d) all of the above

17. Wind appears to increase the rate of transpiration in a plant. This is most
likely due to the fact that:

a) humidity increased
b) evaporation increased
c) stomata were forced to close
d) all of the above

18. Describe how light intensity is responsible for an increase or decrease in

the transpiration rate.

200 6.6. Summary

 19. Study the two graphs below which show water loss from a plant over a
period of time, and answer the following question:

Which graph could show water loss under increasing external humidity?
Give reasons for your answer.
20. Describe how each of the following adaptations results in a decrease in
the transpiration rate:
a) Spiny leaves
b) Rolled leaves
c) Waxy cuticle
21. Complete the following sentences:
a) Translocation refers to the ...
b) Xylem tissue in plants is responsible for the transport of ...
c) The roots absorb water through the ...
22. Draw a table showing how the structure of root hairs is adapted for their
function.

Check answers online with the exercise code

below or click on ’show me the answer’.
1a. 2CS2 1b. 2CS3 1c. 2CS4 1d. 2CS5 1e. 2CS6 1f. 2CS7
2. 2CS8 3. 2CS9 4. 2CSB 5. 2CSC 6. 2CSD 7. 2CSF
8. 2CSG 9. 2CSH 10. 2CSJ 11. 2CSK 12. 2CSM 13. 2CSN
14. 2CSP 15. 2CSQ 16. 2CSR 17. 2CSS 18. 2CST 19. 2CSV
20a. 2CSW 20b. 2CSX 20c. 2CSY 21a. 2CSZ 21b. 2CT2 21c. 2CT3
22. 2CT4

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 201

 CHAPTER 7

Support systems in animals

7.1 Overview 204

7.2 Skeletons 205
7.3 Human skeleton 211
7.4 Musculoskeletal tissues 222
7.5 Human locomotion 233
7.6 Muscle structure and function 234
7.7 Diseases 236
7.8 Summary 238
 7 Support systems in animals

7.1 Overview ESG7Y

Introduction ESG7Z

In this chapter we will be studying the different types of skeletal structures. We

will focus in particular on the human skeleton. In Grade 12 you will come to
know how our skeletal structure evolved. For now, you will be introduced to
the main features and functions of the human skeleton. By focusing on specific
structures of the human skeleton, we once more emphasise a common theme
of our study of Life Sciences: that structure is related to function.

Key concepts

• Some of the main types of skeleton found in living things are the hy-
drostatic skeleton, endoskeleton and exoskeleton. Each of these skeletal
types have advantages and disadvantages.
• Skeletal structures are adapted for the transition from an aquatic to a ter-
restrial existence where greater support was required.
• The human skeleton consists of the axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton.
• The main functions of the skeleton are to allow for movement, provide
protection, provide support, store minerals, produce blood cells and al-
low for hearing.
• It is important to understand the relationship between structure and func-
tion of bones, cartilage, tendons and ligaments.
• Joints connect pieces of skeleton and allow independent movement of
neighbouring pieces. Joints are of three types: fixed, partly movable and
freely movable (synovial joints). Synovial joints are of either ball-and-
socket, hinge, pivot, or gliding structure.
• Skeletal muscle is attached to the skeleton through tendons and liga-
ments. The structure of voluntary skeletal muscle is made up mainly of
myofibrils which allow for muscle contraction. This contraction is used
to move part of the skeleton.
• Diseases affecting the skeleton include rickets in children, and osteoporo-
sis and arthritis in adults.

204 7.1. Overview

 FACT
7.2 Skeletons ESG82 As you will learn in
the chapter History
of Life on Earth,
many of these
The skeleton is the supporting structure of an organism. There are three differ- structural
ent types of skeletons: hydrostatic skeletons, endoskeletons and exoskeletons. adaptations allowed
animals to move
from water onto
• Hydrostatic skeleton: Water exerts pressure on muscular walls, for ex- land.
ample, in jellyfish.
• Exoskeleton: The stable chitinous or mineralised outer shell of an organ-
ism, for example, the shell of a grasshopper or prawn.
• Endoskeleton: A cartilaginous or mineralised support structure inside the
body, for example, in humans and other vertebrates.

In this chapter we will be looking at support systems in animals and investigat-

ing the human skeletal system in some depth.

The evolutionary development of the skeleton ESG83

Body support provided by water

The earliest forms of life evolved in the oceans. The fact that this is an aquatic
environment is key. Water is about 1000 times denser than air. The high density
of water allows organisms to float, due to a physical, upward force inherent in
liquids known as buoyancy.

Buoyancy allowed organisms to grow

and reach large sizes because the
buoyancy force supported the body
weight of these animals. However, the
density of water also provides
resistance to movement, and animals
had to adapt to ensure that they were
able to move efficiently through water.

An early adaptation by organisms was

the ability to change the hydrostatic
pressure within different chambers of
their bodies to enable quick
movement. This resulted in the
development of hydrostatic skeletons.
Animals with this type of skeleton
include jellyfish, octopus and sea Figure 7.1: The animal above is a jellyfish.
anemones. The changing shape of the It uses its muscles to contract against the
animal reduces both friction and drag. hydrostatic skeleton to bring about move-
ment.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 205

 Over time, in order to refine movement and improve protection from predators,
some organisms developed a hard chitinous exoskeleton. Exoskeletons first
developed in the aquatic environment in ancient arthropods. Animals with this
type of skeleton include crustaceans like crabs and lobsters.

Eventually, there were some animals that developed a skeletal structure internal
to the body, which would become the vertebrate group of animals. These ani-
mals have an endoskeleton. Initially, all endoskeletons were made of cartilage,
which is a dense rubbery type of tissue. Later, endoskeletons of bone evolved.

Figure 7.2: Crustaceans, such as this crab, Figure 7.3: The first vertebrates evolved in
developed a protective exoskeleton. the oceans. This fish has an internal en-
doskeleton that makes it streamlined and
allows it to move rapidly through water.

The adaptation of the skeleton to a terrestrial environment

The two major requirements for survival on land are the development of a
suitable support system and an air breathing mechanism. One of the biggest
problems encountered by animals moving from water to land was the loss of
the effect of buoyancy. In order to counter this, animals needed to develop
strong limbs and had to adapt the skeleton to support their body weight on
land. Moving effectively on land is essential, particularly if one needs to avoid
predators, catch prey, or adapt to a particular habitat. Different skeleton types
have solved these problems in different ways.

Animals with exoskeletons like

arthropods (a class of animals
including insects, crustaceans and
arachnids) transitioned from sea to
land long before the vertebrates
(organisms with endoskeletons). A
major factor in their success was the
exoskeleton which provides
attachment for muscles controlling
locomotion (movement of Figure 7.4: This beetle is an example of
appendages). Exoskeletons also a insect. Insects have a protective ex-
oskeleton that made it possible for them
provided some protection from
to colonise land millions of years ago.
dessication (water loss).

206 7.2. Skeletons

Amphibians with endoskeletons , like
frogs and newts, live both on the land
and in the water. Their skeletons have
adapted to give advantages in both
conditions. They have calcified bones
to support their body weight under
the force of gravity. Their skull is light
and flattened, for both motility on
land and a streamlined shape for
moving easily in water. Their pectoral
girdle is adapted to give support for Figure 7.5: Amphibians were the first ver-
the forelimbs, which absorb the body tebrates to colonise land. They begin their
weight when landing after a jump. life-cycle in water, and emerge onto land
as adults.

Depending on their means of locomotion, terrestrial animals needed to adapt

their shapes and skeletons to overcome the effects of gravity.

Limbless animals, such as snakes, had

to overcome drag and friction. Flying
animals such as birds and bats need
light skeletons and very strong
sternums for wing muscle attachment.
Animals that support their bodies
clear of the ground needed an energy
efficient way of maintaining balance.
For this reason, the leg bones of most
animals are held directly underneath
Figure 7.6: Land vertebrates often have
the body. In this position they act as legs placed directly beneath the body. The
props or struts and it is the bones legs acts as struts, and are the most energy-
rather than the muscles that take most efficient way to keep the body suspended
of the strain of the body’s weight. above the ground.

Hydrostatic skeleton ESG84

A hydrostatic skeleton is a structure found in many cold-blooded and soft-

bodied organisms. It consists of a fluid-filled cavity, which is surrounded by
muscles. The cavity is called a coelom and in some animals this cavity is filled
with a blood-like substance called haemocoel. The fluid presses against the
muscles, which in turn contract against the pressure of the fluid. The fluid is in-
compressible and thus maintains a constant volume against which the muscles
can contract. The hydrostatic skeleton prevents the collapse of the body. The
muscles in the body act against the fluid and in doing so bring about move-
ment. If the body is segmented, the pressure of the fluid is localised in a few
segments at a time. Hydrostatic skeletons occur in flatworms, round worms,
earthworms, starfish and slugs.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 207

 Note that starfish and other Echinoderms have an outer skeleton of calcareous
(chalky) ossicles (little bones) or spicules which are like little spines for protec-
tion. This outer skeleton encloses a water vascular system with tube feet that
are moved by fluid pressure changes (it serves as a hydrostatic skeleton which
controls movement).

Figure 7.7: The animal above is a jellyfish. Figure 7.8: The animal depicted above is
It uses its muscles to contract against the an Echinoderm - a starfish - which uses its
hydrostatic skeleton to bring about move- tube feet for movement.
ment.

Advantages of a hydrostatic skeleton

• Fluid shape: This allows organisms with hydrostatic skeletons to fit through
oddly shaped passages, which is useful for burrowing or swimming.
• Strength: Creatures with hydrostatic skeletons can squeeze between spaces
and expand, making a ’prying open’ movement which allows them to
force their way into various regions of rock and soil surfaces.
• Healing: Healing takes place faster in organisms with hydrostatic skele-
tons than in organisms with bone structures. This is because the haemo-
coel contained within the hydrostatic skeleton is made up mostly of wa-
ter, and thus, can be refilled quickly. This allows many organisms with
hydrostatic skeletons such as earthworms to grow back their body mass
after damage.
• Lightweight: The hydrostatic skeleton allows the animal to move in a
more flexible manner as it requires very little muscle mass for movement.
• Circulation: The fluid cavity allows circulation of nutrients and waste.
• Protection: The hydrostatic skeletons cushions the internal organs of the
animal from shock.
• Suited to environment: Hydrostatic skeletons are suited for life in moist
or aquatic environments, depending on the animal’s adaptations.

Disadvantages of a hydrostatic skeleton

• Structure and surface for attachment: The hydrostatic skeleton lacks

a structure and does not have surfaces for the attachment of muscles or
limbs.
• Lack of protection: There is very little protection for the internal organs.
• Dessication: A moist or water habitat is essential for survival of these
animals in order to prevent dessication (drying out).

208 7.2. Skeletons

 • Limited strength: Terrestrial animals with hydrostatic skeletons cannot
increase their body size as they would collapse under their own body
weight.

Exoskeleton ESG85

An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that supports and protects an animal’s

body. The skeleton is non-living and consists of a cuticle strengthened by chitin,
a substance secreted by the epidermis (skin). Crustaceans such as crabs have
their exoskeleton further strengthened by calcium carbonate. There are muscles
attached to the inside of the exoskeleton which provides the resistance needed
for muscle action.

The exoskeleton is confined to

animals such as insects, spiders,
scorpions, crabs etc., all of which
belong to the Phylum Arthropoda
(jointed-legged and jointed-bodied
animals). The exoskeleton acts as a
hard outer covering, and is made up
of a series of plates or tubes. We often
call large exoskeletons ‘shells’.
Exoskeletons first appeared in the
fossil record during the time of the
Figure 7.9: Picture of jumping spider, a
Cambrian explosion and comprises a type of arthropod.
substantial portion of our fossil
record.

Advantages of the exoskeleton

• Muscle attachment: The exoskeleton forms the point of attachment of

internal muscles needed for locomotion thereby providing better leverage
for muscle action.
• Protection: The exoskeleton protects the soft internal tissues and organs.
• Support: The exoskeleton provides structural support and shape.
• Prevents Dessication: The exoskeleton prevents desiccation (drying out)
on land.
• Light-weight: The exoskeleton of insects has a low density and is there-
fore lightweight, to allow for flight.
• Diversity: The mouth-parts can be modified for biting, sucking, piercing
grasping thus providing for a diversified diet for organisms possessing an
exoskeleton compared to those that do not.

Disadvantages of the exoskeleton

• Size restriction: The final body size is limited because as the body size
increases, the surface area to volume ratio decreases. The larger the
animal, the heavier the exoskeleton, making movement more difficult.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 209

 • Non-living skeleton does not grow with animal: The overall growth of
the animal is restricted due to periodic moulting. Since the exoskeleton
restricts growth, moulting is required to accommodate for increases in
the size of the animal.
• Vulnerability during moulting: The animal is vulnerable when it is in the
moulting process, because the new skeleton is very soft until the new
exoskeleton has dried and hardened.
• Sites of structural weakness: Exoskeletons are weaker at the joints.

Endoskeleton ESG86

This skeleton is found inside the body and can consist of bone (all vertebrates
except sharks) or cartilage (sharks) and some endoskeletons consist of both.

Advantages of the endoskeleton

• Living: Endoskeletons consist of living tissue, so it is able to grow steadily

within the animal enabling some to reach a large size.
• Structure and support: The endoskeleton provides shape and structural
support.
• Structural diversity and adaptation: The bones can vary in size and
shape to support the animal’s mass.
• Flexible: The endoskeleton is jointed which allows for flexible movement
and support.
• Muscle attachment: The muscles attach directly to the skeletal bones to
allow for movement and support.
• Protection: The endoskeleton protects the vital organs such as the heart
and lungs which are protected by the ribcage.
• Diversified locomotion: The development of an endoskeleton has al-
lowed for animals to become successfully adapted to locomotion in the
environment in which they live. Vertebrates (organisms with a vertebral
column and an endoskeleton) have become adapted to move in a num-
ber of different modes of locomotion, e.g. running, jumping, swimming,
and flying.

Disadvantages of the endoskeleton

• Vulnerable to external environment: The endoskeleton does not offer the

animal any protection from the exterior, be it a physical attack or changes
in environmental conditions. The animal is therefore very vulnerable.
• Susceptible to disease: The skeleton consists of living tissue so is suscep-
tible to infections and disease.

210 7.2. Skeletons

7.3 Human skeleton ESG87

Humans have a living endoskeleton (internal skeleton) made of bone, cartilage

and connective tissue. At birth, the human skeleton consists of over 270 bones.
However, in adults this number has reduced to 206 bones due the fusion of
smaller bones into larger structures. The adult skeleton (Figure 7.10) is made
up of the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton (Figure 7.11).

Figure 7.10: Diagram showing an overview of the main skeletal features of the human
skeleton.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 211

 Figure 7.11: There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, which can be ’grouped’
into different categories.

Axial skeleton ESG88

The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and consists of the skull,
vertebral column and rib cage and sternum.

The Skull

The skull consists of the cranium and facial bones.

The cranium consists of eight flat bones joined together by immovable joints
called sutures. The cranium surrounds and protects the brain. There is a large
opening at the base of the skull called the foramen magnum through which
the spinal cord passes. On either side of the foramen magnum is a projec-
tion which articulates with the first vertebra (called the atlas) to allow for the
nodding movement of the head.

Figure 7.12: The cranium.

212 7.3. Human skeleton

There are 15 facial bones. These are irregular bones that include the cheek FACT
bones, nasal bones, temples, upper jaw bone (maxilla)) and lower jaw bones A few interesting
facts about the
(mandible). The only movable bone is the lower jaw.
human skeleton:
• Humans
The upper and lower jaws bear the have seven
neck bones -
sockets for the 32 permanent teeth.
the same as
The number, type and arrangement of giraffes.
the teeth in an animal is indicated by • The strongest
a dental formula. The human dental and longest
formula is: 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3. bone is the
thigh bone
(the femur).
This formula represents the numbers
• One out of
of each type of teeth in half of the 20 people
upper jaw and half of the lower jaw. have an extra
This formula tells us that in both the rib.
upper and lower halves there are 2
incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3 Figure 7.13: Dental formula in a human
molars. adult.

The human vertebral column

The vertebral column typically consists of 24 articulating vertebrae and 9 fused

vertebrae in the sacrum and the coccyx. Between the vertebrae are discs of
fibrocartilage, which prevent friction between vertebrae, and act as shock ab-
sorbers during walking, running and jumping. Spinal nerves are able to enter
and leave the spinal cord through gaps between adjacent vertebrae. Strong
ligaments and muscles around the spine stabilise the vertebrae and help to
control movement. The vertebrae join up to each other in such a way that
there is a continuous spinal canal which runs from the base of the skull to the
pelvic girdle. This canal contains the spinal cord. The entire vertebral canal
can be divided into five regions.

• Cervical region

• Thoracic region

• Lumbar region

• Sacral region

• Coccyx

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 213

FACT The cervical (neck) region consists of
In a newborn baby seven vertebrae. The first cervical
the entire vertebral
column curves
vertebra, called the atlas, supports the
backwards probably skull and allows for the nodding
because of the movement of the head. The second
confines of the vertebra, called the axis, has a
uterus. Initially a
baby cannot
projection on which the atlas pivots to
support the weight give the side to side movement of the
of its head. When head.
after about 3
months it is able to
support its head, the
cervical forward
curve is complete.
The thoracic region (chest) consists of
The lumbar forward 12 vertebrae, which each bear a pair
curve is complete of ribs.
when the baby is
able to stand on its
own and ready to
learn to walk.

The lumbar region (lower back)

consists of five vertebrae. This region
has the largest vertebrae as it carries
the weight of the body.

The sacral region consists of five fused vertebrae, forming a bone called the
sacrum. the sacrum forms part of the pelvic girdle which provides surfaces for
the attachment of muscles and the legs.

The coccyx is made up of four fused bones. These bones form the tail in those
mammals that have tails.

Functions of the vertebral column

• Supports the skull

• Surrounds and protects the spinal cord
• Provides attachment for ribs, girdles, and back muscles
• Separate vertebrae and S-shaped curvature provide flexibility allowing
humans to bend backwards, forwards and sideways
• Fibrocartilage discs between the vertebrae act as shock absorbers

The rib cage and sternum

The rib cage is a bony and cartilaginous structure. A typical rib cage consists of
24 ribs (12 pairs), the sternum (an inverted T-shaped structure connecting the
rib bones), costal cartilages and the 12 thoracic vertebrae shown in the diagram
on the following page.

214 7.3. Human skeleton

The first seven pairs of ribs connect
directly to the sternum and are
referred to as true ribs. The remaining
five pairs of ribs do not connect
directly to the sternum and are
referred to as false ribs. The rib cage
aids in the protection of the heart and
lungs. With the help of the diaphragm
and the intercostal muscles, they
increase and decrease the volume of
the thoracic cavity thereby allowing
inhalation and exhalation to take
place.

Appendicular skeleton ESG89

The appendicular skeleton consists of the pectoral girdle with the arms and the
pelvic girdle with the legs. The pectoral girdle and arms and pelvic girdle and
legs will be explored in greater detail in the following section.

Figure 7.14: The appendicular skeleton is shaded.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 215

 The pectoral girdle and arms

The pectoral girdle consists of two clavicles (collar bones) and two scapulae
(shoulder blades). Each clavicle is attached to the sternum in the front and the
scapulae at the sides and they help to support the shoulders. The clavicle is
the most frequently broken bone in the body as it often takes the full impact
of falls on outstretched arms or of blows to the shoulder. The pectoral girdle is
connected by muscles to the back of the thorax to enable it to have a supporting
structure as well as giving the shoulders greater freedom of movement which
in turn allows greater mobility of the arms. Any limit to movement is provided
by the clavicle.

Each upper arm has a single bone called the humerus which fits into the
Glenoid cavity on the scapula to form a ball and socket joint. This cavity is
very shallow which allows the arms to move in almost any direction. The fore-
arm consists of two bones namely the ulna in line with the little finger and the
radius in line with the thumb. The joint at the elbow is a hinge joint. The wrist
consists of eight small carpal bones arranged in two rows of four. The palm of
the hand consists of five metacarpal bones. There are 14 digits (short bones)
or phalanges in each hand, two in each thumb and three in each of the fingers.

Figure 7.15: Skeletal framework of the arm and shoulder region.

216 7.3. Human skeleton

Functions of pectoral girdle FACT
The female pelvic
girdle is wider and
• Forms a strong support structure for the attachments of the arms. lighter than the
male. This is an
• Provides large area of bone for the attachment of muscles.
adaptation to allow
• Forms ball-and-socket joints with the arms which allows the arms to move for pregnancy and
freely. childbirth.

Pelvic girdle and the legs

The pelvic girdle consists of hip bones joined at the front by cartilage called
the pubic symphysis and they are attached to the sacrum at the back. Each hip
bone consists of three fused bones (ilium, ischium and pubis). Portions of all
three bones contribute to the formation of the acetabulum, a deep socket into
which the head of the femur (thigh bone) joins to form the hip joint.

Figure 7.16: Skeletal framework of pelvic girdle.

The femur in the leg is the largest and strongest bone in the body. The upper
end forms a ball and socket joint with the hip bone while the lower end articu-
lates with the tibia to form the hinge joint of the knee. The patella or kneecap
is a flat triangular bone which is embedded in the tendon of the thigh muscle
and attached by a ligament to the tibia.

There are two bones in the lower leg: the tibia (shin bone) which is the larger
of the two and supports most of the mass. The upper end articulates with the
femur while the lower end articulates with one of the tarsal bones to form the
ankle joint. The fibula (calf bone) is thinner than the tibia and serves mainly
for the attachment of muscles. It is attached to the femur and is articulated to
the top and bottom of the tibia.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 217

 Figure 7.17: Skeletal framework of pelvic girdle and legs.

The structure of the foot is similar to that of the hand. However, the foot sup-
ports the weight of the body, so it is stronger and less mobile than the hand.
There are seven tarsals or ankle bones, only one of which, the talus, articulates
with the tibia. The talus us also know as the ankle bone.

The heel bone (calcaneum) is the

largest of the tarsal bones and is the
bone to which the calf muscle is
attached. The heel bone presses
firmly on the ground when one
stands, walks or runs.

There are five metatarsal bones which

form the ball and arch of the foot. The
14 phalanges of the toes are the
counterparts of those in the fingers,
with the big toe having two phalanges
and the other four having three
phalanges each. Together these
structures consist of the bones form
the lower limb shown in Figure 7.18.
Figure 7.18: Bones of lower extremity.

218 7.3. Human skeleton

Functions of skeleton ESG8B

The human skeleton is living and performs many functions in the body. Some
important functions are summarised below:

1. Movement: Muscles attach to the bones of the skeleton, enabling move-

ment.
2. Protection: The skull protects the brain, the ribcage protects the heart and
lungs, and the pelvic bones protect the digestive tract and reproductive
organs.
3. Support: Provides shape and support to the body.
4. Storage of minerals: Bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphate
ions.
5. Hearing: Bones in the middle ear, called the hammer, anvil and stirrup,
amplify sound waves and assist in the hearing process.
6. Red blood cell production: Long bones and flat bones contain red bone
marrow to produce red blood cells.

Structure of long bone ESG8C

Although there are many different types of bones in the skeleton, we will dis-
cuss the different parts of a specific type of bone: the long bone. The femur,
tibia and fibula in the leg, and the humerus, radius and ulna in the arm are all
examples of long bones.

• Epiphysis: The head of each end of a long bone consists largely of spongy
bone and is covered with hyaline cartilage.
• Spongy bone: Found in the epiphysis of long bones and contains red
marrow.
• Red bone marrow: Found in the spaces between the trabeculae in spongy
bone. This is where the red blood cells are made at the rate of 2 -3 million
per second. White blood cell types are also produced here.
• Trabeculae: The struts in the network of irregular bony plates in the epi-
physis of bones which transfer stresses from the epiphysis to the diaphysis
which has a much thicker layer of compact bone and resists stress better.
• Diaphysis: Cylindrical shaft of a long bone composed of hard compact
bone on the outside.
• Periosteum: The membrane of dense fibrous connective tissue which
surrounds the outside surface of the shaft of a long bone. It has blood
vessels which enables it to nourish the bone and repair injuries. It also
provides a surface for the attachment of muscles by means of tendons
and ligaments.
• Endosteum: The delicate connective tissue layer lining the inside surface
of compact bone.
• Marrow cavity: This is filled with yellow marrow which consists largely
of fat.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 219

 Figure 7.19: Longitudinal section showing parts of a long bone.

Activity: Draw and label a longitudinal section of a long bone

In this activity you need to draw and label the parts of a long bone.

Instructions:

Make sure that you follow all the guidelines for biological drawings:

1. Give your diagram a caption or heading

2. Your diagram must take up at least half a page
3. Your drawing should be in pencil
4. Label lines should be drawn with a ruler
5. Label lines should not cross

220 7.3. Human skeleton

Investigation: Optional Investigation: Investigating organic and inorganic
components of bones

Aim:

Experiment A: Remove the inorganic component of bone in order to investigate

the organic component

Experiment B: Remove the organic component of bone in order to observe the

properties of the inorganic component

WARNING!

Bunsen burner and methylated spirits: Wear safety goggles and no loose fit-
ting clothes. Do not wear synthetic clothes that easily catch fire (cotton and
wool clothes are preferable).

Hydrochloric acid: Wear closed shoes, safety goggles, a lab coat and gloves.

Apparatus:

Experiment A

• two small chicken bones

• two test tubes
• dilute hydrochloric acid/white vinegar

Experiment B

• towel
• one small chicken bone
• pipe clay triangle or wire gauze on a tripod stand
• bunsen burner or Methylated spirits burner

Method:

Experiment A

1. Label two test tubes with your initials and A and B. Put a bone in each
test tube.
2. Cover Bone A with water and Bone B with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Leave for a few days. The acid will dissolve out the mineral component
of the bone leaving behind the organic part.
3. Take out Bone A and dry it.
4. Use tweezers to take Bone B out of the acid. Rinse it under the tap and
dry it.
5. Compare the two bones and write down how they appear and whether
they are soft or hard, flexible or brittle.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 221

 Experiment B

1. Place the chicken bone (Bone C) on a pipe triangle or wire gauze on a

tripod stand.
2. Roast the bone strongly for 10 minutes. Roasting will burn off the or-
ganic component of bone (mainly the protein collagen) leaving behind
the mineral part.
3. Allow the bone to cool down completely before you touch it.
4. Describe the appearance of Bone C stating whether it is soft or hard,
flexible or brittle.

Observations:

Note down your observations in your lab notebook.

Conclusions:

What can you conclude about the different organic and inorganic components
of bones?

Questions:

1. What are the main inorganic components of bone?

2. What changes have occurred in Bone A?
3. What properties have been removed from Bone B with the loss of its
inorganic components?
4. Which deficiency disease can have similar effects on bones in children?
5. What is the role of Bone B in this experiment?
6. What protein makes up the main organic component of bone?
7. What changes took place in Bone C during the roasting process?
8. What properties have been removed from Bone C with the loss of its
organic component?

7.4 Musculoskeletal tissues ESG8D

The tissues which provide structure to the body and enable movement are part
of the musculoskeletal system. The tissues in the this system include the bones,
cartilage, joint, tendons, ligaments and muscles. In this section we will exam-
ine each of these types of tissues, so that in the next section on locomotion, we
can understand how these structures work together to bring about movement.

222 7.4. Musculoskeletal tissues

 • Bone: hard mineralized tissue that determines the structure of the body
and provides attachments for muscles.
• Cartilage: flexible connective tissue that is usually found in many areas
of the body including the joints between bones.
• Joints: region where bones meet, a variety of joint types allow for a range
of movements in a number of different planes.
• Ligament: tissue that connects bones to other bones.
• Tendons: fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to bone and
transfers the force generated by the muscles into skeletal movement.
• Muscles: made up of fibres that are capable of contraction and therefore
capable of bringing about movement.

Bones ESG8F

Bones provide the framework and internal core structure for the attachment of
muscles. Bone is a living rigid tissue which forms the support structures for
the rest of the body. The process of bone formation is called ossification. The
matrix of bone contains a dense arrangement of collagen fibres together with
mineral salts of calcium, magnesium and phosphates. The calcium salts give
bone its hardness and rigidity while collagen fibres give bones its flexibility and
strength.

Microscopic structure of a long bone

Bones are made up of numerous hollow tunnels called Haversian canals. Haver-
sian canals occur within the matrix of bone tissue and run parallel to the length
of the bone. Each Haversian canal consists of a nerve to carry impulses, blood
vessels to transport gases, food and wastes and a lymph duct to drain tissue
fluid. Under the microscope they appear as black circles against a lighter back-
ground.

Figure 7.20: A diagram of a section of compact bone showing Haversian canals.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 223

FACT Each Haversian canal is surrounded by concentric rings of compact bone called
Apart from lamellae. Each of these layers contains a ring of fluid-filled cavities called la-
osteocytes which
cunae. Each of these lacuna will contain a number of bone cells called osteo-
are embedded in
the lacunae of bone cytes. The lacunae are linked to each other and to the Haversian canal by a
there are two other system of very tiny interconnecting canals called canaliculi. Strands of cyto-
types of bone cells. plasm extend through these canals which supply the osteocytes with oxygen
Osteoblasts: Bone
and nutrients and remove waste products. The Haversian canals, lacunae, os-
forming cells. These
cells allow the bone teocytes and canaliculi together form a unit called an Haversian System and a
to change and number of these systems make up compact bones.
remodel its shape as
the organism grows Functions of bone
and responds to
stresses. If a bone is
broken or if • To serve as a firm support framework for the whole body.
strengthening is • To protect such delicate structures as the brain and spinal cord.
needed, bone cells
lay down new tissue • To serve as levers, working with attached muscles to produce movement.
and repair damaged • To serve as a storehouse for calcium salts, which may be reabsorbed into
tissue
the blood if there is not enough calcium in the diet.
Osteoclasts: Special
bone cells for • To produce blood cells in the red marrow.
destroying and
reabsorbing bone
tissue. Cartilage ESG8G

Cartilage is a tough semi-transparent flexible tissue that consists of a tough ma-

trix or jelly-like substance. The matrix is made up of collagen (a protein) and
proteins with special carbohydrate chains called proteoglycans. Cartilage is en-
closed by a fibrous capsule called the perichondrium. It consists of living cells
called chondrocytes which secrete a rubbery protein matrix called chondrin.
Chondrocytes occur in small fluid-filled spaces called lacunae which are scat-
tered throughout the matrix. There are no blood vessels or nerves in the matrix.

Cartilage Appearance Location Function

Hyaline glass-like, at ends of bones, forms reduces friction at
cartilage bluish-white, c-shaped structures in joints, allows
few fibres Trachea, joins ribs to movement of ribs
sternum, larynx and tip during breathing, forms
of nose, temporary permanent structures,
cartilage in bones allows bones to
increase in length
Fibrocartilage many white discs between the acts as shock
collagen vertebrae, in the rim of absorbers, makes the
fibres ball and socket joints, socket deeper while
between pubic bones still allowing
movement
Elastic many yellow in the pinna of the ear, maintains the shape of
fibres in in the epiglottis the ear, strengthens the
matrix epiglottis

Table 7.1: Appearance, location and function of different types of cartilage.

224 7.4. Musculoskeletal tissues

Cartilage and bone

Infant and young children do not have bones like those of adults. Their bones
are made mostly of cartilage - a firm, elastic, fibrous material. As the individual
grows and matures, the cartilage is gradually replaced by bone cells which
deposit crystals of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. This process
called ossification greatly increases the strength of the bone.

Joints ESG8H

A joint is a point at which two bones make contact. It allows movement in

many planes.

1. Fibrous joints: Joins bones where no movement is allowed. An example

of this includes the bones of your cranium (the skull).
2. Cartilaginous joints: These allow slight, restricted movement. An exam-
ple is the discs between the vertebrae of the spine.
3. Synovial joints: These allow free movement in one or more directions.
Examples include the joints of the pelvic and pectoral girdles. They also
facilitate movements like standing, sitting, walking and running.

Another way of categorising joints is movable and immovable joints. Most

joints in the skeleton are movable joints. Movable joints are also known as
synovial joints. Synovial joints are characterised by the existence of capsules,
which contain synovial fluid. The synovial fluid helps to prevent friction during
movement.

Figure 7.21: Example of a synovial joint.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 225

 There are a number of different types of synovial joints. The four main types of
synovial joints include:

1. Ball and socket joint: Found in structures such as the shoulder. It allows
forwards/backwards, up/down and roundabout movement.
2. Hinge joint: Found in structures such as the elbow. It allows the forearm
to move up and down and acts like the hinge of a door.
3. Pivot joint: Allows turning of the head in a rotational movement from
side to side.
4. Gliding joint: Found in the wrist and foot. It allows bones to slide over
one another.

Activity: Movement at joints

Joints occur where two bones meet. Different types of joints allow for different
types of movements. In this activity you will need to identify the different joint
types, identify where they are located in the body and describe their motion.

Instructions:

For each of the following joints, you need to:

• give an example of their location in the body

• describe their motion

1. Fibrous joints
2. Ball and socket joints
3. Gliding joints
4. Hinge joints
5. Pivot joints

Tendons and ligaments ESG8J

Tendon and ligaments are dense bands of dense connective tissue. Ligaments
join bone to bone, and tendons join muscles to bone. An example of a ligament
is the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) of the knee, and an example of a tendon
is the Achilles tendon, which attaches your calf muscle to your heel. Tendons
and ligaments are similar structures, but they have some important differences,
which are summarised in Table 7.2.

226 7.4. Musculoskeletal tissues

Comparison of ligaments and tendons

Ligaments Tendons
join bone to bone attach muscles to bones
consist of white collagen fibres and consist of non elastic collagen
a network of yellow elastic fibres fibres which give tendons a white
shiny appearance
strong collagen fibres prevent parallel arrangement of strong
dislocation at joints, and yellow collagen fibres in order to
elastic fibres allow flexibility at the efficiently convert muscle
joint contraction into movement of the
skeleton

Table 7.2: Table comparing ligaments and tendons

Antagonistic muscles ESG8K

Voluntary muscles are normally connected to at least two bones. The point of
attachment to the movable bone is called the point of insertion and the point
of attachment of a muscle to the immovable bone is called the origin. Most
muscles work in pairs and when a muscle works it needs to have an agonist
and an antagonist.

An agonist is a muscle that acts to move a limb out of a particular position

(contraction). An antagonist is a muscle that acts in opposition to the specific
movement generated by the agonist and is responsible for returning the limb
back to its original position (relaxation). Antagonistic pairs of muscles are nec-
essary because each muscle can only exert a pulling force. A muscle cannot
push itself back to its starting position. Therefore another muscle is required
to pull in the opposite direction in order to return the agonist muscle back to
its starting position. An example of this can be found in the contraction and
relaxation of the biceps and triceps muscles when moving your forearm.

Example: Biceps and triceps

In the case of the biceps the two bones involved are the scapula (origin) and
the humerus (insertion). The biceps muscle gets its name from having two
tendons attached to the scapula. The tendons join to form a single muscle
body, and then splits again into two tendons, one of which inserts at the radius,
and the other of which inserts at the ulna. When the biceps muscle contracts,
the forearm is lifted or bent, decreasing the angle between the forearm and
humerus and flexing your arm. This ability of the biceps to decrease the angle
between the joints results in it being called a flexor muscle.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 227

FACT
The biceps brachii
muscle gets its
name from being a
two-headed muscle,
attaching to the
scapula at two
points. Although it
is commonly
referred to as a
‘bicep’, biceps is the
correct form even in
the singular.
Similarly, the triceps
brachii muscle joins
at three points, and
should be referred
to as the triceps,
whether you are
talking about one or
both arms.
Figure 7.22: Illustration of the triceps (extensor) and biceps (flexor) muscles.
FACT
The mechanics of
the antagonism Straightening of the forearm
within the biceps
and triceps. When the arm is bent the biceps cannot contract since it is already in a con-
See video: 2CT5 tracted state. Muscles can only cause movement by pulling as they contract,
not by pushing when they relax. Therefore, the straightening of the arm is
FACT brought about by the contraction of the triceps muscle (an extensor muscle)
Learn more about
antagonistic as it increases the angle between forearm and humerus. The triceps has three
muscles: http:// points of origin, two on the humerus and one on the scapula, and a single point
www.botany.uwc. of insertion on the ulna.
ac.za/Sci_Ed/
grade10/manphys/
skel_mus.htm Activity: Dissection of animal tissue

Aim:

The aim of this dissection is for you to revise the theory behind tissues and
apply your knowledge to actual tissues.

Instructions:

You will be working in pairs. Instructions for this activity will be bulleted and
written in italics. Questions for you to answer are numbered.

At the end of the practical you should:

1. Know and be able to use disse cting instruments correctly, especially

insertion and removal of blades.
2. Be able to recognise and use ether responsibly.
3. Be familiar with apparatus.

228 7.4. Musculoskeletal tissues

 4. Use a scale: zero (calibrate) and record mass.
5. Perform simple mathematical calculations such as percentage.
6. Be able to read a vernier calliper.
7. Clean and dry thoroughly and appropriately.

Materials:

• one piece filter paper

• scissors
• forceps
• threader
• pointer
• scalpel
• blade
• dissecting tray
• petri dish
• chicken wing
• 1 ml ether
• cloths
• roller towel

Method:

1. Skin

• Before you begin, look at the external appearance of the chicken wing.
• Weigh the entire wing and record its mass in the table on the last page.
• Insert the scalpel blade onto the handle.
• Lie the wing upside down on the dissecting board.
• Cut with scissors from the severed end towards the wingtip along the
midline of the wing.
• Remove as much of the skin as you can by freeing it from the underlying
tissue with a blunt instrument or pulling with your fingers.
• Carefully observe the tissue that you are breaking.

1. Is skin a tissue or an organ?

2. Why is there a ’web’ of skin between the joints?
3. What are the ’bumps’ on the skin?
4. How easily does the skin come off between the joints?
5. Where is the skin most firmly attached?
6. Record the mass of the skin in a table as shown on the last page.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 229

 2. Connective tissue

The skin is held to the underlying pink tissue by a type of connective tissue.

1. Name this particular type of connective tissue.

2. Give two adjectives that accurately describe it.

3. Fatty tissue

• Look at the underside of the skin you have removed. You should see
clumps of yellow material. This is fat, or adipose tissue. It is also a type
of connective tissue.
• Take a small amount of this fatty tissue and squash it gently in a small
beaker with some ether.
• Pour some of this solution onto a piece of filter paper.
• Dry the filter paper by waving it in the air.
• This oily stain is known as a translucent stain.
• From now on collect all the fatty material you find, as you will need it
later (place in a separate beaker).

1. What do you think the function of connective tissue is here?

2. What do you notice? There is an oily stain on the paper after the ether
has evaporated.

4. Muscle

Muscle is the pinky-orange tissue you can see under the skin. The muscles
were most likely severed when the chicken was dismembered in the butch-
ery. Muscles are all arranged in ’antagonistic pairs’ where the action of one
muscle (e.g. flexion) causes the opposite action to occur in it’s partner (e.g.
contraction).

• Hold the wing in your left hand.

• Grip the end of one of the muscles with forceps. Pull it.
• Describe what happens and name the type of action it caused.
• Let go and pull various other muscles.
• Can you get one to cause the opposite movement?
• Carefully dissect out a single muscle in FULL. Remove it from the wing
completely.

1. What type of tissue lies between the muscles?

2. Draw the wing muscle.
3. You need to follow the convention of drawing diagrams by:
a) providing a heading or title.
b) adding labels (tendon, muscle, epimysium, fat tissue).

230 7.4. Musculoskeletal tissues

 c) labelling on the right hand side of the diagram.
d) providing a scale bar.

5. Blood vessels

The smallest vessels you will be able to see are small arteries (arterioles) and
small veins (venules). Capillaries are the very smallest blood vessels — so nar-
row in fact that erythrocytes can only fit through in single file. It is only between
these vessels and the surrounding tissues where diffusion of substances occurs.
Capillaries will not be visible to the naked eye.

• As you work, look out for blood vessels.

• The darker vessels are venules; the redder ones are arterioles.
• In the cut end of thicker vessels you may be able to see the lumen and
vessel wall.
• If you find one, work the blunt end of the threader into it and down the
vessel and see where it leads.

1. Name two substances that will diffuse into the tissues and out of the
tissues in this wing.

6. Nerves

Nerves are bundles of neurons enclosed in a membrane rather like a piece of

electrical flex. They tend to be deep in the tissues for protection.

• Keep a look out for nerves.

• Nerves are hard to see but when soaked in ethanol they become white
(If possible check with your teacher if he or she can do this for you).

7. Tendons

Muscles are attached to bones by means of tendons. Tendons are made of a

type of connective tissue that contains lots of white fibres made of collagen. It
is this collagen that gives the connective tissue its properties.

• Your task now is to remove all the muscles neatly from the bones.
• As you do so, try and pull one or two off the bone using your fingers or
forceps; remove the rest using scissors or the scalpel.
• Look carefully at how the tendon joins the muscle.
• If necessary dissect into the muscle tissue.
• Collect ALL the muscles you remove.
• You should now have a pile of fat and a pile of muscle.
• Weigh and record the mass of subcutaneous fat and muscle in the table
where you recorded the mass of the wing.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 231

 1. How firmly are the muscles attached to bones?
2. Approximately how many muscles did you remove?
3. Describe how the tendon and muscle join.
4. Write down four adjectives to describe collagen from what you can ob-
serve.

8. Bone

• You should now be left with some bones joined together with skin, mus-
cles and ’proper’ connective tissue removed.
• Use the miniature hacksaw to cut a bone in half.

1. Describe what you see after sawing the bone in half.

2. Use the vernier calliper to measure the thickness of the bone wall.
3. The bones of most birds are hollow. Why are hollow bones an advantage
for a bird?

9. Ligaments

Ligaments look similar to tendons and have a very similar histology with lots of
collagen fibres. Ligaments join bone to bone, and also form protective capsular
ligaments around synovial joints by for instance, keeping in the lubricating
synovial fluid.

• Cut through and carefully remove the capsular ligament of a large joint
using your scissors.

1. Can you see internal ligaments?

2. Write down three observable characteristics of the ligament you cut.

10. Cartilage

• Look at the end of a bone and find the cartilage (it is pearly white in
colour).
• Try to remove it from the bone. Then try to scratch it first with your nail
and, then with something very hard and sharp.

1. Describe what you observe.

2. What type of cartilage is this?
3. What do you think the function of cartilage is?
4. What common, man-made material is closest in its properties to carti-
lage?

232 7.4. Musculoskeletal tissues

Questions:

Data (show all working)

Tissue Mass, correct to 1 decimal place (g)

Entire wing
Skin
Muscle
Subcutaneous Fat

1. Muscle is eaten for its protein. Muscle is made of protein. What percent-
age of this wing is muscle?
2. What total percentage of this wing was made up of fat?
3. Calculate the total fat-to-muscle ratio as a percentage.
4. Look at the price per kilo for these wings. Assuming the wings have the
same mass, and there are 6 per pack, how much does one wing cost?
5. You are paying the above price only to really eat the muscle (protein),
what is the actual price per kilo you are paying for the meat (protein) in
this case?

Cleaning:

Tidy and clean the work station thoroughly after each session. Wash instru-
ments in hot soapy water with a sponge/scourer, rinse in the cold sink (NOT
under running water) and dry with a cloth. Replace apparatus in the correct
containers. Scalpel blades are to be removed, cleaned, dabbed dry with roller-
towel and returned to their envelopes.

7.5 Human locomotion ESG8M

Locomotion refers to the ability to move. Specifically, it refers to the way in

which organisms travel from one place to another. Examples of types of lo-
comotion include running, swimming, jumping or flying. Human locomotion
is achieved by the use of our limbs. Below we discuss the major organs and
structures that bring about movement in humans.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 233

FACT
Watch this video
and learn about the
amazing ways that
human bones,
muscles and
tendons have
adapted for
long-distance
running.
See video: 2CT6

FACT
How muscles work:
the sliding filament
model
See video: 2CT7 Figure 7.23: A marathon event in progress: Figure 7.24: Swimmers taking part in a
this locomotion is facilitated by the skele- gala.
tal framework described in this section.

The structures used during locomotion include:

1. Bones provide the body’s supporting structure. They provide the frame-
work that help maintain the body’s shape and provide a surface for the
attachment of muscles.
2. Joints are points of contact between individual bones. They allow bones
to move against and past each other to enable movement.
3. Ligaments connect bones the ends of bones together in order to form
a joint. Most ligaments limit dislocation, or prevent certain movements
that could form breaks. They hold bones in place so that they work in a
coordinated manner.
4. Tendons connect muscle to bone. They transfer the force generated by
muscle contraction into movement of the skeleton.
5. Muscles work in antagonist pairs to cause bones to move. Muscles are
attached to bone via the tendon. Therefore as the muscle contracts, the
bone moves.

7.6 Muscle structure and function ESG8N

You learnt about three types of muscle tissue (skeletal, smooth and cardiac) in
Chapter 4. In this chapter, we will look at striated or skeletal muscle. Skeletal
muscle is voluntary muscle which means it can be controlled by will.They are
the muscles that you use to enable you to run, skip, walk etc.

The basic units of a muscle are called myofibrils. Myofibrils make up the mus-
cle fibre (muscle cell). Numerous muscle fibres are found in bundles. These
bundles are surrounded by perimysium. Several of these together make up the
fasciculus. Numerous fasciculi are surrounded by epimysium. These structures
combine to form a muscle.

234 7.6. Muscle structure and function

 FACT
Watch a video
about the anatomy
of a muscle cell:
See video: 2CT8
Learn more about
myosin and actin:
See video: 2CT9
Learn about the role
of sarcoplasmic
reticulum in muscle
cell:
See video: 2CTB

FACT
ATP stands for
adenosine
triphosphate. It is
the energy reserve
Figure 7.25: Different structural components of the voluntary muscle. of the body.

Muscle contraction

Each muscle cell (muscle fibre) is made up of many myofibrils. Myofibrils are
responsible for the muscle contraction. Each myofibril consists of units called
sarcomeres. There are many sarcomeres joined end to end in each myofibril.
Sarcomeres consist of thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments.

When muscle fibres contract these filaments slide across each other. The actin
filaments shorten, but the length of the myosin filaments do not change. This
causes the sarcomeres to shorten, resulting in the shortening of the whole mus-
cle. The contraction of the muscle fibres requires energy in the form of ATP.
The energy is supplied by the process of cellular respiration.

Figure 7.26: Diagram showing a sarcomere made up up thick and thin filament that
slide past each other to enable muscle contraction.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 235

FACT
Summary of the 7.7 Diseases ESG8P
workings of the
muscle:
See video: 2CTC
See video: 2CTD As a result of wear-and-tear over time and due to lack of proper nutrition, indi-
viduals can develop bone problems. Common bone problems include rickets,
FACT osteoporosis and arthritis.
Osteoporosis is
derived from the
Greek words for Rickets ESG8Q
bone (ostoun), and
pore (poros). It is
common in older Rickets is a disease that is most commonly caused by a lack of vitamin D, how-
people, especially
women. ever it can also be caused by deficiencies in phosphorous or calcium. Deficien-
cies in these key nutrients results in a softening of the bone tissue, leading to
FACT fractures and bone deformities in children. Rickets is a widespread childhood
Osteoporosis is disease in many developing countries.
common in older
women whose
oestrogen levels
drop after
menopause.
Oestrogen usually
suppresses
osteoclast activity
(bone resorption).
When oestogen
levels drop, the
activity of
osteoclasts is no
longer inhibited and
bone breakdown
exceeds bone
formation. This
results in an overall
loss of bone mass.

Figure 7.27: The diagram shows the difference between a normal patient and a rickets
patient.

Osteoporosis ESG8R

Bones are constantly being broken down by osteoclasts and built up by os-
teoblasts. When the process of breakdown and deposition are evenly matched
bone mass is maintained. However, when there is a shortage of calcium in the
body or when a bone is inactive (e.g leg in plaster or immobilised), calcium is
withdrawn from the bone for use in other parts of the body. This results in an in-
creased breakdown of bone tissue without an increase in deposit of new bone
by osteoblasts. Excessive breakdown without new bone deposition results in
the development of holes/pores in the bone (hence the name of the disease).
A decrease in bone density makes the bone weak and prone to fractures. The
most typical fractures are of the spine, wrist and hip.

236 7.7. Diseases

 FACT
Visualise
osteoarthritis
See video: 2CTF

Figure 7.28: Pictures illustrating the onset of osteoporosis.

Arthritis ESG8S

Arthritis is a diseases caused by disorders of joints or inflammation of them.

There are several types of arthritis. The hand of an individual affected by a
particular form of arthritis called rheumatoid arthritis can be seen in Figure
7.29. It is caused by an individual’s cells being attacked by their own immune
system and is known as an auto-immune disorder. The immune system attacks
the body tissues and most damage occurs in the cartilage found between joints.

Figure 7.29: The hands shown have been affected by arthritis.

Arthritis can also be caused by the daily wear-and-tear of a joint, when bones
constantly rub against each other. It can affect the hands, the knee, feet, hip
and back. It usually affects the elderly but can also result from an injury. The
disease can also result from a lifestyle characterised by lack of exercise. Arthritis
cannot be cured. However, in rare cases joint replacement is available.

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 237

 7.8 Summary ESG8T

• There are three types of skeletons:

1. Hydrostatic skeleton
2. Endoskeleton
3. Exoskeleton
• When animals moved from water to land, there was a need for the devel-
opment of strong limbs and a skeleton to provide support to the bodies,
which had previously been provided by water.
• Humans have an endoskeleton consisting of:
1. Axial skeleton (cranium, facial bones, foramen magnum, palate and
jaws, vertebral column, rib cage and breastbone/sternum)
2. Appendicular skeleton (pectoral girdle with arms and pelvic girdle
with legs)
• Functions of the human skeleton are:
1. Movement
2. Protection
3. Support
4. Storage of minerals
5. Hearing
• The tissues associated with the human skeleton are bone, cartilage, ten-
dons and ligaments.
• Joints
A joint is formed when two or more bones come into contact.
There are three types of joints:
1. Immovable joints
2. Partly movable joints
3. Synovial joints (Hinge joints, ball and socket joints, pivot joints,
gliding joints)
• Human locomotion requires the use and coordination of bones, joints,
ligaments, tendons and antagonistic muscles.
• Muscles
There are three types of muscle tissue:
1. Smooth/involuntary
2. Skeletal/voluntary
3. Cardiac muscle
Myofibrils are responsible for muscle contraction.
• There are many diseases that affect the skeleton, such as rickets, osteo-
porosis and arthritis.

238 7.8. Summary

Exercise 7 – 1: End of chapter exercises

1. Draw a table showing the three types of skeletons and provide one ad-
vantage and one disadvantage of each.
2. State where the Haversian canal is located and state its function.
3. State four functions of bone tissue.
4. Tabulate two differences between tendons and ligaments.
5. Supply the biological term for each of these bones:
a) thigh bone
b) knee cap
c) shin bone
d) ankle bone
e) heel bone
f) upper arm bone
g) wrist bones
h) breast bone
6. State four functions of the human skeleton.
7. State the number of:
a) bones in the human vertebral column
b) pairs of true ribs
c) lumbar vertebrae
8. Study the following diagrams showing the main bones of the pectoral gir-
dle and the human arm (forelimb) and answer the questions that follow:

a) Identify bone X.
b) Parts of some of these bones meet at certain joints. By using the
letters (A–H) only, state which parts of the bones form the shoulder
joint.
c) Name the type of synovial joint that is located at the following parts
of the body:

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 239

 i. At the elbow
ii. Where the lower limb joins the pelvis
iii. In the wrist
9. The diagram below shows the legs of an athlete while he is waiting for a
race to start. The letters A to F show some of the muscles as well as joints
that will be used during the race.

a) When the Starter’s gun is fired, the athlete’s right leg will straighten,
pushing the athlete upwards and forwards. Which of the letters (A
to F) indicate muscles that will:
i. relax
ii. contract
b) The leg shown in the diagram has different types of joints. Which
of the following letters (A to F) indicates:
i. a hinge joint
ii. a ball and socket joint
10. During the race, the above athlete suffered an injury to his right knee
that resulted in torn ligaments. As a consequence, he was not allowed to
participate in competitions for six weeks, and was only paid one third of
his monthly income during this time.
a) What are ligaments?
b) Do you think that athletes who are unable to take part in competi-
tions due to injury should be entitled to their full income? Give a
reason for your answer.
c) After six weeks the athlete found out that the knee injury was perma-
nent. He had surgery to fit in an artificial knee, which could perform
better than his original knee. Suggest why he should not be allowed
to participate in the competitions he took part in previously.
11. Skeleton and Movement – True or False? If it is false provide a reason for
why you think the statement is false.

240 7.8. Summary

 a) The skeleton’s role is to provide support, protection and capacity for
movement.
b) The skeleton is divided into the axial and appendicular skeleton.
c) The axial skeleton consists of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and
their attached limbs.
d) Carpals are found in the ankles and tarsals in the wrists.
e) The biceps muscle raises the arm while the triceps lowers it in an
antagonistic pair.
f) Synovial liquid lubricates joints and keeps them friction free.
g) Bone joints in the cranium are examples of fibrous joints.
h) The neck contains 7 lumbar vertebrae.
i) Tendons join muscles to bone and are elastic while ligaments join
bone to bone and are non-elastic.
j) Bone is composed of flexible minerals such as Calcium and Phos-
phate with rigid fibres of Collagen.
k) Osteocyte is another word for bone cell.
12. Compare the biceps and triceps muscles with respect to:
a) Point of origin
b) Point of insertion
c) Function

Check answers online with the exercise code

below or click on ’show me the answer’.
1. 2CTG 2. 2CTH 3. 2CTJ 4. 2CTK 5. 2CTM 6. 2CTN
7. 2CTP 8. 2CTQ 9. 2CTR 10. 2CTS 11. 2CTT 12. 2CTV

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 241

 CHAPTER 8

Transport systems in animals

8.1 Overview 244

8.2 Circulatory systems in animals 245
8.3 Lymphatic circulatory system 262
8.4 Cardiovascular diseases 266
8.5 Treatment of heart diseases 269
8.6 Summary 272
 8 Transport systems in animals

8.1 Overview ESG8V

Introduction ESG8W

All living organisms require oxygen and nutrients, and a method of removing
carbon dioxide and waste products. However, the circulatory system is not lim-
ited to the delivery of nutrients, gas exchange, and waste removal. Hormones,
too, rely on the circulatory system to reach target organs, and the immune sys-
tem depends on the transport of white blood cells and antibodies. This chapter
discusses transport systems found in mammalian systems, with a focus on trans-
port systems found in humans.

Key concepts

• There are open and closed circulatory systems. In an open circulatory

system blood enters a cavity, in a closed circulatory system blood remains
in vessels.
• A double closed circulation system consists of the pulmonary and sys-
temic circulatory systems.
• The direction of blood flow is significant. In the systemic circulatory
system oxygenated blood is transported to the body and deoxygenated
returns to the heart. In the pulmonary circulatory system, deoxygenated
blood is sent to the lungs, and oxygenated blood is returned to the heart.
• Specialised cells (sinoatrial node) send signals to the atrioventricular node
to cause the atria and ventricles to contact and control the cardiac cycle
and heart rate.
• The structure of blood vessels such as arteries, veins and capillaries are
suited to their function.
• The lymphatic system transports lymph around the body and returns fluid
to the blood circulatory system.
• The lymphatic system also plays an important role in immunity.
• Conditions and diseases of the heart and circulatory system include high
and low blood pressure, heart attacks and strokes. Treatments include
stents, valve replacements, bypass surgery, pacemakers, and heart trans-
plants.

244 8.1. Overview

8.2 Circulatory systems in animals ESG8X

Transport systems are crucial to survival. Unicellular organisms rely on simple

diffusion for transport of nutrients and removal of waste. Multicellular organ-
isms have developed more complex circulatory systems.

Open and closed circulation systems ESG8Y

There are two types of circulatory systems found in animals: open and closed
circulatory systems.

Open circulatory systems

In an open circulatory system, blood vessels transport all fluids into a cavity.
When the animal moves, the blood inside the cavity moves freely around the
body in all directions. The blood bathes the organs directly, thus supplying
oxygen and removing waste from the organs. Blood flows at a very slow speed
due to the absence of smooth muscles, which, as you learnt previously, are
responsible for contraction of blood vessels. Most invertebrates (crabs, insects,
snails etc.) have an open circulatory system. Figure 8.1 shows a schematic of
an open circulatory system delivering blood directly to tissues.

Figure 8.1: Open circulatory system.

Closed circulatory systems

Closed circulatory systems are different to open circulatory systems because

blood never leaves the blood vessels. Instead, it is transferred from one blood
vessel to another continuously without entering a cavity. Blood is transported
in a single direction, delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells and removing
waste products. Closed circulatory systems can be further divided into single
circulatory systems and double circulatory systems.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 245

 Single and double circulation systems ESG8Z

The circulatory system is a broad term that encompasses the cardiovascular and
lymphatic systems. The lymphatic system will be discussed later in this chapter.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart (cardio) and the vessels required
for transport of blood (vascular). The vascular system consists of arteries, veins
and capillaries. Vertebrates (animals with backbones like fish, birds, reptiles,
etc.), including most mammals, have closed cardiovascular systems. The two
main circulation pathways in invertebrates are the single and double circulation
pathways.

Single circulatory pathways

Single circulatory pathways as shown in the diagram below consist of a double

chambered heart with an atrium and ventricle (the heart structure will be de-
scribed in detail later in this chapter). Fish possess single circulation pathways.
The heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills where it gets oxygenated.
Oxygenated blood is then supplied to the entire fish body, with deoxygenated
blood returned to the heart.

Figure 8.2: Single circulation system as found in a typical fish species. The red repre-
sents oxygen-rich or oxygenated blood, the blue represents oxygen-deficient or deoxy-
genated blood.

246 8.2. Circulatory systems in animals

Double circulatory systems FACT
Humans, birds, and
mammals have a
Double circulation pathways are found in birds and mammals. Animals with
four-chambered
this type of circulatory system have a four-chambered heart. heart. Fish have a
two-chambered
heart, one atrium
and one ventricle.
Amphibians have a
three-chambered
heart with two atria
and one ventricle.
The advantage of a
four chambered
heart is that there is
no mixture of the
oxygenated and
deoxygenated
blood.

Figure 8.3: Double circulation system showing pulmonary and systemic circuits.

The right atrium receives deoxygenated from the body and the right ventricle
sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated. The left atrium receives oxygenated
blood from the lungs and the left ventricle sends it to the rest of the body.
Most mammals, including humans, have this type of circulatory system. These
circulatory systems are called ’double’ circulatory systems because they are
made up of two circuits, referred to as the pulmonary and systemic circulatory
systems.

Human circulatory systems ESG92

The human circulatory system involves the pulmonary and systemic circulatory
systems. The pulmonary circulatory system consists of blood vessels that trans-
port deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and return oxygenated
blood from the lungs to the heart. In the systemic circulatory system, blood
vessels transport oxygenated blood from the heart to various organs in the body
and return deoxygenated blood to the heart.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 247

FACT Pulmonary circulation system
A simulation that
shows how the
In the pulmonary circulation system, deoxygenated blood leaves the heart
human circulatory
system is divided through the right ventricle and is transported to the lungs via the pulmonary
into two circuits: artery. The pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated
the systemic and the blood. It carries blood to the capillaries where carbon dioxide diffuses out
pulmonary
of the blood into the alveoli (lung cells) and then into the lungs, where it is
circulatory systems:
http://www. exhaled. At the same time, oxygen diffuses into the alveoli, and then enters the
biologyinmotion. blood and is returned to the left atrium of the heart via the pulmonary vein.
com/cardio/
index.html

Figure 8.4: Pulmonary circulation system. Oxygen rich blood is shown in red; oxygen-
depleted blood is shown in blue.

Systemic circulation

Systemic circulation refers to the part of the circulation system that leaves the
heart, carrying oxygenated blood to the body’s cells, and returning deoxy-
genated blood to the heart. Blood leaves through the left ventricle into the
aorta, the body’s largest artery. The aorta leads to smaller arteries that supply
all organs of the body. These arteries finally branch into capillaries. In the
capillaries, oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cells, and waste and carbon
dioxide diffuse out of cells and into blood. Deoxygenated blood in capillaries
then moves into venules that merge into veins, and the blood is transported
back to the heart. These veins merge into two major veins, namely the su-
perior vena cava and the inferior vena cava (Figure 8.9). The movement of
blood is indicated by arrows on the diagram. The deoxygenated blood enters
the right atrium via the the superior vena cava. Major arteries supply blood
to the brain, small intestine, liver and kidneys. However, systemic circulation
also reaches the other organs, including the muscles and skin. The following
diagram (Figure 8.5) shows the circulatory system in humans.

248 8.2. Circulatory systems in animals

Figure 8.5: The systemic circulatory system supplies blood to the entire body.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 249

FACT
Clench your fist - The heart and associated blood vessels ESG93
the size of your fist
is more or less the
size of your heart. External structure of the heart

The heart is a large muscle, about the size of your clenched fist, that pumps
blood through repeated rhythmic contractions. The heart is situated in your tho-
rax, just behind your breastbone, in a space called the pericardial cavity. The
heart is enclosed by a double protective membrane, called the pericardium.
The region between the two pericardium layers is filled with pericardial fluid
which protects the heart from shock and enables the heart to contract without
friction.

The heart is a muscle (myocardium) and consists of four chambers. The upper
two chambers of the heart are called atria (singular= atrium). The two atria are
separated by the inter-atrial septum. The lower two chambers of the heart are
known as ventricles and are separated from each other by the interventricular
septum. The ventricles have more muscular walls than the atria, and the walls
of the right ventricle, which supplies blood to the lungs is less muscular than
the walls of the left ventricle, which must pump blood to the whole body.

Figure 8.6: The external structure of the heart: the major part of the heart consists of
muscles and is known as the myocardium. The region in which the heart is found is
known as the pericardial cavity, which is enclosed by the pericardium.

In addition, there are a number of large blood vessels that carry blood towards
and away from the heart. The terms ‘artery’ and ‘vein’ are not determined by
what the vessel transports (oxygenated blood or deoxygenated) but by whether
the vessel flows to or from the heart.

250 8.2. Circulatory systems in animals

Arteries take blood away from the heart and generally carry oxygenated blood, FACT
with the exception of the pulmonary artery. Veins transport blood towards In humans, the left
lung is smaller than
the heart and generally carry deoxygenated blood, except the pulmonary vein.
the right lung to
On the right side of the heart, the superior vena cava transports deoxygenated make room in the
blood from the head and arms and the inferior vena cava transports deoxy- chest cavity for the
genated blood from the lower part of the body back to the heart, where it enters heart.
the right atrium. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away from
the right ventricle of the heart towards the lungs to be oxygenated.

On the left side of the heart, the pulmonary vein brings oxygenated blood from
the lungs towards the left atrium of the heart and the oxygenated blood exits
the left ventricle via the aorta and is transported to all parts of the body.

Since the heart is a muscle, and therefore requires oxygen and nutrients itself
to keep beating, it receives blood from the coronary arteries, and returns de-
oxygenated blood via the coronary veins.

Internal structure of the heart

As previously mentioned, the heart is made up of four chambers. There are

two atria at the top of the heart which receive blood and two ventricles at the
bottom of the heart which pump blood out of the heart. The septum divides
the left and right sides of the heart.

Figure 8.7: The internal structure of the mammalian heart.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 251

FACT In order to make sure that blood flows in only one direction (forward), and to
This video shows prevent backflow of blood, there are valves between the atria and ventricles
the passage of
(atrioventricular valves). These valves only open in one direction, to let blood
blood through the
heart and around into the ventricles, and are flapped shut by the pressure of the blood when the
the body. ventricles contract.
See video:
2CTW
The tricuspid valve is situated between the right atrium and the right ventricle
while the bicuspid/ mitral valve is found between the left atrium and the left
FACT ventricle. Strong tendinous cords (chordae tendineae) attached to valves pre-
Memory trick: the
tRI cuspid valve is vent them from turning inside out when they close. The semi-lunar valves are
found on the RIght located at the bottom of the aorta and pulmonary artery, and prevent blood
side of the heart. from re-entering the ventricles after it has been pumped out of the heart.

In the previous sections we have discussed pulmonary and systemic circulation,

and we have described the four chamber structure of the heart as well as some
of the major arteries and veins that transport blood towards and away from the
heart. In order to summarise all this information, study the flow diagram below
which describes the passage of deoxygenated blood through one full cycle.

Figure 8.8: Flow diagram depicting movement of blood from the heart through the
circulatory system. The blue boxes represent deoxygenated blood, the purple boxes
represent capillary networks where gaseous exchange occurs and the red boxes repre-
sent stages at which the blood is oxygenated.

252 8.2. Circulatory systems in animals

Major organs and systemic circulation ESG94

All the organs of the body are supplied with blood. This is necessary so that
the cells can obtain oxygen, which is required for cellular respiration, as well
as essential nutrients. Each organ has an artery that supplies it with blood from
the heart. Metabolic wastes, including carbon dioxide, need to be removed
from cells and returned to the heart. These move into the capillaries which
enter into veins that eventually enters either the superior or inferior vena cava
which then enters the right atrium.

Arteries and veins have been named according to the organ to which they sup-
ply blood. The liver receives oxygenated blood from the heart via the hepatic
artery. This artery runs alongside the hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal
vein contains nutrients that have been absorbed by the digestive system. This
nutrient-rich blood must first pass through the liver, so that the nutrient compo-
sition of the blood can be controlled. Blood passes from the liver to the heart
through the hepatic vein. Metabolic waste is circulated in the blood, and if
allowed to accumulate, would eventually reach toxic levels. The kidneys are
supplied with blood (which contain waste) via the renal arteries. The kidneys
filter metabolic waste from the blood, passing it to urine to be excreted safely.
Blood leaves the kidney via the renal vein.

Figure 8.9: Major blood vessels of the circulatory system.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 253

 The brain is supplied with blood via the carotid arteries and the vertebral ar-
teries. The blood from the brain is drained via the jugular veins. The brain
is supplied with 15% of the total amount of blood pumped by the heart. The
heart is also a muscle (myocardium) that requires blood flow to work. Blood is
supplied to the heart via two coronary arteries, and leaves the heart via four
cardiac veins.

Investigation: Dissecting a mammalian heart

Aim:

To dissect a mammalian heart (sheep or ox heart).

Apparatus:

• your teacher will give each group a heart to dissect

• a scalpel handle with a blade or a sharp non-serrated knife
• a sharp pair of scissors
• a pair of forceps
• gloves
• paper towel
• pictures of the external and internal views of the heart

Method:

1. Work in groups of four.

2. Place the heart on the dissecting board with the atria at the top and the
ventricles facing downwards.
3. Carefully examine the external view of the heart. Try identify the vertical
and horizontal groves on the heart. This is the position of the internal
walls between the chambers of the heart.
4. Examine and note the difference in the walls of the ventricles and atria.
Also note the difference in appearance between the walls of the ventricles
and atria.
5. With the scalpel or sharp knife carefully cut the heart open across the left
atrium.
6. Compare the thickness and the size of the right ventricle and atrium.
7. Identify the valves and examine the tendinous cords which are attached
to the valves.
8. Identify the semi-lunar valves at the bottom of the pulmonary artery.
9. Now cut through the left side of the heart in the same way as you did the
right side of the heart.
10. Carefully cut through the septum of the heart so that you have two halves.

254 8.2. Circulatory systems in animals

Questions:

1. What is the smooth outer layer of the heart called?

2. Did you notice any fat around the heart?
3. Did you notice a difference between the atria and ventricles externally?
4. Name the blood vessels visible on the outside of the heart.
5. Compare the thickness of the walls of the atria and ventricles. Explain
why they are different.
6. Explain the difference between the left and right ventricular walls.

The cardiac cycle ESG95

A cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of events that happens in the heart from
the start of one heartbeat to the start of the subsequent heartbeat. During a
cardiac cycle the atria and the ventricles work separately. The sinoatrial node
(pacemaker) is located in the right atrium and regulates the contraction and
relaxing of the atria.

• At rest, each heartbeat takes approximately 0,8 seconds.

• The normal heart rate at rest is approximately 72 beats per minute.
• During systole the heart muscle contracts.
• During diastole the heart muscle relaxes.

The phases of the cardiac cycle will be broken down and explained in the
following section:

Phase 1: Atrial systole (Atrium contracts)

• Blood from the superior and inferior vena cava flows into the right atrium.
• Blood from the pulmonary veins flows into the left atrium.
• The atria contract at the same time.
• This contraction lasts for about 0,1 seconds.
• Blood is forced through the tricuspid and bicuspid valves into the ventri-
cles.

Phase 2: Ventricular systole (Ventricle contracts)

• Ventricles relax and fill with blood.

• The ventricles contract for 0,3 seconds.
• Blood is forced upwards, closing the bicuspid and tricuspid valves (lubb
sound).
• The blood travels up into the pulmonary artery (on the right) and the
aorta (on the left).
• The atria are relaxed during ventricular systole.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 255

 Phase 3: General diastole: (General relaxation of the heart)

• The ventricles relax, thus decreasing the flow from the ventricles.
• Once there is no pressure the blood flow closes the semi-lunar valves in
the aorta and the pulmonary artery (dubb sound).
• General diastole lasts for about 0,4 seconds.

Figure 8.10: The cardiac cycle of contraction and relaxation of heart muscles during
pumping of blood throughout the body.

The sound the heart makes

The heart makes two beating sounds. One is loud and one is soft. We call this
the lubb dubb sound. The lubb sound is caused by the pressure of the ventricles
contracting, forcing the atrioventricular valves shut. The dubb sound is caused
by the lack of pressure in the ventricles which causes the blood to flow back
and close the semi-lunar valves in the pulmonary artery and aorta. A doctor
uses a stethoscope to listen to the heartbeats. Alternatively, a person’s pulse
can be measured by pressing a finger (other than the thumb which already has
a pulse) against the brachial artery in the wrist or the carotid artery next to the
trachea. The pulse of the heart allows us to measure the heart rate which is the
number of heartbeats per unit time.

256 8.2. Circulatory systems in animals

Mechanisms for controlling cardiac cycle and heart rate (pulse) FACT
Simple simulation
of how electrical
The cardiac cycle is controlled by nerve fibres extending from nodes of nerve
activity spreads over
bundles through the heart muscle. There are two nodes, namely the sinoatrial the heart. http:
node (SA node) and the atrioventricular node (AV node). The SA node is lo- //en.wikipedia.
cated within the wall of the right atrium while the AV node is located between org/wiki/File:
ECG_Principle_
the atria and the ventricles. Electrical impulses generated in the SA node cause
fast.gif
the right and left atria to contract first, initiating the cardiac cycle. The elec-
trical signal reaches the AV node, where the signal pauses, before spreading
through conductive tissues called the bundles of His and Purkinje fibres. These
fibres branch into pathways which supply the right and left ventricles, causing
the ventricles to contract. The SA node is the pacemaker of the heart since
electrical signals are normally generated there - without any stimulation from
the nervous system (automaticity). However, although the heart rate is auto-
matic, it changes during exercise or when experiencing intense emotions like
fear, anger and excitement. This is as a result of added stimulation from the
nervous system and hormones, such as adrenaline.

Electrical activity

The electrical activity in the heart is so strong that it can be measured from the
surface of the body as an electrocardiogram (ECG). A normal heart has a very
regular rhythm. Arrhythmia is a condition where the heart has an abnormal
rhythm, as shown in the figures. Tachycardia is when the resting heart rate is
too fast (more than 100 beats per minute), and bradycardia is when the heart
rate is too slow (less than 60 beats per minute).

Figure 8.11: Electrocardiogram depicting different heart rhythms.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 257

 Investigation: Investigating heart rates before, during and after strenuous
exercise

Aim:

To investigate your heart rate before, during and after strenuous exercise.

Apparatus:

• stopwatch
• pen and paper for recording

Method:

1. Work in pairs on the field and ensure you have a stop watch.
2. One partner performs the experiment and the other records the results.
Partners then swap roles.
3. Take the resting pulse rate before exercising.
4. One partner runs quickly around the field twice.
5. Immediately after the run take his/her pulse.
6. Continue to take his pulse every minute for 5 minutes.
7. Record the results and plot a graph using the data pertaining to you.

Results:

Record your results here:

Time Heart rate (beats/minute)

Before exercise (resting)
0 min(immediately after exercise)
1 min (after exercise)
2 min
3 min
4 min
5 min

Draw a line graph to illustrate your results. Show the resting pulse rate as a
separate dotted line on the axis.

Conclusions:

Write your conclusion.

258 8.2. Circulatory systems in animals

 FACT
Cardiac output is
the volume of blood
Questions: that is pumped by
the heart in
one-minute.
1. Write a hypothesis for this investigation. Cardiac output is
2. Write down the independent variable. equal to the stroke
volume (SV)
3. Write down the dependent variable. multiplied by the
4. Name ONE factor that must be kept constant during this investigation. heart rate (HR).

5. Write down two ways in which the accuracy of this investigation can be
improved.
6. What conclusions can be made about your cardiovascular fitness?
7. Explain why the heart rate increases during exercise.

Stroke Volume

The stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped through the heart during
each cardiac cycle. The stroke volume can change depending on the needs of
the body. During exercise, muscles need more oxygen and glucose in order
to produce energy in the form of ATP. Therefore the heart increases its stroke
volume and stroke rate to meet this demand. This is a temporary change to
maintain homeostasis, and after exercise the heart rate and stroke volume return
to normal.

When a person exercises regularly, and is fit, the heart undergoes certain long-
term adaptations. The heart muscle gets stronger, and expels more blood with
each contraction. There is therefore a greater stroke volume with each heart-
beat. Since the heart expels more blood with each stroke, the heart has to beat
less often in order to maintain the same volume of blood flow. Therefore, fit
people often have lower resting heart rates.

Blood Pressure

Blood pressure refers to the force that the blood exerts on the blood vessel
walls. Blood pressure is determined by the size of the blood vessels and ensures
that blood flows to all the parts of the body. Normal blood pressure is 120/80
(120 over 80) measured in units of mercury (mm Hg). The 120 represents the
systolic pressure, which is when the ventricles contract. The 80 represents the
diastolic pressure, which is when general diastole occurs.

Blood pressure can be increased by smoking, stress, adrenalin surges, water

retention, high cholesterol, obesity and lack of exercise. High blood pressure
(hypertension) is dangerous and increases the risk of an aneurysm, stroke or
heart attack. Low blood pressure (hypotension) can lead to light-headedness
and fainting because of insufficient blood supply to the brain.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 259

FACT
Laughing is good Blood vessels ESG96
exercise for your
heart. Whenever
you laugh, the We will now examine the structure and function of arteries, capillaries, veins
blood vessels dilate and valves.
(open up), causing
the blood flow to
increase, thus Arteries
keeping your heart
healthy. Arteries carry blood Away from the heart. The pressure created by the pumping
heart forces blood through the arteries.

Arteries have three layers. They have

an outside layer made up of
connective tissue; a middle layer
made up of smooth muscle, to allow
contraction of the arteries in order to
regulate the pressure of blood flow,
and an inside layer of tightly
connected simple squamous
endothelial cells. The large arteries
close to the heart branch into smaller
arterioles (smaller arteries) and
eventually branch into capillaries. Figure 8.12: Micrograph of artery.

Capillaries

Capillaries are little more than a single layer of endothelial cells. Capillaries
form intricate networks throughout the tissues. They allow water, nutrients and
gases to diffuse out of the blood and waste materials to diffuse into the blood.
This exchange occurs between the blood and the tissue fluid. The tissue fluid
is the fluid surrounding the cells. The blood cells never come into contact with
the cells. The blood and tissue fluid exchange material, and the tissue fluid
then exchanges material with the cells.

Figure 8.13: Diagram representing the branching of an artery into arterioles. These
subsequently form the capillary bed which empties into several venules, leading to the
vein.

260 8.2. Circulatory systems in animals

Veins

The intricate networks formed by the

capillaries eventually converge to
form venules, (small veins). The
venules then converge to form veins
which return the blood to the heart.
Vein walls only consist of two layers.
The outer layer is made up of
connective tissue whereas the inner
layer is made up of endothelial cells.

Valves

Once the blood has passed through

the capillaries very little blood
pressure remains to return blood to
the heart.Instead of pressure from the
heart veins use a series of valves to
force blood to return to the heart.
Contraction of the muscles squeezes
the veins, pushing the blood through
them. The valves cause the blood to Figure 8.14: Schematic diagram of a vein.
flow in only one direction, back to the
heart.

Comparison between arteries, veins and capillaries ESG97

The figure and table below summarise the differences between arteries, capil-
laries and veins.

Figure 8.15: Cross-section showing the differences between a) arteries, b) veins and c)
capillaries.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 261

FACT
The average adult Arteries Capillaries Veins
heart beats: blood moves away blood supply at tissue blood returned to the
• 72 times a from the heart level heart
minute thick middle layer of one layer of thin middle layer as
• 100 000 involuntary muscle to endothelium with very pressure is reduced
times a day
increase or decrease small diameter
• 3 600 000
times a year
diameter
• A billion
inner layer of only endothelium layer larger diameter of inner
times during endothelium which present cavity, lined with
a lifetime. reduces friction endothelium to reduce
friction
situated deeper in the situated at tissue level situated near the
tissue to maintain body only surface of the skin to
temperature release heat
no valves except in the no valves present semi-lunar valves are
base of the aorta and present at intervals, to
the pulmonary arteries prevent back flow of
blood
blood always under blood is under high blood is under low
high pressure pressure where red pressure
blood cells are forced
to flow through in
single file
a pulse can be felt as no pulse no pulse can be
blood flows detected

Table 8.1: Table comparing arteries, capillaries, and veins

8.3 Lymphatic circulatory system ESG98

The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system, comprising a network of

inter-connected tubes known as lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called
lymph towards the heart.

The lymphatic organs play an important part in the immune system. The lym-
phatic system transports the white blood cells which are important in the im-
mune response against pathogens.

Composition of the lymphatic system ESG99

The lymphatic system is composed of lymph vessels, lymph ducts, lymph nodes
and organs. The organs associated with the lymphatic system are the spleen
and thymus. The spleen is the boundary between the blood and the lymphatic
system. Knots of lymphatic tissue in the spleen add lymphocytes to the blood.

262 8.3. Lymphatic circulatory system

The spleen also acts as a filter for the blood, and helps to destroy worn out
red-blood cells. In the event of damage to the spleen, it can be removed and
its functions will be carried out by the liver, the bone marrow and the lymph
nodes.

Figure 8.16: Diagram of human lymphatic system.

Lymph vessels are located as a network throughout all tissues in the body.
Lymph vessels assist the circulatory system and all the cells of the body by
removing wastes, germs and excess water from the tissue fluid. Lymph vessels
carry lymph fluid from the bottom of the body up towards the heart and also
drains from the head and shoulders as well as the arms.

Muscle contractions help push the lymph fluid upwards, and valves prevent the
lymph fluid from flowing backwards. Many lymph vessels eventually merge
into two large lymphatic vessels, called lymphatic ducts which empty into
veins in the neck. The thoracic duct collects from the left side of the body
and the lower right side of the body and empties into the left subclavian vein.
The right thoracic duct collects from the right arm, thorax, neck and head, and
drains into the right subclavian vein.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 263

 Most of the disease-fighting function of the adult mammal is carried out by
the lymph nodes which occur along the lymph ducts. Lymph nodes are small,
irregularly-shaped masses through which lymph vessels flow. Clusters of nodes
occur in the armpits, groin, and neck. Cells of the immune system line channels
through the nodes and attack bacteria and viruses travelling in the lymph, so
they basically act as tiny filters.

Figure 8.17: Interaction between lymphatic and cardiovascular circulatory systems.

Functions of lymphatic system ESG9B

The main functions of the lymphatic system are as follows:

• The main function of the lymphatic system is to collect and transport

tissue fluids from the intercellular spaces in all the tissues of the body,
back to the veins in the blood system.
• Lymph plays an important role in returning plasma proteins to the blood-
stream.
• Digested fats are absorbed and then transported from the villi in the
small intestine to the bloodstream via the lymph vessels.
• Lymphocytes are manufactured in the lymph nodes
• Antibodies manufactured in the lymph nodes assist the body to build up
an effective immunity to infectious diseases.

264 8.3. Lymphatic circulatory system

 • Lymph nodes play an important role in the defence mechanism of the FACT
body. They filter out micro-organisms (such as bacteria) and foreign sub- Watch this video on
lymph.
stances such as toxins.
See video: 2CTY
• Lymph transports large molecular compounds (such as enzymes and hor-
mones) from their manufactured sites to the bloodstream.

NOTE:

Elephantiasis is a disease
characterised by thickening of the skin
and underlying tissues, especially in
the legs and genitals. It occurs when
the body becomes infected by
parasitic infections, which target the Figure 8.18: An Ethiopian farmer affected
lymphatic system. by elephantiasis after being infected by a
worm that settled in the lymphatic system
.

A comparison of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems

Table 8.2 provides a comparison of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.

Cardiovascular System Lymphatic System

Blood is responsible for collecting Lymph is responsible for collecting
and distributing oxygen, nutrients and removing waste products left
and hormones to the tissues of entire behind in the tissues.
body.
Blood flows in the arteries, Lymph flows in an open circuit from
capillaries, and veins. the tissues into lymphatic vessels.
Blood flows towards the heart and Lymph flows in one direction only
away from the heart. (towards the heart).
Blood is pumped by the heart to all Lymph is not pumped. It passively
parts of the body. flows from the tissues into the lymph
capillaries.
Blood consists of the liquid plasma Lymph that has been filtered and is
that transports the red and white ready to return to the cardiovascular
blood cells and platelets. system is a clear or milky white fluid.
Blood is visible and damage to blood Lymph is colourless or translucent
vessels causes obvious signs such as and damage to the lymphatic system
bleeding or bruising. is difficult to detect until swelling
occurs.
Blood is filtered by the kidneys. Lymph is filtered by lymph nodes
located throughout the body.

Table 8.2: Comparison between the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 265

 8.4 Cardiovascular diseases ESG9C

Cardiovascular diseases affect the heart or blood vessels (arteries, veins and
capillaries). Cardiovascular diseases are the biggest cause of deaths worldwide,
and the incidence of these diseases is rising rapidly in countries like South
Africa. Cardiovascular diseases can be avoided through improvements in eating
habits and through regular exercise. In this section we will study the causes of
heart attacks and strokes as well as how these may be treated. We will also
study the causes of high and low blood pressure and how these have an effect
on our well-being. We will finally discuss the types of treatments that are
available such as stents, valve replacements, bypass surgery, pacemakers and
heart transplants.

Heart attack ESG9D

This is also referred to as a myocardial infarction. Heart muscles are provided

with oxygenated blood by a system of coronary arteries. Blocked flow of blood
can cause the death of cardiac muscle due to lack of oxygen. Arteries get
blocked as a result of the gradual build-up of lipids and cholesterol, which
form a plaque. This condition of plaque build up in the arteries is referred to as
atherosclerosis. When a plaque bursts, it causes blood to clot at the site of the
rupture and obstructs the artery (see diagram in Figure 8.20). Often there are
no symptoms of atherosclerosis. However, some people who have narrowed
coronary arteries experience chest pain, (angina), when blood flow to the heart
is insufficient.

Figure 8.19: Heart attack: the blood clot blocks the coronary arteries and cardiac
muscle dies from lack of oxygen.

266 8.4. Cardiovascular diseases

Figure 8.20: 1. Normal arteries have a wide diameter through which blood can easily
flow. 2. Plaque forms on the walls of the artery, narrowing the lumen. 3. When the
plaques bursts, platelets form a blood clot at the site of rupture, which can obstruct the
artery.

See video: 2CTZ

See video: 2CV2

See video: 2CV3

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 267

 Hypertension ESG9F

As previously mentioned blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood

against the walls of the blood vessels, especially the arteries. Normal blood
pressure at rest is within the range of 100–140 mm Hg systolic (top reading)
and 60–90 mm Hg (bottom reading). High blood pressure (hypertension) is
said to be present if it is persistently at or above 140/90 mm Hg. Hypertension
is a major risk factor for strokes, heart attacks and bursting of blood vessels
(aneurysms). Hypertension is essentially caused by a resistance to blood flow
in blood vessels.

Figure 8.21: The instrument used to measure blood pressure is a sphygmomanometer.

This figure shows an automated arm blood pressure meter showing arterial hyperten-
sion. From the top reading systolic pressure is 158 mm Hg and diastolic reading is
99 mm Hg and the heart rate is 80 beats per minute.

Hypotension ESG9G

Hypotension refers to abnormally low blood pressure, especially in the arteries

of the systemic circulation. A patient is considered hypotensive if he/she has
a systolic blood pressure less than 90 millimetres of mercury (mm Hg) or dias-
tolic pressure being less than 60 mm Hg. However, in practice, blood pressure
is considered too low only if noticeable symptoms are present, such as feel-
ing light-headed. If the blood pressure is sufficiently low, fainting and often
seizures will occur. Severely low blood pressure can deprive the brain and
other vital organs of oxygen and nutrients, leading to a life-threatening condi-
tion called shock.

Stroke ESG9H

A stroke results when a clot, burst artery or blood vessel interrupts flow of
blood to the brain, resulting in glucose and oxygen not reaching the brain. This
causes impairment in speech, movement and memory. Larger strokes can result
in paralysis or death.

See video: 2CV4

268 8.4. Cardiovascular diseases

Aneurysm ESG9J

An aneurysm is a localised blood-filled bubble in an artery wall. These bub-

bles form due to a weakness in the blood vessel wall and can grow quite large.
Aneurysms can occur in many places in the body, including the brain, ab-
domen or aorta. When aneurysms burst, they result in massive internal blood
loss and death.

Figure 8.22: A hemorrhagic stroke caused by a burst aneurysm in the brain.

8.5 Treatment of heart diseases ESG9K

We will now examine some of the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

Stents ESG9M

In some cases, a small wire mesh tube is inserted into a blocked or narrowed
artery to keep it open. This is called a percutaneous coronary intervention. To
perform this procedure, doctors insert a needle into the femoral artery, and then
thread a very thin wire through the arteries until it reaches the heart and the
area of blockage. A thin catheter with a small wire coil (stent) and in inflatable
balloon is then threaded over the thin wire and inserted into the coronary artery
at the site of the blockage. Once in position, the balloon is gently inflated to
open the artery and remove the blockage. The stent is left in the artery so that
the artery does not block again, and the catheter is removed.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 269

 Figure 8.23: Stent replacement in heart patients.

See video: 2CV5

Pacemaker ESG9N

Pacemakers are small electrical devices that get implanted into the chest or ab-
domen of patients in order to help control arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms).
Modern devices are quite advanced and can learn a patient’s normal heart-beat
patterns and detect when the heart enters an abnormal rhythm ( e.g. skips a
beat). The device will then send out a little electrical pulse to stimulate the
heart to beat and restore a normal heart beat.

Valve replacement ESG9P

Valve replacement surgery is the replacement of one or more of the heart valves
with an artificial valve. There are two types of valves presently being used:
Biological valves are manufactured from animal or human tissue. These valves
have a life span of approximately 12 to 15 years. If biological valves are used
the patient generally does not require additional blood thinning medication.
Mechanical valves are manufactured from synthetic materials. These valves,
because they are made of synthetic materials last longer, but the patient needs
to take anti-coagulant medication for the rest of their lives.

270 8.5. Treatment of heart diseases

 FACT
Coronary Bypass Surgery ESG9Q The survival after
heart transplant
surgery is about
This is the most common type of surgery used for the treatment of coronary 88% after the first
heart disease. The surgeon removes a section of a vein from the patient’s leg year, 75% after 5
years and 56% after
and then carefully grafts the removed vein (attaches) onto the aorta to bypass 10 years.
the blocked part of the artery.
FACT
See video: 2CV6 The first human
heart transplant was
performed on the
Heart Transplant ESG9R 3rd December 1967
by Professor
Christiaan Barnard,
a South African
A heart transplant is the surgical removal of a person’s diseased heart and re- heart surgeon. The
placement with a healthy heart from a donor. Heart failure is a condition in patient, Mr Louis
which the heart is damaged or weak. As a result, it cannot pump enough blood Washkansky,
to meet the body’s needs. Heart transplants are done as a life-saving measure unfortunately only
survived for 18 days
for end-stage heart failure. Donor hearts are in short supply, therefore patients after the surgery.
who need heart transplants go through a very careful selection process. They However the cause
must be sick enough to need a new heart, yet healthy enough to receive it. of death was
Survival rates for people receiving heart transplants have improved, especially pneumonia, and not
his new heart,
in the first year after the transplant.
which beat strongly
till his death.

Figure 8.24: Heart transplant by Dr Christiaan Barnard.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 271

 8.6 Summary ESG9S

• Nutrients and oxygen are required by cells for cellular respiration. These
are transported by blood to the various cells.
• Carbon dioxide and other waste products need to be transported from
the cells to the exterior. This is also transported via blood.
• There are open and closed circulatory systems. In an open circulatory
system blood enters a cavity, in a closed circulatory system blood remains
in vessels.
• A double closed circulation system consists of the pulmonary and sys-
temic circulatory systems.
• Blood is pumped through the heart under high pressure to the various
parts of the body.
• The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body
via veins and sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated.
• The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and
sends it via arteries to all parts of the body.
• Specialised cells (sinoatrial node) send signals to the atrioventricular node
to cause the atria and ventricles to contact and control the cardiac cycle
and heart rate.
• The lymphatic system is composed of lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and
organs.
• Lymph vessels assist the circulatory system and all the cells of the body
by removing wastes, germs and excess water from the tissue fluid.
• There are many diseases that affect the heart and circulatory system and
many treatments are available.

272 8.6. Summary

Exercise 8 – 1: End of chapter exercises

1. The following diagrams show the heart during the cardiac cycle. The
arrows represent the flow of blood. Study the diagrams and answer the
questions that follow:

a) Identify the structures labelled A and B respectively.

b) Name and explain what happens in each of the phases of the cardiac
cycle represented in:
i. Diagram I
ii. Diagram II
iii. Diagram III
2. Loss of a lot of blood, vomiting and diarrhoea often causes a decrease
in blood volume. As a result, blood cannot move normally around the
body, as blood vessels are not completely full. The tissues do not get
enough blood, leading to possible death of cells and hence damage to
organs.
a) Explain why severe vomiting and diarrhoea would cause a decrease
in the blood volume.
b) What is the relationship between blood volume and blood pressure?
3. Read the passage below and then answer the questions based on it.

When the ventricles of the heart pump blood into the arteries, the
pressure of the blood in the arteries is high. This is called systolic
pressure (average 120 mm Hg). When the heart muscle relaxes, the
pressure in the arteries is much less. This is called diastolic pressure
(average 80 mm Hg). The average blood pressure of a healthy person
is 120 over 80.

It is normal for a person’s blood pressure to differ slightly from the

average. If blood pressure is too high or too low there is medication
that can be used to control this. High blood pressure is called
’hypertension’ and low blood pressure is called ’hypotension’. There
are several contributing factors to heart disease, namely hypertension,
strokes, lack of exercise, smoking, rich fatty diets, obesity and
diabetes.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 273

 Research has shown that 25% of the South African population suffer
from hypertension and that this is on the increase.The treatment for
hypertension is expensive and has a great impact on the health system
and on the economy.

a) Explain what causes the pressure in the arteries to rise and fall.
b) Why is it essential that blood pressure in the capillary vessels be
much lower than that in the artery?
c) List three reasons why heart disease is on the increase in South
Africa.
d) Suggest one way in which the government could reduce the number
of people with heart disease.

4. Study the diagrams which show two cross-sections of mammalian blood

vessels and answer the questions that follow:

a) Which vessel, A or B is the artery?

b) Provide two reasons for your answer to the previous question.
c) Which vessel carries blood at low pressure?
d) Provide an explanation for your answer to the previous question.
e) Identify the parts numbered 1 to 4.
f) How do capillaries differ from larger blood vessels?
g) In which vessel, A or B would you expect to find valves?
h) What is the function of the valves in the previous question?
i) Name the blood vessel that:
i. carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
ii. carries oxygenated blood from the heart for systemic circulation
iii. carries blood from the digestive system to the liver

5. Study the diagram of the lymphatic system and answer the questions that
follow:

274 8.6. Summary

 a) Name the components of the lymphatic system.
b) Identify the:
i. blood vessel numbered 3
ii. duct numbered 4
iii. structure numbered 6
c) Name two factors that assist movement of the lymph fluid.
d) State four functions of lymph in the human body.
6. Multiple-choice questions
a) The left side of the heart:
i. transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs
ii. is more muscular than the right-hand side
iii. has a built in pacemaker
iv. is a mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
b) Angina is:
i. a panic attack caused by the release of too much adrenalin
ii. a fatal heart attack
iii. a serious heart cramp caused by a lack of oxygen in the cardiac
muscles
iv. the result of a clot in the blood vessels going to the brain

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 275

 c) The stage in the cardiac cycle when the blood is pumped into the
aorta and the pulmonary artery is:
i. atrial systole
ii. ventricular diastole
iii. general diastole
iv. ventricular systole
d) The valve between the left ventricle and the left atrium of the heart
is called the:
i. mitral valve
ii. tricuspid valve
iii. aortic semi-lunar valve
iv. pulmonary semi-lunar valve
e) The accompanying graph indicates that changes in adrenalin secre-
tion and the pulse rate, before, during (0 to 10 minutes) and after a
cigarette was smoked. Use the given graph to indicate which one of
the following deduction is a valid interpretation of the graph.

i. Smoking directly causes an increase in the basal metabolic rate.

ii. The cardiac muscles relax during smoking.
iii. Smoking directly stimulates the pulse rate.
iv. There is a no relationship between adrenalin secretion and
pulse rate.
f) Explain why there is a relationships between smoking and adrenalin
secretion.

276 8.6. Summary

7. Study the accompanying diagram of the ventral view of the external struc-
ture of the heart and answer the questions that follow.

a) Label parts numbered 1, 2, 7, 8.2 and 9.2

b) What type of blood (oxygenated or deoxygenated) is transported by
blood vessels 1, 3 and 6?
c) What possible danger to human health exists if the lumen of struc-
ture 4 is obstructed with a thick layer of cholesterol?
d) Discuss what happens during ventricular systole in the cardiac cy-
cle.
8. Study the diagrams below illustrating the structure of different types of
blood vessels. Graph A shows the average blood pressure in different
blood vessels in the human body, while graph B indicates the rate of
blood flow in the different blood vessels.

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 277

 a) Tabulate three structural differences between an artery and a vein.
b) Study graph B and give a reason why the rate of blood flow in the
capillaries is very low.
c) What is the systolic and diastolic pressure in the aorta? (graph A)

9. The accompanying diagram represents the basic human blood circula-

tion. Study the diagram and answer the questions.

a) Name the chambers of the heart illustrated as R and T.

b) Name the arteries indicated as I and K. (organ C is the liver and
organ E is the kidney)
c) Name the vein indicated as J.

278 8.6. Summary

 10. Answer the following questions with a word or phrase that corresponds
to the description given.
a) The membrane surrounding the heart.
b) The valve situated between the left atrium and left ventricle.
c) The phase in the cardiac cycle when the atria contract.
d) The name of the artery taking deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
e) The blood circulatory system that supplies the heart muscle with
oxygenated blood.
f) The disorder / condition that results from a blockage in a blood
vessel in the brain.
g) The instrument used to measure blood pressure.
h) The blood system that supplies oxygen to body cells.
i) The structure that separates the left and right sides of the heart.
j) The ability of the heart to contract at its own inherent rhythm.
k) The layer found on the inside of veins.
l) The blood vessel connecting the stomach and intestine to the liver.
m) Veins that have lost their elasticity and form small sacs of blood.
n) The smallest blood vessels in the body.
o) The pacemaker of the heart.

Check answers online with the exercise code

below or click on ’show me the answer’.
1. 2CV7 2. 2CV8 3. 2CV9 4. 2CVB 5. 2CVC 6a. 2CVD
6b. 2CVF 6c. 2CVG 6d. 2CVH 6e. 2CVJ 6f. 2CVK 7. 2CVM
8. 2CVN 9. 2CVP 10. 2CVQ

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 279

 CHAPTER 9

Biospheres to ecosystems

9.1 Overview 282

9.2 Biosphere 283
9.3 Biomes 284
9.4 Environment 295
9.5 Ecosystems 295
9.6 Energy flow 305
9.7 Nutrient cycles 309
9.8 Ecotourism 314
9.9 Summary 316
 9 Biospheres to ecosystems

9.1 Overview ESG9T

Introduction ESG9V

In this chapter we will study the way the biosphere interacts with the atmo-
sphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. This will be followed by a description
of the major aquatic and terrestrial biomes in South Africa. We will then learn
about the abiotic and biotic factors that make up an ecosystem and examine
how these factors interact. This will be followed by a discussion on energy
flow and the different trophic levels in an ecosystem that can be represented
by either a chain, pyramid or web. We will next look at how all the important
nutrients are cycled through the environment. We will conclude this chapter
with a discussion of ecotourism in South Africa.
Key concepts

• The biosphere consists of all the living organisms on Earth.

• The biosphere interacts with the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the
atmosphere.
• Biomes are natural habitats for flora and fauna that extend to both aquatic
and terrestrial regions.
• The location of biomes across southern Africa, and in South Africa itself,
is governed by climate, soils and vegetation.
• The environment consists of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) com-
ponents which interact.
• The ecosystem brings together the various interactions between living
organisms.
• Abiotic factors affect the nature of an ecosystem. Such factors include
physiographic factors, soil quality, light, temperature, water, atmospheric
gases and wind.
• Biotic factors that affect the ecosystem include producers, consumers and
decomposers.
• Energy flows through the trophic levels of an ecosystem tracing the rela-
tionships that exist in an ecosystem.
• Oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and water also cycle through the ecosystem.
item Ecotourism presents both opportunities and challenges for the preser-
vation of our ecosystems.

atom →molecule→cell→tissue→organ→system→organism→ecosystem

282 9.1. Overview

9.2 Biosphere ESG9W

The biosphere refers to all living organisms on Earth and is often called the
global ecosystem. The biosphere interacts with other spheres, such as the litho-
sphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. Each of these spheres is discussed briefly
below:
• Biosphere: is the sphere that includes all living organisms, from plants to
bacteria to multicellular organisms.
• Hydrosphere: is the combined mass of water found on, under and above
the surface of the earth. The hydrosphere is made up of oceans, seas,
lakes, rivers and springs. The water in these bodies can be freshwater or
salt water. The hydrosphere is home to a wide diversity of aquatic plant
and animal life.
• Lithosphere: refers to the outermost surface of the Earth, the Earth’s crust.
The oceanic lithosphere is associated with the oceanic crust and exists
in oceanic basins. Continental lithosphere is associated with continental
crust which covers the Earth’s landmass. The lithosphere shields living or-
ganisms from the heat of the Earth’s core and contains ionic compounds
which allow plant and animal life to exist.
• Atmosphere: is the layer of gases surrounding the earth. The gases in the
atmosphere allow organisms to respire and regulates the temperature of
the planet. The atmosphere’s ability to absorb the ultraviolet rays of the
sun is what allows life on earth to survive.

Spheres on Earth
Biosphere Hydrosphere

Lithosphere Atmosphere

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 283

 The connections between spheres imply that disturbances in one sphere affect
the other spheres. For example, excessive deforestation (biosphere) results in
increased erosion of soil (the upper layer of the lithosphere- pedosphere) into
rivers (hydrosphere). Deforestation also results in an increase in atmospheric
carbon dioxide (atmosphere). Deforestation therefore is an example of how dis-
turbances in one sphere produces effects in the hydrosphere, upper-lithosphere
and atmosphere.

Figure 9.1: The various spheres within the biosphere are connected.

9.3 Biomes ESG9X

The biosphere is divided up into a number of biomes. Biomes are regions

with similar climate and geography. The key factors determining climate are
average annual precipitation (rainfall) and temperature. These factors, in turn,
depend on the geography of the region, such as the latitude and altitude of
the region, and mountainous barriers. The specific conditions of biomes deter-
mine the plant and animal life found within them. The communities of plants,
animals and soil organisms in a particular biome are collectively referred to as
an ecosystem. Biomes can be aquatic or terrestrial.

Aquatic biomes ESG9Y

Water covers a major portion of the Earth’s surface, so aquatic biomes contain
a rich diversity of plants and animals. Aquatic biomes are divided into two
main groups depending on the amount of salt present in the water: freshwater
and marine biomes.

1. Freshwater

Freshwater biomes are defined by their low salt concentration, which is usually
less than 1%. Examples include: ponds, lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands.

284 9.3. Biomes

2. Marine biomes

Marine bodies are salty, having approximately 35 grams of dissolved salt per
litre of water (3,5%). Marine biomes are divided into oceans, coral reefs and
estuaries. The vegetation of the marine biomes consists of the different types of
algae, which is one of the major sources of oxygen in the world. Green algae
also play a role in the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Oceans: are very large marine bodies that

dominate the Earth’s surface and hold the
largest ecosystems. The open ocean or sea
covers nearly three-quarters of the earth’s
surface and contains a rich diversity of living
organisms. Examples of animals in the ocean
biome include whales, sharks, octopuses,
perlemoen, crabs and crayfish. Figure 9.2
shows a typical ocean ecosystem. Figure 9.2: Ocean ecosystem.

Coral reefs: are found in the warm, clear,

shallow waters of tropical oceans around
islands or along continental coastlines. Coral
reefs are mostly formed underwater from
calcium carbonate produced by living coral.
Reefs provide food and shelter for other
organisms and protect shorelines from erosion.
South Africa has only one coral reef in the
subtropical ocean waters north of Lake St.
Lucia in northern KwaZulu Natal. Figure 9.3 Figure 9.3: Coral reef.
shows a typical coral reef system.

Estuaries: are partially enclosed areas of fresh

water and silt from streams or rivers, which
mix with salty ocean water. Estuaries represent
a transition from land to sea and from
freshwater to saltwater. Estuaries are
biologically very productive areas and provide
homes for a wide variety of plants, birds and
animals. Figure 9.4 shows an example of an
estuary system. Figure 9.4: Knysna Estuary.

Marine biomes of South Africa

South Africa’s long coastline stretches for over 3000 kilometres, from Namibia
in the West to Mozambique in the East. There are a few key features to note
about South Africa’s coastline and marine biomes. South Africa’s coastline is
rugged, as rocky shores are exposed to high wave energy and the coastline
generally experiences high wind for most of the year.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 285

 There are up to 343 estuaries found along the coast, two thirds of which are
found on East Coast between Cape Padrone in the Eastern Cape Province and
Mtunzini in KwaZulu-Natal. The Eastern coastline receives the highest rainfall,
mostly during summer.

South Africa’s East Coast has relatively warm waters (20-25 degrees C), the
West Coast receives colder Atlantic waters (9-14 degrees C), and the South
Coast experiences intermediate water temperatures (16-21 degrees C). The cold
Benguela Upwelling System on the South-West coast supports large numbers
of marine animals. The warm Agulhas current off the East Coast has a smaller
quantity of fish but a greater diversity of species. Abundant opportunities exist
for tourism, recreation, food, export and associated economic development.

Terrestrial biomes ESG9Z

Terrestrial biomes occur on land and can be of many types. Examples include:
thicket, tundra, forest, grassland and desert. Terrestrial biomes are usually clas-
sified based on the dominant vegetation, climate or geographic location. The
location and characteristics of the various biomes is mostly influenced by cli-
matic conditions such as rainfall and temperature.

South African Biomes ESGB2

The most recent classification of the terrestrial biomes in South Africa divides
the region into the following eight biomes (Figure 9.5):

Figure 9.5: Biomes of South Africa.

286 9.3. Biomes

We will now examine the following eight South African biomes:

1. Grassland
2. Savannah
3. Succulent Karoo
4. Nama Karoo
5. Forest
6. Fynbos
7. Desert
8. Thicket

1. Grassland Biome

• Location: grasslands are found on the Highveld.

• Climate: they typically have summer rainfall of 400 mm to 2000 mm.
Winters are cold, and frost can occur.
• Soil and geography: in grasslands, the soil is red/yellow/grey or red/black
clay. Grassland soil has rich fertile upper layers.
• Flora: vegetation is mainly grass, but trees can grow on the hills and
along river beds.
• Fauna: many types of grass-eating herbivores can be found in this habitat,
such as black wildebeest, blesbok and eland. Rodents are also common
in grasslands which makes this biome an ideal hunting ground for birds
of prey. The diverse plant species also support many plant-eating insects
such as butterflies, grasshoppers, crickets and ants.

Figure 9.6: Grasslands are regions where Figure 9.7: Grasslands are regions where
the vegetation is dominated by grasses. the vegetation is dominated by grasses.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 287

 Activity: Burning of grassland

Aim:

Compare and analyse the advantages and disadvantages of burning grassland.

Materials:

• Internet
• articles
• books

Instructions:

1. Using these resources, tabulate the advantages and disadvantages of

burning grassland.
2. Remember to cite your references correctly.

2. Savannah biome

• Location: the Savannah biome is the largest biome in Southern Africa.

It is found mainly in the western parts of Limpopo, the northern parts of
the Northern Cape and Free State, the North West Province and KwaZulu
Natal.
• Climate: summers are hot and wet and the winters are cool with little or
no rain. Frost occurs in winter.
• Soil and geography: the soil consists of red/black clay or red/ yellow/
grey soil and is often sandy.
• Flora: this biome is also known as the bushveld, where grasses are mainly
found and regular fires prevent the trees from dominating. Herbaceous
plants and woody plants can be found in different areas. Plants are able
to withstand fire.
• Fauna: big game species such as kudu and Springbok, lion, buffalo and
elephant are found in the Savannah Biome. This is also a malaria-prone
area.

Figure 9.8: Savanna biome in Figure 9.9: Savanna biome.

Mpumalanga.

288 9.3. Biomes

3. Succulent Karoo biome FACT
‘Karoo’ comes from
the Khoi word
• Location: the Succulent Karoo biome can be found along the west coast Karusa, which
of the Northern Cape Province and the northern parts of the Western means dry, barren,
Cape Province. thirstland. Karoo is
an apt description
• Climate: this biome is hot in summer and cold in winter and the rain- for this arid region.
fall in this area is very low. Fog is common, and frost is seldom severe
enough to cause damage.
• Soil and geography: lime-rich, weakly developed soils, rocks and sand
that is easily eroded.
• Flora: forty percent of plant species found here are endemic to this
biome. The Namaqualand region of this biome is famous for its colour-
ful wild flowers. Succulent plants are able to live through dry seasons by
using water stored in their leaves or stems.
• Fauna: insects are common and the plants provide grazing for sheep and
goats.

Figure 9.10: Succulent Karoo biome. Figure 9.11: Nama Karoo found in the
Northern Cape province.

4. Nama Karoo

• Location: the Nama Karoo is the second largest biome in South Africa. It
forms the major part of the Northern Cape Province and the Free State.
• Climate: it is regarded as a semi-desert area receiving very little rain.
The summers are very hot and the winters are very cold and frost often
occurs.
• Soil and geography: soil occurring on rocks is weakly developed. The
area is also characterised by sands and rocky and red clay, making erosion
occur easily.
• Flora: it is characterised by grassy dwarf shrub land.
• Fauna: the flora provides good grazing for sheep and goats.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 289

FACT 5. Forest Biome
Trees are not only
producers, but as a
result of their size • Location: the forest biome in South Africa occurs in patches, in areas
they also create a such as Knysna of the Western Cape as well as KwaZulu Natal, the Eastern
habitat for other Cape, Limpopo and Mpumalanga.
species. The leaf
cover of trees • Climate: some of these forests experience rain only in winter, while oth-
provides shelter for ers get rainfall throughout the year.
animals, while the
bark and fissures in
• Soil and geography: forests range in altitude from sea level to above 2000
the trees also metres, soil is drained and virtually all soil types are present.
provide a habitat for • Flora: forests are dominated by trees of which the Yellowwood is the
insects. The leaf
cover also creates a
largest. There are many herbaceous and bulbous plants that also occur.
shady environment • Fauna: numerous insect species, birds ans small mammals such as bush-
in which pig, bushbuck and monkeys. The canopy is a perfect habitat for birds
shade-loving,
such as the Knysna Loeries, pigeons and eagle.
low-growing plants
can flourish.

FACT
When leaves or fruit
fall from the trees
and collect at the
feet of the trees,
another series of
organisms can
appear. By breaking
down organic
material,
decomposers such
as microorganisms Figure 9.12: Forest biome. Figure 9.13: Knysna Forest.
return the organic
nutrients to the soil.
Humus is formed in
this way. Humus is Project: Poster project to illustrate the role players in a forest ecosystem
dead organic
material. Other
creatures that live
Instructions:
off decayed organic
material, namely the
detritivores, also 1. Bring pictures of animals, trees and other plants to class.
promote this 2. The teacher will divide the class into groups.
process of 3. Each group will prepare a poster to illustrate the mutual dependence of
decomposition by
breaking up dead the trees, other plants and animals.
plant matter into its 4. Each group must present their poster to the rest of the class.
component 5. Answer the following questions / follow the instructions arising from the
nutrients.
class discussion:

Questions:

1. Supposing the tree on your poster was to fall over.

a) Which organisms would die?
b) Which organisms would move away?
c) Which organisms would increase in number?

290 9.3. Biomes

 FACT
2. Describe the role played by trees in an ecosystem. The Fynbos
contains
3. Ecologically speaking, why is it bad practice to rake up leaves under approximately 75%
trees? of South Africa’s
4. Name three more examples where humans harm ecosystems. rare and threatened
5. Identify components of the ecosystem, including each trophic level. Rep- plants.

resent this in the form of a diagram.

6. Fynbos

• Location: fynbos is the natural shrub found in the Western Cape of South
Africa.
• Climate: characterised by cold, wet winters and hot, dry summers (Mediter-
ranean climate conditions).
• Soil and geography: poor, acid and coarse-grained soil.
• Flora: fynbos is widely known for its widespread biodiversity. Important
plant types found in the fynbos include proteas, ’silver trees’ and ’pin-
cushions’. Plants growing here do not lose their leaves. Proteas have
striking flowers. It has the highest fynbos variety in the world, with over
9000 species of fynbos found here.
• Fauna: fynbos is home to many bird species, insects and small mammals.

Figure 9.14: Mountain Fynbos found in Figure 9.15: Fynbos in Cape Peninsula.
Hermanus, Western Cape.

The flora of the fynbos has a high degree of endemism. This is the ecological
state of being specific to a geographic location such as an island, country or in
this case, a defined biome such as the fynbos.

Fire is a necessary stage in the life-cycle of nearly all fynbos plants, and is
common during the dry summer months. Many of the seeds germinate only
after the intense heat of a fire. As proteas ’prepare’ for the fire, they retain their
seeds on the bush for at least a year, a habit known as serotiny.

The lowlands of the fynbos have been developed for agriculture and wine farm-
ing. Due to this, various species of fynbos have been threatened. For this rea-
son, the fynbos region must be protected and preserved. It is a major tourist
destination.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 291

 Project: Discovering fynbos in South Africa

The astonishing richness and diversity of the Western Cape’s natural resources
is matched only by the resourcefulness and diversity of its many people. His-
torical patterns of unsustainable use of resources have led to the Cape Floristic
Region (CFR) being listed as one of the world’s threatened bioregions, and the
scars are deeply etched in the land and its people.

Western Cape residents are exploring new and sustainable ways to value and
benefit from these globally important assets.

South Africa’s Cape Floristic region is legendary, and the unique nature of the
fynbos biome has been celebrated by biologists, conservationists, development
experts, and ecologist worldwide.

(Adapted from speech by Tasneem Essop the Western Cape Provincial Minister
for Environment, Planning and Economic Development)

Instructions

Write an essay on the fynbos biome and discuss the following aspects:

1. What is the meaning of the term “fynbos”?

2. Identify features of families/ indicator species that make up this vegetation
type.
3. Describe its ecological role in the environment.
4. Describe the environmental impacts of destroying this type of vegetation.
5. Describe the economical importance of fynbos for the people of the
Western Cape.
6. Describe management strategies involved in protecting it.

7. Thicket

• Location: the thicket biome occurs along the coasts of KwaZulu Natal
and the Eastern Cape.
• Climate: thickets develop in areas where the rainfall is fairly high; how-
ever, there may be dry periods that prevent the vegetation from develop-
ing into forests.
• Soil and geography: most thickets occur in river valleys.
• Flora: the vegetation of this biome includes short trees, low intertwining
shrubs and vines. There are no distinct layers of trees and shrubs, with
many large open spaces found in the thicket biome. Thickets in the East-
ern Cape are comprised of dense impenetrable vegetation dominated by
spiny, often succulent trees and shrubs.
• Fauna: examples of fauna found in thicket include kudu, monkey, bush-
buck and elephant.

292 9.3. Biomes

 FACT
Did you know that
most of the animals
in the desert can
live without water
for a long time?
They have adapted
in many ways to do
this. For instance,
they can store water
internally, take
water out of their
prey, or peck at
succulents and suck
Figure 9.16: Thicket Biome, Figure 9.17: Kalahari desert. out the water stored
Umdloti inside them.

8. Desert Biome

• Location: the Desert Biome is found largely in the Namib Desert along
the coast of Namibia. The transition regions between deserts and grass-
lands are sometimes called semi-arid deserts.
• Climate: deserts are dry areas where evaporation usually exceeds pre-
cipitation. Rainfall is low, less than 25 centimetres per year, and can be
highly variable and seasonal. The low humidity results in temperature
extremes between day and night. Deserts can be hot or cold. Hot deserts
(e.g. the Namib and Kalahari) are very hot in the summer and have rel-
atively high temperatures throughout the year and have seasonal rainfall.
This combination of low rainfall and high temperatures keeps the air very
dry, increasing its evaporating power.
• Soil and geography: the soil consists mostly of sand, gravel or rocks.
• Flora: deserts have relatively little vegetation.
• Fauna: many insects and reptiles (lizards and snakes) occur in the desert
biome.

Activity: Biomes Advertisement

Aim:

Getting to know the biomes of South Africa.

Materials:

• posters
• maps
• reference books
• adverts
• brochures
• Internet

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 293

 Instructions:

You work for an Advertising Agency that is bidding for the account of a top
travel agency. The bid includes designing a full page advert (A4) for the Get-
away Magazine. Presentation, appeal and accuracy will therefore be of top
priority. Study some advertisements for ideas.

The travel agency has specified that they would like the following to be in-
cluded in the ad, which is geared towards people looking for a different and
fascinating holiday in a specific biome:

1. A region in the biome of your choice, including cities and/or towns worth
a visit
2. Climate (of interest to tourists)
3. Well-known geographical features in the region
4. Mention of some interesting wildlife (i.e. birds, animals, plants) that may
be seen
5. Pictures
6. Tour dates
7. The name of the travel agency, with contact information

Project: Biome Poster

The following activity is to be done in groups of four

Instructions

1. Brainstorm a suitable set of criteria for assessment for poster and verbal
report
2. Select one biome from the list given and do the following:
3. Use suitable references to obtain as much information as possible on the
plants and animals found in your selected biome.
4. Make notes about the climate, landscape, flora and fauna, stating how
some of these are adapted to their environment.
5. Design an attractive poster to illustrate the landscape as well as the dom-
inant plants and animals that make up a food chain.
6. Display your poster on the classroom wall and each person of the group
is to give a verbal presentation on an aspect of the biome you studied.

294 9.3. Biomes

 FACT
9.4 Environment ESGB3 Ecology- rules for
living on Earth
See video: 2CVR
The environment refers to everything that surrounds us, including the place
where we live. We usually use the term ’environment’ to refer to the physical FACT
Learn more about
aspects of our surroundings, which may be living (biotic) or non-living (abiotic). biotic and abiotic
This means that if you live in a city, the environment consists of the buildings, components:
roads and other infrastructure, while if you live on a farm, your environment See video: 2CVS
consists of you pastures, farm house etc.

Although an environment consists of non-living and living things, the term ’en-
vironment’ really just describes one’s surroundings, but does not really define
the relationships, connectedness or dynamic nature of those surroundings. To
study how the living and non-living parts of the environment depend on and
are influenced on each other, we need to understand a different concept- the
ecosystem.

9.5 Ecosystems ESGB4

An ecosystem is a complex system that consists of all the living organisms in a

particular area, as well as the environment with which the organisms interact.
The living organisms and non-living components of the ecosystem interact in
such a way as to maintain balance. Ecosystems are divided into biotic (living)
and abiotic (non-living) components respectively. Each component is discussed
in detail below.

Biotic components ESGB5

Biotic components are living things that shape the ecosystem. Each biotic factor
needs energy to do work and for proper growth. To get this energy, organisms
either need to produce their own energy using abiotic factors, or interact with
other organisms by consuming them. Biotic components typically include:

• Producers: also known as autotrophs include all green plants. Produc-

ers make their own food using chemicals and energy sources from their
environment. The producers include land and aquatic plants, algae and
microscopic phytoplankton in the ocean. Plants use photosynthesis to
manufacture sugar (glucose) from carbon dioxide and water. Using this
sugar and other nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus) taken up by their
roots, plants produce a variety of organic materials. These materials in-
clude starches,lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
• Consumers: are also known as heterotrophs. They eat other organ-
isms, living or dead, and cannot produce their own food. Consumers
are classed into different groups depending on the source of their food.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 295

 Herbivores (e.g. buck) feed on plants and are known as primary con-
sumers. Carnivores (e.g. lions, hawks, killer whales) feed on other con-
sumers and can be classified as secondary consumers. They feed on
primary consumers. Tertiary consumers feed on other carnivores. Some
organisms known as omnivores (e.g.crocodiles, rats and humans) feed on
both plants and animals. Organisms that feed on dead animals are called
scavengers (e.g., vultures, ants and flies). Detritivores (detritus feeders,
e.g. earthworms, termites, crabs) feed on organic wastes or fragments of
dead organisms.
• Decomposers: (e.g. bacteria, fungi) also feed on organic waste and dead
organisms, but they can digest the materials outside their bodies. The
decomposers play a crucial role in recycling nutrients, as they reduce
complex organic matter into inorganic nutrients that can be used by pro-
ducers. If an organic substance can be broken down by decomposers, it
is called biodegradable.

Abiotic components ESGB6

Abiotic components are the non-living chemical and physical factors in the
environment that affect ecosystems. Abiotic components play a crucial role in
all of biology. Abiotic factors are broadly grouped into physiographic, edaphic
and climactic factors and atmospheric gases.

1. Physiographic factors

Physiographic factors are those associated with the physical nature of the area.
The main physiographic factors we will look at are slopes, aspect and altitude.

• Slope: is the gradient or steepness of a particular surface of the Earth.

The slope affects the rate of water run-off. A steep slope encourages fast
run-off of water and can cause soil erosion. The soil tends to be shallow
and infertile with reduced plant growth. Plants are small and few animals
are present. A gentle slope favours slower flow of surface water, reduces
erosion, and increases availability of water to plants. The direction and
steepness of a slope also influences the surface temperature of the soil.
• Altitude: is the height of the land above sea level. At high altitudes
the temperature is lower, the wind speed is greater, and the rainfall less.
Environments at higher altitudes are also more likely to experience snow
conditions. Altitude plays a role in vegetation zones. At high altitudes,
less plant and animal species are found. Plants growing at mid-altitudes
experience more stunted growth. Plants at sea-level are abundant.
• Aspect: refers to the position of an area in relation to the sun or wind or
wave action. It is the direction that the slope faces i.e. North, East, West.
In South Africa rain fall is more common on the south-eastern slopes,
therefore these tend to be forested or rich in vegetation. The slopes facing
the other way (north west) tend to be drier.

296 9.5. Ecosystems

2. Edaphic factors

Edaphic factors are those factors related to the soil. The qualities that may
characterise the soil include drainage, texture, or chemical properties such as
pH. Edaphic factors affect the organisms (bacteria, plant life etc.) that define
certain types of ecosystems. There are certain plant and animal types that are
specific to areas of a particular soil type. The particular factors we will consider
include the pH of the soil and soil structure.

• pH of soil is a measure of how acid or alkaline soil is and can be mea-

sured by using the pH scale. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Neutral
solutions have a pH value of 7. Acid solutions have a pH value of less
than 7 and alkaline solutions have a pH value greater than 7. Litmus pa-
per or universal indicator can be used to determine whether a solution is
acid or alkaline.

Figure 9.18: pH scale for soil.

NOTE:
Did you know that some species of Hydrangea flowers are natural pH indica-
tors? The flowers of the Hydrangea macrophylla and Hydrangea serrata culti-
vars, can changes colour depending on the relative acidity of the soil in which
they are planted. In an acidic soil with a pH below 7, the flowers will usually
be blue. However in an alkaline soil with a pH above 7, the flowers will be
more pink. Moving the plant from one soil to another results in a change in
flower colour if the pH of the soil is different (see Figure 9.19).

Figure 9.19: Hydrangeas.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 297

 • Soil Structure: the decomposed organic matter, called humus gives top-
soil its dark colour. It supplies plants with nutrients and helps the soil
retain water. Soils rich in humus are fertile soils. The specific soil type is
determined by the size of particles e.g sand has very large sized particles,
clay has very small sized particles and loam has a mixture of particle
sizes. If you roll moist soil between your fingers, clay soil feels sticky,
sandy soil feels gritty and loam soil feels soapy. The water retention ca-
pacity of soils is the ability of soil to retain different amounts of water.
Clay soil retains a large amount of water. Sandy soil retains very little
water. Loam soil retains a moderate amount of water.

Investigation: Investigating the water-retaining properties of soil

Aim:

To investigate the water retaining properties of three soil types.

Apparatus:

• loam, sand and clay soil samples

• filter funnels and filter paper
• measuring cylinders
• water
• stop watches

Method:

1. Set up the three different 100 ml measuring cylinders, each with a funnel
lined with filter paper.
2. Label each of the measuring cylinders either loam, sand or clay.
3. Add the same amount (e.g 50 gm) of each specific soil sample to the
corresponding labelled funnel with filter paper.
4. Carefully pour the same amount (50 ml) of water into each funnel.
5. Immediately start the stopwatch.
6. Allow the water to pass through the soil sample.
7. Wait until the water is no longer dripping into the cylinder before you
record the time for each soil type.
8. Record how much water there is in the measuring cylinder.

Results:

1. Write down your results in a table:

a) The time taken for the water to pass through the soil.
b) The amount of water in the measuring cylinder.
2. Draw a bar graph to represent your results.

298 9.5. Ecosystems

Observations:

1. Which sample of water retained the most water?

2. Which sample of water retained the least water?
3. Is the speed at which the water drains related to the amount of water that
gets retained? Describe the relationship using your results.

Conclusions:

Explain your observations. Try to describe three properties that result in the dif-
ferent water-retaining capacities of different soil types. Use your experimental
results to recommend which soil would you use for your pot plants.

3. Climatic factors

• Sunlight: is essential for the process of photosynthesis. Producers, such

as plants, rely directly on the sun. Heterotrophs, such as animals, use
light from the sun indirectly by consuming plants or other heterotrophs.
All organisms receive the energy required for survival through the break
down of sugars and other molecular components that are produced by
the autotrophs. These sugars are then broken to release the energy stored
in them, by the process of cellular respiration.
• Temperature: varies greatly across different parts of the Earth and through-
out the year. Temperature affects the rate of evaporation and transpiration
and causes seasonal changes in weather. Seasonal variation in vegeta-
tion also occurs as the germination of seeds requires warm temperatures.
Plants and animals have special adaptations that make them suited to the
temperature of their specific environment. Temperature affects the rate at
which photosynthesis, cellular respiration and decomposition take place.
As you learnt in the earlier section on enzymes, this is linked to the opti-
mal temperature profile for enzymes. The rate of reaction increases with
increasing temperature and decreases at lower temperatures.
• Water: is one of the most important factors in the ecosystem. It is the
main component of living cells and is essential for all living organisms.
About 80% of the human body and 90% of the plant body consists of
water. Water is not evenly distributed over the Earth. It is abundant in
aquatic ecosystems and least abundant in deserts. Plants are adapted to
the available amount of water in the following ways:
– Xerophytes are plants that are able to live in dry habitats, or in re-
gions with low annual rainfall. These plants are resistant to drought,
have to cope with a shortage of water, high temperatures and light
intensities and dry warm winds. We discussed in detail the adap-
tations developed by xerophytes in order to avoid water loss in the
earlier chapter on plant structure.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 299

FACT – Mesophytes are plants that need an average, regular supply of water.
Endothermic
animals are able to
– Hydrophytes are plants that are able to live entirely or partially sub-
regulate their body merged in water or in very wet soil. These plants have to cope with
temperature so they a water surplus.
are not affected by
extreme
temperatures, and 4. Air/gases
are able to live in
habitats over a wide
range of • Wind: speeds up evaporation and assists in pollination of plants and the
temperatures. In dispersal of their seeds.
cold regions,
animals have
• Air: is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 4% carbon dioxide
developed a layer of and water vapour. Look ahead to the section on nutrient cycles to read
insulating fat, or more detail. Oxygen is used in cellular respiration and combustion and
hibernate during the is returned to the environment by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon
colder months. In
dioxide is a product of cellular respiration and decayed organic matter. It
very hot regions,
animals have is removed from the atmosphere by plants during the process of photo-
adapted by synthesis. Nitrogen is needed by all living organisms for the synthesis of
becoming nocturnal proteins. The amount of water vapour found in the air remains constant
in their habitats.
on average, however, it can vary greatly from one place to another. Some
Ectothermic animals
are unable to parts of the earth are prone to high humidity levels, while other locations
regulate their body have very dry air. Much of what we consider weather is caused by water
temperature, and vapour. The clouds in the sky are largely made up of it, and it is the
therefore the change condensation of this vapour into droplets that creates rain and snow.
in environmental
temperature will
affect their
distribution and
Project: Studying a terrestrial ecosystem
activities.

FACT
In Northern Aim and background information
Hemisphere
countries where the
day length is You are required to choose one ecosystem within a local biome for special
substantially longer study. The study will be conducted over two terms and will involve a number
in the summer, the of investigations. You may work in groups. Each group will have to plan,
rate of growth of
collect, record, present, analyse and evaluate the data.
plants is very high.

1. Soil

The type of soil found in your ecosystem will have an influence on the types
of plant that will grow in that ecosystem. It is important to identify the types of
soil found in your ecosystem by doing the following soil tests.

1.1 How to identify soil texture

1. Roll some wet soil into a ball.

2. Then try to roll the ball into a sausage shape.
3. Bend the sausage into a ring.

300 9.5. Ecosystems

How to interpret your observations:

• if the sausage breaks as you bend it, the soil is sandy.

• if the sausage bend slightly, and then breaks, the soil is loamy.
• if the sausage bends easily the soil contains a lot of clay.

1.2 How to measure pH

You will need the following materials:

• spoon
• water
• jar with a lid
• plastic teaspoon
• soil sample
• red and blue litmus paper or universal litmus paper

1. Collect a small sample of soil to test.

2. Place a teaspoon of soil into the jar, stir it to loosen all the particles.
3. Carefully add water to fill the jar approximately half way.
4. Screw the lid onto the jar and shake the jar gently.
5. Stand the jar on a flat surface and wait until the soil settles and the water
becomes clear. This may take a few days.
6. Unscrew the cap and using the plastic spoon, carefully remove some
water from the jar.
7. Test the pH of the water by using the litmus paper.

How to interpret litmus paper observations:

• blue litmus paper will turn red when placed in an acid solution.
• red litmus paper will turn blue when placed in an alkaline solution.
• if using universal litmus paper read the pH of the pH scale.

1.3 Measure the water-holding capacity of your soil sample/samples

You will need the following apparatus:

• filter paper
• water
• soil sample (preferably dry)
• a two litre plastic cool drink bottle with the top of the bottle cut off (the
top will act as your funnel and the bottom will act as a water-collecting
vessel)

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 301

 1. Remove the bottle cap from the top part of the bottle (funnel).
2. Place the ’funnel’ inside the bottom half of the bottle.
3. Measure out your soil sample to be tested (measure by mass or volume).
4. Place the piece of filter paper into the neck of the bottle.
5. Add the soil sample into the ’funnel’.
6. NOTE: If testing more than one soil sample, the same amount of soil and
water must be added to each bottle top.
7. Very slowly add water to the bottle.
8. Observe how much water runs through the soil into the bottom of the
bottle.
9. Once the soil has drained of the water, measure the amount of water that
was filtered using a measuring cylinder.

2. Temperature

You will need the following apparatus:

• thermometer

1. Measure the air temperature using a thermometer. Record the tempera-

ture in your ecosystem at two different times of day.
2. Try and record the temperature at the same time on every day for one
week in the third term and repeat the process for one week in the fourth
term.
3. A table similar to the table below needs to be completed for your tem-
perature recordings.

Date Time Temperature

4. Use the information in the table to draw a line graph of the temperature
over the study period.
5. Discuss whether there are any differences or general patterns in the daily
temperature between the third and fourth terms.

3. Light

You will need the following apparatus:

• watch or clock

1. To measure the photoperiod of your ecosystem, you are required to keep

a record of the times of sunrise and sunset.

302 9.5. Ecosystems

 2. Record the times of sunrise and sunset for one week in the third term,
and for one week in the fourth term.
3. Record the effects of the photoperiod on the behaviour of plants. An
example is: daisies open during the day and close at night. Record what
happens to your plants. Complete a table similar to the table below.

Date Time Flower Opens Time Flower Closes

4. Draw two line graphs showing the times the flowers open and the time
the flowers close.
5. Also record the times of sunrise and sunset.
6. From your graph discuss if the opening and closing of the flowers are
related to sunrise and sunset.
7. Discuss whether you found any differences between the third and fourth
terms.

4. Physiographic Factors

You will need:

• compass

1. If your ecosystem is on a slope, record the direction of the slope.

5. Studying biotic factors

If the ecosystem you are studying covers a large area, it may be difficult to
observe all the living organisms. If this is the case, you can get some idea of
the plant and animal diversity in the ecosystem you are studying by choosing a
smaller sample area to study.

You will need:

• pencil
• wooden sticks
• string
• metre stick or measuring tape or string
• field guide to plants and animals in your ecosystem (if necessary)

1. Mark out an area of 4 square metres in your ecosystem.

2. Choose an area you think will contain the most plants and animals.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 303

 3. Wind the string around the wooden sticks so that you create a grid to
study within your ecosystem.
4. Make a list of all the plants and animals found in your ecosystem.
5. Try and name the plants and animals. Use a reference book or the Inter-
net to identify the plants and animals in your ecosystem.
6. Draw a distribution map showing where the different organisms were
found in the ecosystem.
7. Give each organism you found a code.
8. Use the codes to make a map by showing where in the grid each organ-
ism was found.
9. Record how many different plants and animals were found in your
ecosystem.
10. Which parts of your grid recorded the most plants and animals?
11. Briefly discuss which abiotic factors influenced your ecosystem.
12. Investigate what the animals in your ecosystem eat and then draw a food
web for the ecosystem.
13. Why do the organisms you found in your ecosystem live in this habitat?
14. Write a short paragraph describing the ecological niche of one of the
organisms you observed.

6. The effect of humans on the ecosystem

Determine if humans have had any effect on the ecosystem. These effects may
be positive, negative, or a combination of both.

1. Write a short paragraph of 200 words on the effect of humans on your

ecosystem.

Write a scientific report on the ecosystem you have studied.

Your report should include the following:

• A title
• Introduction
• Equipment or materials used
• Results (including tables)
• Observations
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• References
• You can use drawings and photographs to illustrate your report.

304 9.5. Ecosystems

 FACT
9.6 Energy flow ESGB7 A catchy song about
food chains to help
you remember:
See video: 2CVT
In ecology, energy flow refers to the flow of energy through a food chain. In
an ecosystem, we attempt to establish the feeding relationships between organ-
isms living together. Each organism belongs to a ’trophic level’ which refers
to the position occupied by an organism in the food chain. Energy is passed
on from every trophic level to the next and each time about 90% of the en-
ergy is lost with some being lost as heat into the environment and some being
incompletely digested food. So primary consumers get about 10% of the en-
ergy produced by autotrophs while secondary consumers get 1% and tertiary
consumers get 0,1%. A general energy flow scenario is as follows:

• Autotrophs: solar energy is fixed by autotrophs (also called producers,

such as green plants) into energy in the form of carbohydrates. This is
done by photosynthesis.
• Primary consumers: part of the food made available by plants is con-
sumed by primary consumers known as herbivores. The energy gained
is converted to body heat or used to grow, reproduce, etc. Energy loss
also occurs in the expulsion of undigested food by egestion.
• Secondary consumers: carnivores and omnivores consume the primary
consumers, and use the energy obtained to grow, move, respire etc.
• Tertiary consumers: may be the major predators of an ecosystem, and
feed on the primary and secondary consumers with some energy passed
on and some lost as with other levels of the food chain.
• Decomposers: A final link in any food chain are the decomposers which
break down the organic matter of the tertiary consumers and release the
nutrients into the soil. They also break down plants, herbivores and other
dead organic matter. Examples of decomposers are bacteria and fungi.

The flow of energy in an ecosystem can be explained in the form of a chain,

web or pyramid.

Food chain ESGB8

A food chain is a series of nutrient and energy changes that moves through a
chain of organisms. It always begins with a producer and terminates with de-
composers. Below is an example of a simple food chain in a grassland ecosys-
tem. The arrows show the movement of energy from one organism to another.

green plant → impala → leopard → bacteria

producer → primary consumer → secondary consumer → decomposer

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 305

 Activity: Understanding Food Chains

Activity 1:

Trace a food chain of the vegetables, fruit, cheese, eggs or meat that you had
for breakfast or will have for dinner.

Activity 2:

1. In the food chain shown in the text which of the three organisms is the
a) herbivore
b) carnivore
c) producer
2. Draw in the decomposers in the above food chain. Ensure that the direc-
tion of the arrows is correct.
3. What organism(s) will feed on the leopard?
4. Construct a new food chain showing at least four organisms.
5. Producers use sunlight to manufacture their own food. Write a word
equation to depict this process. [Hint: think of the requirements and
outcomes of the process of photosynthesis]

Food pyramid ESGB9

A food pyramid is another way of representing the relationships between or-

ganisms in an ecosystem.

Trophic levels and the food pyramid

• Producers: Plants are on the first level, or bottom of the pyramid, be-
cause they produce their own organic food using energy from the sun
and therefore have a lot of energy to pass on.
• Primary Consumers: Herbivores are on the second level because they
feed on plants. Herbivores consume plants; therefore, to maintain bal-
ance, there are far fewer herbivores than plants.
• Secondary Consumers: Carnivores feed on herbivores. Consequently, to
maintain balance, there are fewer carnivores than herbivores. Carnivores
get their energy from plants indirectly and are on the third level.

306 9.6. Energy flow

 Figure 9.20: Food pyramid.

Trophic levels can be drawn as one of the following:

• pyramid of numbers: which shows the total number of organisms in each

trophic level.
• pyramid of biomass: which shows the total amount of biomass (living
matter) at each trophic level.
• pyramid of energy: which shows the total amount of energy contents in
the biomass of each trophic level.

Most pyramids are drawn as energy pyramids, and are always triangular, whereas
number pyramids are not.

Figure 9.21: Pyramid of numbers.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 307

 Food web ESGBB

A food web is made up of a number of food chains. It represents the different

feeding relationships in an ecosystem or a biome. It is usually more compli-
cated than a food chain because organisms can get their energy or food from
more than one source. The presence of a number of food sources makes the
system more stable. If one organism is removed, the whole system will not
collapse, unlike in a single food chain. A food web in a typical Savannah envi-
ronment is shown in Figure 9.22.

Figure 9.22: The figure shows a food web in a typical Savannah environment.

Activity: Understanding food chains and food pyramids

Aim:

Gain conceptual understanding of food chains and food pyramids

Materials:

• textbook
• resources provided by teacher

308 9.6. Energy flow

 FACT
Instructions: Bill Nye the science
guy talks about the
food web:
1. Look at any of the food webs or food chains in this chapter, or use a food See video: 2CVV
chain or food web provided by your teacher.
FACT
A simple video
Questions: explaining nutrient
cycling:
See video:
1. Identify a food chain that has three trophic levels. 2CVW
2. Identify a food chain that has four trophic levels.
3. Name two:
a) producers
b) primary consumers
c) secondary consumers
d) tertiary consumers
4. There are very few tertiary consumers compared to the primary con-
sumers. Why?
5. What will happen if the hyena is removed from the food web?

9.7 Nutrient cycles ESGBC

A nutrient cycle refers to the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic
matter back into the production of living matter. The process is regulated by
the food web pathways previously presented, which decompose organic matter
into inorganic nutrients. Nutrient cycles occur within ecosystems. Nutrient
cycles that we will examine in this section include water, carbon, oxygen and
nitrogen cycles.

Water cycle ESGBD

Over two thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered by water. It forms an important
component of most life forms, with up to 70% of plants and animals being
composed of water. Vast quantities of water cycle through Earth’s atmosphere,
oceans, land and biosphere. This cycling of water is called the water or hy-
drological cycle. The cycling of water is important in determining our weather
and climate, supports plant growth and makes life possible.

• Evaporation: Most water evaporates from the oceans, where water is

found in highest abundance. However some evaporation also occurs
from lakes, rivers, streams and following rain.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 309

 • Transpiration: Is the water loss from the surface area (particularly the
stomata) of plants. Transpiration accounts for a massive 50% of land-
based evaporation, and 10% of total evaporation.
• Evapotranspiration: The processes of evaporation and transpiration are
often collectively referred to as evapotranspiration.
• Condensation: The process by which water vapour is converted back into
liquid is called condensation. You may have observed a similar process
occurring when dew drops form on a blade of grass or on cold glass.
Water in the atmosphere condenses to form clouds.
• Precipitation: Water returns to Earth through precipitation in the form
of rain, sleet, snow or ice (hail). When rain occurs due to precipitation,
most of it runs off into lakes and rivers while a significant portion of it
sinks into the ground.
• Infiltration: The process through which water sinks into the ground is
known as infiltration and is determined by the soil or rock type through
which water moves. During the process of sinking into the Earth’s sur-
face, water is filtered and purified. Depending on the soil type and the
depth to which the water has sunk, the ground water becomes increas-
ingly purified: the deeper the water, the cleaner it becomes.
• Melting and freezing: Some water freezes and is ’locked up’ in ice, such
as in glaciers and ice sheets. Similarly, water sometimes melts and is
returned to oceans and seas.

The processes involved in the water cycle are shown in Figure 9.23.

Figure 9.23: The water cycle.

310 9.7. Nutrient cycles

 FACT
Oxygen cycle ESGBF A video about the
oxygen cycle. Focus
on the first part of
the video clip and
Oxygen is one of the main gases found in the air, along with nitrogen. Oxygen the summary at the
end.
is re-cycled between the air and living organisms in the following ways:
See video: 2CVX

• Breathing and respiration: organisms such as animals and plants take in

oxygen from the air during breathing and gaseous exchange processes.
The oxygen is used for cellular respiration to release energy from organic
nutrients such as glucose.
• Photosynthesis: during photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide from
the air to synthesise sugars, and release oxygen.
• There is a complementary relationship between photosynthesis and cel-
lular respiration in that the former produces oxygen and the latter con-
sumes oxygen.

The oxygen cycle is shown in Figure 9.24.

Figure 9.24: Oxygen cycle.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 311

FACT
Learn more about Carbon cycle ESGBG
the carbon cycle in
this video:
See video: 2CVY Carbon is the basic building block of all organic materials, and therefore, of
living organisms. Most of the carbon on earth can be found in the crust. Other
reservoirs of carbon include the oceans and atmosphere. Carbon moves from
one reservoir to another by these processes:

• Combustion: Burning of wood and fossil fuels by factory and auto emis-
sions transfers carbon to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
• Photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide is taken up by plants during photosyn-
thesis and is converted into energy rich organic molecules, such as glu-
cose, which contains carbon.
• Metabolism: Autotrophs convert carbon into organic molecules like fats,
carbohydrates and proteins, which animals can eat.
• Cellular respiration: Animals eat plants for food, taking up the organic
carbon (carbohydrates). Plants and animals break down these organic
molecules during the process of cellular respiration and release energy,
water and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere
during gaseous exchange.
• Precipitate: Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can also precipitate as
carbonate in ocean sediments.
• Decay: Carbon dioxide gas is also released into the atmosphere during
the decay of all organisms.

Photosynthesis and gaseous exchange are the main carbon cycling processes
involving living organisms. Figure 9.25 depicts the carbon cycle.

Figure 9.25: The carbon cycle.

312 9.7. Nutrient cycles

 FACT
Nitrogen cycle ESGBH This video
summarises the
nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen (N2 ) makes up most of the gas in the atmosphere (about 78%). Ni- See video: 2CVZ
trogen is important to living organisms and is used in the production of amino
acids, proteins and nucleic acids (DNA, RNA).

• Nitrogen gas present in the air is not available to organisms and thus has
to be made available in a form absorbable by plants and animals.
• Only a few single-cell organisms, like bacteria can use nitrogen from the
atmosphere directly.
• For plants, nitrogen has to be changed into other forms, eg. nitrates or
ammonia. This process is known as nitrogen fixation.

Figure 9.26: The nitrogen cycle.

The nitrogen cycle involves the following steps:

• Lightning: Nitrogen can be changed to nitrates directly by lightning. The

rapid growth of algae after thunderstorms is because of this process,
which increases the amount of nitrates that fall onto the earth in rain
water, acting as fertiliser.
• Absorption: Ammonia and nitrates are absorbed by plants through their
roots.
• Ingestion: Humans and animals get their nitrogen supplies by eating
plants or plant-eating animals.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 313

FACT • Decomposition: During decomposition, bacteria and fungi break down
South Africa is proteins and amino acids from plants and animals.
home to: The largest
bird— ostrich. • Ammonification: The nitrogenous breakdown products of amino acids
are converted into ammonia (NH3 ) by these decomposing bacteria.
• Nitrification: Is the conversion of the ammonia to nitrates (NO3 − ) by
nitrifying bacteria.
• Denitrification: In a process called denitrification, bacteria convert am-
monia and nitrate into nitrogen and nitrous oxide (N2 O). Nitrogen is
returned to the atmosphere to start the cycle over again.

9.8 Ecotourism ESGBJ

The attractions of touring South Africa ESGBK

South Africa is a beautiful country that boasts great diversity in its flora and
fauna. There are many interesting cultural, historical and environmental places
that people from South Africa and other countries want to visit.

From what you learnt about the different biomes, you can see that South Africa
has a range of ecosystems from desert, mountain, forest and marine systems to
our own unique fynbos biome.

South Africa is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world. Although it
only encompasses about 1,200,000 km2 , it is home to 10% of all plant species
on earth. South Africa is considered mega diverse, along with 17 other coun-
tries, which means that together these countries contain 70% of the planet’s
biodiversity. South Africa’s ability to support such a diverse population of plants
and animals is due in large part to its unique geography. The combination of
geography and wildlife makes South Africa an important travel destination to
many.

Ecotourism is thought to be the idea of bringing tourism into a country while

supporting the biodiversity.

Economic benefits of ecotourism

• Tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of South Africa’s economy

and is estimated to bring in up to R62 billion/ year
• Reinvesting some of the earnings from eco-tourism into the communities
living near tourist destinations might be a means of alleviating poverty.
• Tourism provides jobs: e.g park operators, sellers of local crafts, guides,
etc.
• Eco-tourism has the potential to create infrastructural development for
communities that live around major tourist destinations. This is especially
useful where major tourist locations are found in remote areas.

314 9.8. Ecotourism

Figure 9.27: Cape Town, South Africa is a world-renowned Figure 9.28: A baby im-
tourist destination. pala in the Kruger Na-
tional Park.

Ethical issues

While tourism has great economic potential and gives people access to unique
places and cultures, it can have a negative impact. Sensitive ecosystems, such
as wetlands and coasts, need to be protected so that the balance of organisms
can be maintained. Too many visitors, and visitors who are not informed about
their impact on the environment, can have a harmful effect. In the same way
tourists need to be sensitive to the cultures and people that they visit.

To protect the plants and animals in the unique ecosystems of South Africa,
many areas have been declared National Parks and have strict rules about how
to behave.

In the same way, places that are historically or culturally important have been
declared national heritage sites that are protected and maintained. South Africa
is also proud to have eight UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scien-
tific and Cultural Organisation) sites:

• Cultural
– Fossil Hominid Sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai, and
Environs (1999)
– Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape (2003)
– Robben Island (1999)
– Richtersveld Cultural and Botanical Landscape (2007)
Mixed
• – UKhahlamba / Drakensberg Park (2000)
• Natural
– Cape Floral Region Protected Areas (2004)
– Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park (1999)
– Vredefort Dome (2005)

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 315

 How to be a responsible ecotourist ESGBM

Many areas of South Africa are protected. When travelling to these areas, you
need to respect the area and the people that you are visiting. These are a few
tips:
• Learn a little about the place you are visiting before you go in order to be
aware of the do’s and don’ts. For example, littering is not allowed in any
National Park in South Africa.
• South Africa is rich in cultural diversity, which means that people from
different areas have different ways of doing things. Learn about the cul-
ture of local people so that you can make sure not to offend anyone by
your behaviour.
• When you are in a protected area, do not damage plants or animals or
buildings. For example, writing graffiti on historical buildings or sites.
Remember the saying: take only pictures, leave only footprints.

9.9 Summary ESGBN

• The biosphere is the sphere in which all ecosystems on Earth exist. It

interacts with the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
• Biomes contained within the biosphere are regions with similar climatic
and geographic conditions. Broadly, biomes are either aquatic or terres-
trial.
• South Africa’s major aquatic biomes include freshwater and marine biomes,
based on their salt concentrations. Terrestrial biomes of South Africa in-
clude Grassland, Savannah, Succulent and Nama Karoo, Forest, Fynbos,
Desert and Thicket Biomes. Each is located differently across South Africa
and has its own distinctive plant and animal life.
• Ecosystems refer to environments that consist of abiotic factors and biotic
factors (organisms) that interact to maintain a balance.
• Abiotic factors including physiographic (slope, altitude and aspect) and
edaphic (soil pH, texture, humus content) factors.
• Energy flows through ecosystems from the sun through to producers (plants),
primary consumers (typically herbivores), secondary consumers (carni-
vores), ultimately terminating at decomposers.
• The food chain describes the relationships linking producers, consumers
and decomposers. Food pyramids can also be used to represent this
relationship. Pyramids of biomass, energy and numbers of organisms
can also be used to describe the biotic relationships in ecosystems.
• Nutrient cycles describe the flow of particular nutrients (C, O, N and
water) through the ecosystem.
• Ecotourism produces widespread benefits to South Africa, creating jobs,
preserving its natural beauty and improving infrastructure. There are eth-
ical considerations involved in ensuring that the ecological and cultural
diversity of South Africa’s ecosystems is preserved.

316 9.9. Summary

Exercise 9 – 1: End of chapter exercises

1. Study the sketch of the forest ecosystem below:

a) Name the:
i. producer
ii. primary consumer
iii. secondary consumer
iv. tertiary consumer
b) The ecosystem consists of living organisms together with the
2. Read the article below and answer the questions that follow:

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 317

 a) Describe what you understand by the term algal bloom.
b) With reference to above article, name the abiotic factor that is re-
sponsible for the bloom and how the factor reached the Antarctic
Ocean.
c) Discuss the role decomposers could play in this ecosystem.
3. Earthworms will burrow into the soil if they are on the surface and it is
daylight. We can explain this behaviour by saying that they are either
repelled by light or because they are attracted to the soil.
Describe an experiment that you could do to determine which expla-
nation is correct. When designing your experiment, bear in mind that
earthworms are living organisms.
Set out your design under the following headings:
a) Hypothesis
b) Aim
c) Apparatus and Materials
d) Method
4. Read the following information taken from UWC Enviro Fact sheet on the
Fynbos and answer the questions that follow:

Fynbos is the major vegetation type of the small botanical region

known as the Cape Floral Kingdom. The Cape Floral Kingdom is
both the smallest and the richest floral kingdom, with the highest
known concentration of plant species: 1 300 per 10 000 km2 . The
nearest rival, the South American rain forest has a concentration of
only 400 per 10 000 km2 . Conservation of the Cape Floral
Kingdom, with its distinctive fynbos vegetation, is a national
conservation priority demanding urgent action.

Over 7 700 plant species are found in fynbos, an astonishing

number for such a small area. Of these roughly 70% are endemic
to the area. Many of these are threatened with extinction. The
richness of the fynbos is well demonstrated by its ericas or heaths,
of which there are over 600 different species. There are just 26 in
the rest of the world. Although the most striking features of the
composition of fynbos are the presence of many conspicuous
members of protea, erica and reed family that fill the niche usually
occupied by grasses, the largest family in number of species is
Asteraceae (daisy family), with just under 1000 species of which
more than 600 are endemic. Furthermore, fynbos is very rich in
geophytes (bulbous plants) and many species from the family
Iridaceae have become household names, freesia, gladiolus, iris,
and watsonia. Another remarkable feature of fynbos is the number
of species found within small areas. For example, the total world
range of some species consists areas smaller than half a soccer or
rugby field!.

318 9.9. Summary

 Fynbos cannot support herds of large mammals since the nutrient
poor soils on which it grows do not provide enough nitrogen for
the protein requirements of large mammals. However, smaller
mammals common to fynbos are baboons, grysbok, dassies, and
the striped mouse. Fynbos does not support high numbers of
birds. Fynbos also supports large numbers of butterfly species.
Many are however at risk. The early stages (larvae) of many of
these butterfly species are entirely carnivorous and live on a diet
of ant brood. The butterfly larvae actually live inside the nest of
their host ant. Although fynbos is not particularly rich in reptiles
and amphibians, many of the species living there are both
endemic and threatened. The very rare geometric tortoise is found
in only a few surviving fynbos areas and is regarded as the world’s
second rarest tortoise.

The Cape has more than half of South Africa’s frog species.
Fynbos also has a high concentration of threatened fish species,
particularly in the Olifants River system. With the widespread
occurrence of alien vegetation which use up more water than
indigenous fynbos plants, many habitats are becoming restricted
leading to local extinction of certain species of fish because
isolated tributaries are drying up.

http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/envfacts/fynbos/
a) The fynbos is said to be a very bio diverse habitat. List any three
pieces of evidence from the text that show the idea of a rich biodi-
versity.
b) Give three distinctive abiotic characteristics (excluding edaphic fac-
tors) of this biome.
c) Define the following terms mentioned in the text:
i. endemic
ii. alien species
iii. indigenous
iv. extinct
d) Construct a possible food chain of at least four organisms that would
be found in this biome, use some organisms mentioned in the text.
Label the levels of the organisms mentioned.
e) Discuss the characteristics of the soil found in the fynbos and the
implications for animals in the area.
5. Which of the following are biotic components in an ecosystem?
a) air and water
b) plants and animals
c) light and temperature
d) rocks, soil and climate

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 319

 6. Which combination of the following processes takes place in the nitrogen
cycle?

• i) Herbivores consume plant protein.

• ii) Decomposers break down dead organisms.
• iii) Bacteria change nitrites to nitrates.
• iv) Plants absorb nitrates from the soil.

a) i, ii and iii
b) i, ii, iii and iv
c) i and iv
d) i, ii and iv

7. A soil has the following characteristics: large particles, large air spaces,
holds little water, feels gritty. The type of soil is:

a) clay
b) sand
c) loam
d) silt

8. Plants that are suited to live in areas with little water are called:

a) terrestrial
b) fynbos
c) xerophytes
d) hydrophytes

9. In a food chain, energy flows in the following direction:

a) producers → primary consumers → secondary consumers → de-

composers
b) decomposers → producers → primary consumers → secondary
consumers
c) primary consumers → secondary consumers → producers → de-
composers
d) producers → secondary consumers → primary consumers → de-
composers.

10. In a stable ecosystem, a wide variety of:

a) producers depend on plants for shelter and camouflage.

b) micro-organisms depend on plants for carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
c) animals depend on plants for food and oxygen.
d) plants depend on micro-organisms for pollination and seed disper-
sal.

320 9.9. Summary

11. When a jackal kills and eats a rabbit, the jackal is the:
a) producer
b) prey
c) predator
d) saprophyte
12. Which of the following refers to an organism’s whole way of life and the
use to which it puts the available environmental resources?
a) niche
b) habitat
c) community
d) ecosystem
13. Organisms that live in water are called:
a) terrestrial
b) xerophytes
c) buoyant
d) aquatic
14. A giant oil tanker was wrecked at sea. The shallow waters of the coast-
line provided a rich source of edible crabs. Oil does not kill the crabs but
harm their flesh, making them inedible and they cannot be sold. Samples
of crabs were collected at sites A to D. The number of crabs is indicated
by the size of the circle. The extent of the shaded part at each site repre-
sents the proportion of crabs with diseased flesh after the disaster.

A B C D

a) Which sample site (A to D) had the highest number of crabs?

b) In which sample site was the crabs only rarely found?
c) Name the agent of pollution that affected the crabs.
d) In which sample site was the most crabs affected compared to the
population size?
e) Explain your answer to the question above.
f) List two strategies that could reduce the effects of oil pollution at
sea.

Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 321

 Check answers online with the exercise code
below or click on ’show me the answer’.
1ai. 2CW2 1aii. 2CW3 1aiii. 2CW4 1aiv. 2CW5 1b. 2CW6 2a. 2CW7
2b. 2CW8 2c. 2CW9 3a. 2CWB 3b. 2CWC 3c. 2CWD 3d. 2CWF
4a. 2CWG 4b. 2CWH 4ci. 2CWJ 4cii. 2CWK 4ciii. 2CWM 4civ. 2CWN
4d. 2CWP 4e. 2CWQ 4fi. 2CWR 4fii. 2CWS 4fiii. 2CWT 5. 2CWV
6. 2CWW 7. 2CWX 8. 2CWY 9. 2CWZ 10. 2CX2 11. 2CX3
12. 2CX4 13. 2CX5 14a. 2CX6 14b. 2CX7 14c. 2CX8 14d. 2CX9
14e. 2CXB 14f. 2CXC

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

322 9.9. Summary

 CHAPTER 10

Biodiversity and classification

10.1 Overview 324

10.2 Biodiversity 325
10.3 Classification schemes 327
10.4 Five kingdom system 334
10.5 Summary 340
 10 Biodiversity and classification

10.1 Overview ESGBP

Introduction ESGBQ

‘Biodiversity is the greatest treasure we have. Its diminishing is to be pre-

vented at all costs’. — Thomas Eisner, US environmental scientist, who has
made interesting findings into how organisms produce chemicals to fight off
predation.

The diversity of life on Earth has fascinated scientists for generations. The earli-
est scientists attempted to understand life by categorising it according to a range
of common traits. Over time these classification systems have changed based
on the new evidence gathered. In this unit you will study the history of the
system of classifying organisms, starting with Aristotle and progressing to the
current five-kingdom system devised by Whittaker. You will also be introduced
to the scientific convention of referring to organisms in Latin using two names
- referred to as binomial nomenclature. It is important to try and draw connec-
tions between this section and the previous one in which you studied the plant
and animal life common to each biome.
Key concepts

• There is enormous biodiversity on Earth, consisting of different ecosys-

tems, containing a variety of species, which each have genetic differ-
ences.
• South Africa is a ’hotspot’ of diversity and has a large diversity of species
endemic to the region.
• Classification schemes are a way of categorising biodiversity based on
common characteristics.
• The history of classification began with Aristotle.
• Currently, the most widely used classification system is the five-kingdom
scheme consisting of the kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista
and Monera (or Bacteria).
• In Science we name living organisms using a naming system called bino-
mial nomenclature, which is written in the form: Genus, species
• Based on cell structure, there are key differences between prokaryotes
and eukaryotes.
• The main groupings of living organisms are bacteria, protists, fungi, plants
and animals. Each of these categories of organisms have distinctive fea-
tures that differentiate them.

324 10.1. Overview

 FACT
10.2 Biodiversity ESGBR Biodiversity varies
greatly across
different regions of
the Earth. In
Biodiversity is the term we use to refer to the variation in life forms in an ecosys- addition,
tem, biome or the entire planet. The term also describes the genetic wealth biodiversity has also
varied greatly across
within each species, the inter-relationships between them and the natural areas
time. You will learn
in which they occur. more about how
biodiversity has
In this chapter we will focus on understanding the existing biodiversity and changed over
Earth’s history in the
how scientists attempt to describe it. Biodiversity varies widely across the Earth,
following chapter:
depending on temperature, rainfall, soils, geography and the presence of other ’The History of Life
species. on Earth’.

Scientists have described over 1,7 million of the world’s species of animals,
plants and algae. A rich species diversity is found in South Africa. With a
land surface of approximately 148 000 square kilometres, representing approx-
imately 1% of the Earth’s total surface, South Africa contains10% of the world’s
total known bird, fish and plant species, and 6% of the world’s mammal and
reptile species.

This natural wealth is threatened by the expansion of the human population

and the increasing demand this places on the environment. South Africa as
a country is a ’hotspot’ of biodiversity, a term given to an area with a large
biodiversity of plants and animals. The Karoo and the Cape are biodiversity
hotspots in South Africa. South Africa has a wide range of climatic conditions
and many variations in landscape as you learnt in the previous chapter. These
various landscapes give rise to the biomes which allow a wide variety of life to
survive. In the table below are listed some of the major plant, mammal, bird,
reptile and amphibian, fish and insect species found in South Africa. You are
not expected to know any of the numbers but they are given to you in order to
illustrate the extent of biodiversity that exists in South Africa.

Life form Diversity and threatened species

Plants More than 20 300 species of flowering plants
occur in South Africa. One of the six most
important areas of plant growth in the world is
in the Western Cape. Most of the 2000
threatened species of plants are found in the
fynbos in South-West Cape.

Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 325

 Life form Diversity and threatened species
Mammals 243 mammals found in the region. Among the
17 threatened species in South Africa are the
black rhino, pangolin, giant golden mole. The
blue antelope and quagga have become
extinct.

Birds Of more than 800 bird species, 26 are

threatened, including the penguin, Cape
vulture, martial eagle and Cape parrot.

Reptiles and Amphibians In total 370 reptiles and amphibians occur in

the region of which 21 are threatened. Six of
these are endangered.

Fish 220 freshwater fishes occur of which 21 are

threatened. There are more than 2000 marine
fish species.

Insects 80 000 insects are known to occur. There are

many insect species that are unidentified.

326 10.2. Biodiversity

Most of the diverse species found in South Africa are endemic or indigenous to
the country.

• Indigenous means that these species originate or occur naturally in South

Africa.
• Endemic means that these species occur only in South Africa and nowhere
else.

10.3 Classification schemes ESGBS

Classification ESGBT

The practice of classifying organisms is referred to as taxonomy. Classification

is usually a hierarchical process. One begins with general and broad differ-
ences, and then one systematically introduces more and more detailed and
specific criteria.

We have prepared an activity in order to show why we try and classify living
organisms, what sort of mental process it entails, and how it is done. The activ-
ity below is not Life Sciences related, but conveys the process of classification.
Try and think of the problems that arise while classifying the items below. Can
BBC news be entertaining too? If so, should it not be under entertainment? Do
you think that the final level of classification is the most definitive?

Activity: Classification

Aim:

To understand how classification systems work.

Materials:

Pen and paper Instructions:

1. Listed below are different TV programmes:

• Carte-Blanche
• Rocky
• Isidingo
• Rambo
• Hitler’s Bodyguards
• Generations
• Vietnam: Lost Films
• BBC news

Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 327

 2. Divide these TV programmes above into 2 groups, under the headings:
Entertainment and Documentary.
3. Now further subdivide the Entertainment group into Action and Soapies
groups.
4. Do the same for Documentary using the headings: News/Current Affairs
and History.

You have just drawn an example of a dichotomous branching diagram/ tree. All
objects can be divided in this way. We call this a classification system.

Classification can be a tricky business. Problems arise when something can

be classified to greater detail, or when an object or organism could belong to
more than one category. Biologists have faced these classification conundrums
for centuries when trying to classify organisms in one category or another.

Artificial classification systems, such as the grouping of vehicles into those that
provide transport on land, water or air, are based on arbitrary groupings and
have little meaning. The biological classification system, however, is based on
research in anatomy, physiology, chemistry, genetics and many other branches
of science. It is a scientific method of classification that groups organisms that
share common features.

This classification is not random, but rather it describes evolutionary relation-

ships. As a consequence, it is always necessarily hierarchical, where the impor-
tant features inherited from a common ancestor determine the group in which
the organisms are placed. For example, humans and whales both feed their
young on milk, which is a characteristic inherited from a common ancestor.
This similarity places them under the same class, mammals, even though their
habitats are completely different.

Each organism is grouped into one of five large groups or kingdoms, which
are subdivided into smaller groups called phyla (singular: phylum) and then
smaller and smaller groups with other names.

• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species

When trying to identify animals, it is this hierarchy or ranking scheme that we

follow. We start by identifying the kingdom to which an organism belongs,
then its phylum, class, family, order, and so on.

328 10.3. Classification schemes

 FACT
Watch a video
about taxonomy:
life’s filing system
See video: 2CXD

Figure 10.1: Schematic diagram showing hierarchy or ranking scheme used by tax-
onomists.

This is similar to explaining how to find your house to a being from another
planet. You would have to say Earth first, then Africa, then South Africa, then
KZN, then Durban, then the suburb, then the road name and finally the house
number. He would have to start searching in a big place and gradually work
down to smaller places (or groupings).

A way to remember it is ”Kwaito People Come Out From Gauteng Singing”.

By learning this mnemonic you are going to remember the sequence in the
classification system:

• Kingdom - Kwaito
• Phylum - People
• Class - Come
• Order - Out
• Family - From
• Genus - Gauteng
• Species - Singing

Activity: Constructing a mnemonic to remember the sequence of the clas-

sification system

Instructions:

Make an easy to remember memory aid to remember the sequence of levels of

the classification system.

Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 329

FACT
Watch a video History of classification ESGBV
about Carolus
Linnaeus
See video: 2CXF Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a 4th century Greek philosopher. He divided or-
ganisms into two main groups, namely plants and animals. His system was
used into the 1600’s. People who wrote about animals and plants either used
their common names in various languages or adopted more-or-less standard-
ised descriptions.

Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624) took some important steps towards the binomial
system currently used by modifying many of the Latin descriptions to two
words.

Figure 10.2: Aristotle (384–322 BC) de- Figure 10.3: Carl Linnaeus developed a
vised one of the earliest classification more advanced classification scheme and
schemes. the system of naming organisms called bi-
nomial nomenclature.

Carolus Linnaeus (Carl Von Linne) (1707–1778) was an 18th century Swedish
botanist and physician. He classified plants and animals according to simi-
larities in form and divided living things into two main kingdoms namely —
plant and animal kingdoms. He named the plants and animals in Latin or
used latinised names in his books Species Plantarum (1753) and Systema Nat-
urae (1758). The two-kingdom classification system devised by Linnaeus is not
used today. As scientists discovered more and more about different organisms,
they expanded the system to include many more kingdoms and groupings.
However, one of Linnaeus more enduring systems was the system of naming
organisms- called binomial nomenclature. We will learn more about binomial
nomenclature in the next section.

Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) was able to observe microscopic single-celled or-

ganisms and he proposed a third kingdom of life, the Protista, in 1866. Protista
were single celled organisms that were neither plant nor animal, but could have
characteristics of either.

330 10.3. Classification schemes

Herbert Faulkner Copeland (1902–1968) recognised the important difference
between the single-celled eukaryotes and single-celled prokaryotes. He pro-
posed a four-kingdom classification, and placed the bacteria and blue-green
algae (prokaryotes) in a fourth kingdom- Monera.

Robert Harding Whittaker (1920-1980) devised a five kingdom system in 1969.

He recognised that fungi belonged to their own kingdom. However, even to-
day the five-kingdom system is under dispute. It is the nature of science that
as more discoveries come to light, theories will continue to be improved upon
and revised.

Binomial Nomenclature ESGBW

One of Linnaeus’ greatest contributions was that he designed a scientific sys-

tem of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature (bi - ’two’, nomial -
’names’). He gave each organism a two part scientific name - genus (plural -
’genera’) and species (plural - ’species’) names. The genus and species names
would be similar to your first name and surname. Genus name is always writ-
ten with a capital letter whereas species name is written with a small letter. The
scientific name must always be either written underlined or printed in italics.

Since Latin was once the universal language of science among western scholars
in medieval Europe, these names were typically in Latin.

For example the scientific name of the African elephant is Loxodonta africana.
Genus: Loxodonta Species: africana

Figure 10.4: Elephant (Loxodonta africana). Figure 10.5: Blue crane,

South Africa’s national bird.

An organism will always have only one scientific name even though they might
have more than one common name. For example Blue crane, indwe (for amaX-
hosa) and mogolori (for Batswana) are all common names for South Africa’s na-
tional bird (shown below). However, it has got only one scientific name which
is Anthropoides paradiseus.

Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 331

 The scientific name of our human race is Homo sapiens sapiens. We are the
only surviving members of the genus Homo — other more ancient or ancestral
types such as Homo ergaster and Homo neanderthalensis have all become
extinct.

Figure 10.6: Homo neanderthalensis Figure 10.7: Homo sapiens

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes ESGBX

Prokaryotes are uni- or multicellular organisms made up of cells that do not

have a nuclear envelope (pro - before, karyon - nucleus). The genetic material is
not bound in a nucleus. They also lack cell organelles such as an endoplasmic
reticulum, a Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and mitochondria. Prokaryotes are
divided into two main groups namely the Bacteria and the Archaea (ancient
bacteria).

Figure 10.8: A prokaryote cell

332 10.3. Classification schemes

Eukaryotes are organisms that possess a membrane-bound nucleus that holds
genetic material (eu - true, karyon - nucleus). Eukaryotes may contain other
membrane-bound cell organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. Eu-
karyotic organisms can be unicellular or multicellular. Eukaryotes include or-
ganisms such as plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

Figure 10.9: A eukaryote cell

Table: Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Small cells Large cells
Unicellular or multicellular Often (but not always) multicellular
Genetic material is not contained within Genetic material is contained in a
a nucleus membrane-bound nucleus
Cells have a simple membrane internal Cells have a distinct membrane system
system but no organelles Example: no with organelles Examples: Chloroplast,
chloroplast, no mitochondria mitochondria, golgi bodies

Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 333

FACT
A video showing a 10.4 Five kingdom system ESGBY
brief summary of
the five kingdoms
See video: 2CXG
The five kingdom system is the most common way of grouping living things
FACT based on simple distinctive characteristics. Classification systems are always
Bacteria are found changing as new information is made available. Modern technologies such as
everywhere and are Genetics makes it possible to unravel evolutionary relationships to greater and
the most numerous
organisms on Earth.
greater detail. The five-kingdom system was developed by Robert H. Whit-
In a single gram of taker in 1969 and was built on the work of previous biologists such as Carolus
soil, there are about Linnaeus.
40 million bacterial
cells. The human
Living things can be classified into five major kingdoms:
body also contains
10 times as many
bacterial cells as • Kingdom Animalia
human cells!
• Kingdom Plantae
• Kingdom Fungi
• Kingdom Protista
• Kingdom Monera (Bacteria)

We will now identify the main distinctive features of each kingdom:

Kingdom Monera ESGBZ

The Kingdom Monera consists of prokaryotic, unicellular organisms. No nu-

clear membrane or membrane-bound organelles such as chloroplasts, Golgi
complex, mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum are present. Monera have
a cell wall of protein plus polysaccharide compound, but not cellulose. They
reproduce asexually by binary fission. Important examples of Monera include
Archaea and Bacteria.

Figure 10.10: Mycobacterium bacteria Figure 10.11: Staphylococcus aureus bac-

that causes Tuberculosis. teria can cause skin infections, sinusitis
and food poisoning.

334 10.4. Five kingdom system

 FACT
Kingdom Protista ESGC2 A TED video on the
many uses of Fungi
See video: 2CXH
Protista are eukaryotic and can be unicellular or simple multicellular. They
reproduce sexually or asexually. Important examples of protists include the FACT
organism known as Plasmodium (which causes malaria), Amoeba and Euglena. Sir Alexander
Fleming discovered
There are two major groups of protists which include the Protozoans, whose
the first antibiotics
cells are similar to animal cells in that they do not have cell walls and the in 1928, after
plant-like cells which do have cell walls and are similar to algae. observing that
colonies of
Staphylococcus
aureus bacteria
could be destroyed
by the fungi
Penicillium
notatum. This
observation that
certain substances
were deadly to
microbial life lead
to the discovery and
development of
Figure 10.12: Euglena an example of a Figure 10.13: Diatoms from Antarctic sea medicines that
protist. ice. could kill many
types of
disease-causing
Kingdom Fungi ESGC3 bacteria in the body.

Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can be multicellular or unicellular. Mush-

rooms and moulds are examples of multicellular fungi and yeast is an exam-
ple of a unicellular fungi. All fungi have a cell wall made of chitin. They
are non-motile (not capable of movement) and consist of threads called hy-
phae. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms which means they require organic
compounds of carbon and nitrogen for nourishment. They are important as
decomposers (saprophytes) and can be parasitic. They store carbon as glyco-
gen, not in the form of starch. Fungi reproduce sexually and asexually by spore
formation. An important example of a useful fungus is Penicillium (a fungus
which was used to make penicillin, one of the most powerful antibiotics ever
created).

Figure 10.14: Examples of fungi. Figure 10.15: Mushrooms are examples of

fungi.

Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 335

 Kingdom Plantae ESGC4

Organisms belonging to the plant kingdom are eukaryotic and multicellular or-
ganisms. They have a distinct cell wall made of cellulose. Cells are organised
into true plant tissues. Plants contain plastids and photosynthetic pigments such
as chlorophyll. They are non-motile. Plants make their own food by photosyn-
thesis and are therefore said to be autotrophic. Plants undergo both sexual and
asexual reproduction. They store food as starch. Important examples of plants
are mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants.

Examples of plant variety:

Kingdom Animalia ESGC5

Members of the animal kingdom are eukaryotic and multicellular but have no
cell wall or photosynthetic pigments. They are mostly motile and they are
heterotrophic, which means they must feed on other organisms and cannot
make their own food. They reproduce sexually or asexually. Animals store
carbon as glycogen and fat.

336 10.4. Five kingdom system

Important examples of this kingdom include: Porifera (sponges), Cnidaria (jel-
lyfish), Nematoda (nematode worms), Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Annelidas
(segmented worms), Mollusca (Snails and Squid), Echinodermata (starfish), Arthro-
poda (Insects and Crustaceans), Chordata (includes all the vertebrates: fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals).

Examples of animal variety:

Animal Phyla

Figure 10.16: Porifera Figure 10.17: Cnidaria Figure 10.18: Platyhelminths

Figure 10.19: Mollusca Figure 10.20: Echinodermata Figure 10.21: Arthropoda

Classes of vertebrates

Figure 10.22: Fish Figure 10.23: Amphibians Figure 10.24: Reptiles

Figure 10.25: Birds Figure 10.26: Mammals

Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 337

 Activity: Investigate examples of life forms from each kingdom

Aim:

To investigate examples from each kingdom.

Instructions::

1. Research one beneficial and one harmful application of one member

from each kingdom, with examples from their use in South Africa. Stu-
dents can be grouped into smaller groups and each one is given one
kingdom to research. (Use www.arkive.org as a research tool for your
favourite animal or plant or http://bugscope.becnkman.uiuc.edu/ for nice
pictures of insects). Results can be presented in the form of a poster.
2. Go to your nearest supermarket or garden and find one representative or-
ganism for each kingdom. Present this information by drawing a diagram.

Dichotomous Key ESGC6

A dichotomous key is a tool that taxonomists often use to classify organisms

correctly. It is a form of hierarchical grouping that involves making decisions
in a series of steps, from general differences to very specific differences. It is
called a dichotomous key because there are always two choices. There is a
very specific way to set up a dichotomous key. For instance, one must always
move from the general to the specific, and one must always ensure that the two
choices in the decision tree are mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive. Mu-
tually exclusive means that there cannot be overlap between the two options,
as this would result in wanting to place an organism in two groups. Jointly
exhaustive means that your two options must cover all possibilities, otherwise
you won’t be able to place an organism in either of the groups.

Activity: Identifying arthropods using a dichotomous naming key

Aim:

To use a dichotomous key to identify arthropods.

Instructions:

1. Study the organisms in the table of specimens provided to you.

2. Use the dichotomous key to find out to which taxonomic group each of
these arthropods belong.
3. Write the letter corresponding to the arthropod, and then your answer.

338 10.4. Five kingdom system

Table of specimens

A B C

D E F

G H I

J K L

Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 339

 Characteristic Instruction
1a Arthropod has eight legs go 2 (Arachnids)
1b Arthropod does not have 8 legs go 4
2a Arachnid has pedipalp with pincers SCORPION
2b Arachnid does not have pedipalp with pincers Go 3
3a Arachnid drinks blood TICK
3b Arachnid does not drink blood SPIDER
4a Arthropod has more than 16 legs Go 9 (Myriapoda)
4b Arthropod does not have more than 16 legs Go 5
5a Arthropod has 3 pairs of legs Go 6 (Insects)
5b Arthropod does not 3 pairs of legs CRUSTACEAN
6a Insect has hardened fore-wings COLEOPTERA
6b Insect does not have hardened fore-wings Go 7
7a Insects are social and/ or live in a hive HYMENOPTERA
7b Insects are not social, do not live in a hive Go 8
8a Insects does not have a sponge-like proboscis LEPIDOPTERA
8b Insects have a sponge-like proboscis DIPTERA
9a Myriapod with one pair of legs per segment CENTIPEDE
9b Myriapod with two pairs of legs per segment MILLIPEDE

10.5 Summary ESGC7

By the end of this chapter you should know the following:

• The definition of the biological classification system and hierarchical

manner of grouping of living organisms based on similarities and dif-
ferences.
• A brief history of major developments in the classification of organisms.
• The scientific method of naming of organisms using the binomial nomen-
clature. All organisms have only one scientific name but many common
names.
• The division of organisms into prokaryotes (simple, unicellular) and eu-
karyotes (mostly multicellular) and the major differences between the
two.
• The classification of living organisms into five major kingdoms: Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia and the unique characteristics of
each kingdom.

340 10.5. Summary

Exercise 10 – 1: End of chapter exercises

1. Which of the following in a classification system is the smallest?

a) Kingdoms
b) Species
c) Family
d) Class
2. Which Swedish botanist and physician named plants and animals in
Latin?
a) Casper Bauhin
b) Aristotle
c) Robert Whittaker
d) Carolus Linnaeus
3. The five kingdom classification system was suggested by:
a) Whittaker
b) Linnaeus
c) Darwin
d) Pasteur
4. The following example is the scientific name of a lion: Panthera leo.
The first part of the scientific name represent the...
a) Genus name
b) Kingdom name
c) Species name
d) Family name
5. Write down the correct biological term for the following descriptions.
a) Type of system by modifying many of the Latin descriptions to two
words.
b) Group of organisms which are able to interbreed and produce fertile
offspring.
c) The scientific name of our human race.
d) The type of asexual reproduction in the Kingdom Monera.
e) Highest grouping in a classification system.
6. Give the definition of the term Biodiversity.
7. Tabulate three differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Check answers online with the exercise code

below or click on ’show me the answer’.
1. 2CXJ 2. 2CXK 3. 2CXM 4. 2CXN 5a. 2CXP 5b. 2CXQ
5c. 2CXR 5d. 2CXS 5e. 2CXT 6. 2CXV 7. 2CXW

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 341

 CHAPTER 11

History of life on Earth

11.1 Overview 344

11.2 Representations of life’s history 345
11.3 Life’s History 355
11.4 Mass extinctions 363
11.5 Impact of humans on biodiversity and the
environment 367
11.6 Fossil tourism 368
11.7 Summary 369
 11 History of life on Earth

11.1 Overview ESGC8

Introduction ESGC9

In this chapter we will learn about the history of life on Earth. We will first
talk about tools (fossil dating) and theories, (continental drift) that help us un-
derstand our past. Next we will look at the geological time-scale and discuss
three major eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. We will talk about
the Cambrian explosion, which was a major explosion in the diversity of life,
and we will discuss mass extinctions, which were mass losses in the diversity
of life forms. We will also look at the evolution of humans in the last 4 million
years. Throughout the chapter will look at fossil evidence from Southern Africa
that originates from key periods in Earth’s history.

Key concepts

• Scientists use deductive reasoning to understand fossils and the history of

life on Earth.
• Geological events often caused changes in climate, which in turn influ-
ence the emergence and disappearance of species.
• It takes special circumstances for fossils to form, and fossils can be dated
by radiometric, radiocarbon or relative dating.
• Climate and geography helped shape the evolution of life on Earth.
• Geological timescales are divided into eons, eras and periods.
• The Cambrian explosion was a rapid explosion in the diversity of life-
forms. All animal groups have their origin in the Cambrian explosion.
• Mass extinctions are massive losses in life, and there have been five mass
extinction events in history.
• In the last 4 million years significant changes have occurred in species
occurring in Africa, including the evolution of humans.
• Humans have a massive effect on biodiversity and the natural environ-
ment and are partially responsible for the ’6th mass extinction’. item
South Africa is rich in many fossils from diverse time periods.
• Fossil tourism is a source of income and employment in fossil localities.

344 11.1. Overview

11.2 Representations of life’s history ESGCB

Scientists have divided the history of life into different time periods using the
geological timescale. In this section we will present the key evidence scientists
have used to construct this time scale. We will discuss the continental drift
theory which explains how the continents were formed. We will also briefly
touch on the theory of natural selection which explains how one life form can
evolve into another over many years by adapting to its changing environment.
We will then present the methods by which we are able to determine evolution
of life forms over time through examining the fossil record.

Geological timescale ESGCC

The geological timescale is a ’calendar’ of events in the Earth’s history. It shows

major geological and climactic events, and how these events affected the emer-
gence and disappearance of species over time. In order to help us make sense
of this vast amount of time, scientists divided it into smaller units of time. In
descending order, these units are: eons, eras and periods.
• An Eon: is defined as a unit of time equal to a billion years.
• An era: is a division of time within an eon but does not have a fixed
number of years. The Mesozoic era for example lasted from 252 million
years to 66 million years ago.
• A period: typically refers to a subdivision of an era and its length is
determined by a system of dating based on examining fossil evidence
belonging to a particular era.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 345

 Table 11.1 below shows one method of representing the geological timescale:

Figure 11.1: Geological timescale with key events and characteristics shown.

While you will not be expected to remember the names of specific periods,
you will be expected to understand the eras and their particular characteristics.

Another visually powerful way of representing Earth’s history is via the use of
the geological ‘clock’ (Figure 11.2). Human history occupies just 2 million of
the 4500 million year long history of the Earth. On this clock, human existence
constitutes less than a minute of the evolutionary history of life on Earth.

346 11.2. Representations of life’s history

 FACT
http:
//deeptime.info/
This website has an
‘infographic’
showing geological
time on a clock.
Each hour on the
clock corresponds
to a period of the
Earth’s history, and
shows the
characteristics of
each period and the
key events within
them.

Figure 11.2: ”Human history on Earth is a mere second on the clock”. In this repre-
sentation, the two million years’ of human history constitute an effect too small to be
visible on the timescale.

Activity: Construct a timeline of the key events in the history of life on

Earth (Essential CAPS)

Aim:

In this exercise you will learn to combine all the information given on the
history of life and depict it on a simple geological timescale of your own.

Materials:

• exercise book or cardboard

• coloured pens and pencils
• pictures and information from the Internet and books

Instructions:

Draw a timescale that stretches from ‘0 years ago’ to 530 million years ago.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 347

 Depict the history of life on this timescale. On your timeline, show:

• Mesozoic, Paleozoic and Cenozoic eras

• Two major climate changes characteristic of each era
• Major changes to plant and animal life that took place during this time

Continental Drift ESGCD

Continental drift is the breakup and movement of the Earth’s continents relative
to each other by drifting across the Earth’s surface. Since the initial continen-
tal drift hypothesis was proposed, the study of plate tectonics has helped us
understand why continents move.

Plate tectonics is the study of the folding and faulting of the Earth’s crust (litho-
sphere).

Biogeography is the branch of biology focusing on the geographical distribution

of plants and animals. It has been instrumental in developing our understand-
ing of the evidence for continental drift.

Evidence for continental drift

There is considerable evidence for the theory of continental drift that draws
upon fossil evidence, plate tectonics theory and studies of glacier sediments.
For example:

• Similar plant and animal fossils have been found on different continents’
shores, suggesting that these were once joined. For example:
– The Mesosaurus found in Brazil and South Africa.
– The Lystrosaurus from rocks of the same age found in South Africa,
South America, India, Australia and Antarctica
– Earthworms found in South America and Africa suggest that these
existed in a common habitat on a single continent.
• The complementary shapes of South America and Africa have enabled
scientists to propose how these continents pulled apart due to various
plate tectonic forces.
• The study of glaciers left over from the ice ages has provided an impor-
tant line of evidence for continental drift. Glacial sediments from South
America, Africa, India, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Aus-
tralia showed evidence of having once been joined together, suggesting
the existence of the supercontinent Gondwana.

Using this evidence, scientists have inferred that in the past the Earth existed as
a super-continent known as Pangea until the early Mesozoic era. There were
three major phases in the break-up of Pangea:

348 11.2. Representations of life’s history

 • First phase: about 175 million years ago, Pangea began to rift, giving rise FACT
to the supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. Natural selection is
a process you will
• Second phase: began in the early Cretaceous period (150–140 million learn about in more
years ago) when Gondwana broke and separated into multiple conti- detail in Grades 11
nents: Africa, South America, India, Antarctica and Australia. and 12.

• Third phase: occurred in the early Cenozoic era. During this phase,
FACT
Laurasia split when North America/Greenland split from Eurasia resulting This video explains
in the expansion of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. how natural
selection takes
place!
See video: 2CXX

Figure 11.3: Diagram showing continental drift.

Natural selection ESGCF

Through a process known as natural selection, adaptations that allow one or-
ganism to survive better than another and produce more off-spring, results in
future generations of organisms who have acquired those traits. For Grade
10, you are required to understand the following key features of evolution by
natural selection:

• Individuals in a species show a wide range of variation: .e.g. the many

different types of dogs you see.
• The variation is caused by genetic differences.
• Individuals that are well-adapted to the environment in which they live
are more likely to survive and produce more offspring.
• The genes that allowed the individuals to be successful are passed on to
the offspring in the next generation.
• Over many hundreds (and thousands) of generations this results in changes
in the physical appearance and habits of organisms.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 349

 Fossil formation ESGCG

The fossil record is a key source of evidence that helps scientists understand
life’s history. Fossils are the remains, impressions or traces of animals and
plants from the remote past. Fossils usually take the form of a mold or a cast in
rock. Generally, a preserved specimen is regarded as a fossil if it is older than
approximately 10 000 years (although this is not a strict definition).

Examples of common fossils are skeletons or parts of skeletons, shells or teeth.

Sometimes plants or animals can leave imprints that get preserved as fossils.

The study of fossils across geological time, how they are formed, and how
ancient organisms have evolved in relation to other phylogenetic groups, is
called palaeontology.

How fossils are formed:

1. For fossilisation to occur, a plant or

animal must first die. Soft tissues
decay quite quickly, therefore
animals that have hard
exoskeletons and woody plants
tend to fossilise better than
soft-bodied organisms.

2. The organism (plant or animal)

must be buried beneath mud and
or soil shortly after death.
Although decay still takes place,
the lack of oxygen slows it down.
As more and more layers of mud
and soil are added, the sediments
become compressed.

3. Eventually, this compression turns

the sediment into rock, which
forms a mould around the shape of
the original skeleton. Sometimes
the original bone or shell softens
and dissolves completely,
sometimes the bone or shell
remains. Water that is rich in
dissolved minerals trickles in
through the layers of sediment into
the mould.

350 11.2. Representations of life’s history

 4. The mineral-rich water enters the FACT
hollow and crystallises to create a If the rocks
surrounding a fossil
natural cast of the original are distorted and
organism. Otherwise, the minerals squeezed by
slowly seep into the skeleton, geological forces, it
changing its chemical composition will result in
distortion of the
and making it capable of surviving fossils within them.
for a long time.

5. Over many millions of years, rock

that was once buried rises again to
the surface and is eroded away,
exposing the fossils.

Fossilisation is very rare and only happens when a plant or animal dies in
exactly the right circumstances. Usually animal corpses are eaten by other ani-
mals or decomposed by bacteria before fossilisation can occur. Even hard parts,
like bones and shells, are eventually destroyed through erosion and corrosion.

Methods of dating fossils ESGCH

We have learnt how fossils are formed over geologic timescales. In this section
we will learn how we determine the age of a fossil. There are two methods of
dating fossils:

1. Radiometric dating
2. Relative Dating

1. Radiometric Dating

In order to understand radiometric dating, it is necessary to revise our under-

standing of the atom. The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and
neutrons. The number of protons in the nucleus define what type of element it
is. However, the number of neutrons of an element may vary. Atoms with the
same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.

Some isotopes are stable, while others are unstable. Unstable isotopes undergo
a process called radioactive decay, whereby they spontaneously change to el-
ements of a different type. We can never predict when a specific atom will
undergo radioactive decay. However, when considering many atoms, we ob-
serve that the decay occurs at an exponential decay rate. Exponential decay
means that over a certain period of time, called a half life, half of the unstable
isotopes in a sample will undergo radioactive decay.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 351

FACT One of the most useful radiometric dating methods is radiocarbon dating.
Learn more about
how radiocarbon Radiocarbon dating
dating works.
See video: 2CXY
• The carbon atom exists as three different isotopes. These are carbon-12
(C-12), carbon-13 (C-13) and carbon-14 (C-14).
• All living organisms maintain an equilibrium of carbon-14 with the at-
mospheric carbon-14.
• After an organism dies, it no longer incorporates new carbon into its
body.
• The carbon-14 present within them undergoes radioactive decay to nitrogen-
14, and decreases from the original equilibrium with carbon-12.
• The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730 years. This means that if we start out
with say 10 units of carbon-14, in 5730 years’ time only 5 units will
remain. In another 5730 years’ time only 2.5 units will remain and so
on.
• Thus, using radiocarbon dating, scientists can determine how much carbon-
14 remains within a particular fossil, and thereby infer the age of the
fossil.

Figure 11.4: Radiometric dating: Graph showing the half-life of C-14. The amount of
carbon-14 halves every 5730 years.

The isotopes of different elements undergo decay at different rates; some decay
much more rapidly than others. This makes radiometric dating a useful tool
as scientists can use different elements to date longer and shorter time-scales.
Carbon has a relatively short half-life, and therefore it is not of much use when
dating fossils that are millions of years old.

352 11.2. Representations of life’s history

Uranium-lead and potassium-argon dating FACT
A video about
discovering fossil
In order to date older fossils, scientists use uranium-lead dating and potassium-
evidence.
argon dating. The half-life of uranium-235 is 700 million years, and the half-life See video: 2CXZ
of potassium-40 is 1.3 billion years. In order to estimate the age of incredibly
old fossils, scientists date the age of the igneous (volcanic) rock in which the
fossils are buried. This provides them with an estimate of the age of the fossils
contained within them.

2. Relative Dating

• Relative dating is the method of determining the order of events from the
fossil record.
• By studying the order in which fossils occur in the fossil record, geologists
can determine the order of events as they occurred but not when exactly
they occurred.
• Fossils found at the lowest layer of rock would be the oldest, as these
would have been buried for the longest time, whereas fossils found closer
to the surface would be buried more recently and therefore be younger.
• The geological time-scale you studied earlier was almost entirely devel-
oped by relative dating methods. It is a useful method of dating when
fossil materials lack radioactive isotopes.

Figure 11.5: In relative dating, fossils are dated relative to layers of igneous (volcanic)
rocks that they are near. Older layers are deeper in the Earth, younger layers are closer
to the surface.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 353

 Deductive reasoning to understand the past ESGCJ

Deductive reasoning combines the use of evidence and theories to make de-
ductions about the past. Therefore scientists use their understanding of con-
tinental drift and natural selection theories, together with evidence of climate
changes and extinct organisms from the fossil record, to piece together Earth’s
history.

• Scientists use the fossil record to make conclusions about the history of
life through a process of deductive reasoning.
• Deductive reasoning involves combining our understanding of known
principles to make conclusions about new evidence that we have uncov-
ered.
• Our knowledge of the history of life is not based on radiometric dat-
ing methods alone. Rather, our understanding of the changes in Earth’s
climate and biogeography allow us to make conclusions about newly dis-
covered fossil evidence.
• For example, from our knowledge of the changes to the Earth’s early at-
mosphere, we know that the formation of the ozone layer blocked off
the damaging rays of the sun’s UV rays. This led to the growth of plant
species which gradually made terrestrial existence possible.
• A transitional fossil is any fossilised remains that is common to an ances-
tral life form as well as to the group that is derived from it.
• Transitional fossils give us information about how an ancestral species
evolved to form the existing species.
• An example of a transitional fossil is the Archaeopteryx. It is thought to
belong to the genus of Theropod dinosaur which is closely related to the
birds.

The exercise below requires you to understand the similarities between the
Archaeopteryx and the modern bird.

Activity: Comparing the skeleton of a modern bird to the Archaeopteryx

Aim:

To compare the skeletons of a modern bird (chicken) and Archaeopteryx

Instructions:

1. Use the pictures below to compare the skeletons of a dinosaur (Thero-

pod), Archaeopteryx and a chicken (modern bird). Give four differences
and four similarities between Archaeopteryx and dinosaurs, and between
Archaeopteryx and modern birds.

354 11.2. Representations of life’s history

11.3 Life’s History ESGCK

Pre-Cambrian ESGCM

Hadean: the Earth we live on is approximately 4,6 billion years old. The con-
ditions that allowed for the emergence of life lasted approximately 500 mil-
lion years. It was an environment in which the Earth’s crust cooled and the
oceans and atmosphere began to form. In this environment, a variety of com-
plex chemical reactions occurred, resulting in the production of the earliest
molecules capable of making copies of themselves.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 355

FACT Archean: when life in the form of uni-cellular organisms first developed, the
Approximately Earth’s early atmosphere consisted entirely of volcanic gases, and there was
850–630 million
no free oxygen. Prokaryotes evolved, with photosynthesising bacteria (known
years ago, a ’global
glaciation’ event is as cyanobacteria) emerging approximately 3 billion years ago. The presence
thought to have of photosynthesising cyanobacteria resulted in the release of oxygen into the
occurred, also atmosphere.
known as an
’Snowball Earth’. At
this time The early single-celled organisms (bacteria and cyanobacteria) lived together
temperatures in aquatic colonies. These colonies were formed by trapping sediments and
dropped minerals floating in water and by producing a mucus which bound everything
dramatically and together. As the colony of bacteria, minerals and sediments grew, so did the
large parts of the
Earth’s surface were structure that they made, and layer upon layer built up. In order to capture as
covered in ice. much sunlight as possible, the shape of the top of this sedimented algal mat
During this period it was curved. These curved and multi-layered structures, called stromatolites,
is thought that any were preserved and exist as fossils. Some stromatolites survive to this day, in
life forms
dependent on light
scattered locations around the globe (Figure 11.6).
would have gone
extinct.

Figure 11.6: Stromatolites have been Figure 11.7: Stromatolites in Shark Bay,
found at Wondergat, Northwest Province, Australia.
South Africa.

Proterozoic: over the next 800

million years, the earliest forms of
sexual reproduction developed, thus
greatly increasing the diversity of
organisms. The first multicellular
organisms consisting of cells
specialised to perform specific
functions began to evolve. The
soft-bodied organisms, known as
Swartpuntia, first appeared
approximately 600 million years ago
and went extinct by the start of the
Cambrian, 543 million years ago.
Swartpuntia fossils were discovered in
Namibia and are some of the oldest Figure 11.8: Earliest soft-bodied animals
fossils known to exist from before the found in Namibia. A simplified recon-
Cambrian period. struction of Swartpuntia.

356 11.3. Life’s History

 FACT
Cambrian explosion ESGCN Watch this
fascinating video
about some of the
From approximately 580–500 million years ago, a large diversity of creatures interesting
organisms that lived
appeared. This event is called the Cambrian Explosion, and almost all of the
after the Cambrian
animals alive today can trace their beginnings to this rapid expansion of diver- Explosion and left
sity. The Cambrian Explosion was the relatively rapid appearance over millions beautiful fossil
of years of most of the main animal groups found in the fossil record. remains.
See video: 2CY2
In Cambrian times there was no life on land and little or none in freshwater
— the sea was still very much the centre of living activity. From 580–540 FACT
Watch a video
million years ago, oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere, allowing about trilobites.
for the formation of the ozone layer which blocked the damaging rays of the See video: 2CY3
ultraviolet light from the sun, permitting the colonisation of land.
FACT
The Cambrian explosion was just the first period of the Paleozoic era. It is Hard shells fossilise
more readily than
famous because of the sudden explosion in diverse morphologies, and the fact
soft bodied
that is ”sowed the seeds” for the continued evolution that occurred throughout organisms, as they
the Paleozoic. are better at
resisting decay, take
significantly longer
Paleozoic era (542 to 251 million years ago) ESGCP to break down, and
have a greater
chance of surviving
burial under layers
The massive supercontinent Pangaea formed during the Paleozoic, and this era
of sediment. For this
also saw the diversification and evolution of many of the animal phyla that are reason, hard-shelled
still present today. During the Paleozoic: organisms such as
trilobites dominate
the fossil record.
• The first fish (chordates) appeared more than 500 million years ago, and Sometimes by pure
it is from this common ancestor that vertebrates, including mammals (and luck, geologists find
humans) are ultimately descended. Fish developed bony spines and jaws beautiful fossils of
soft bodied
with teeth which increased the size and diversity of the prey they could creatures. A good
capture. place for
• Animals with shells and exoskeletons (e.g the trilobites) were in abun- discovering softer
bodied organisms is
dance early in the Paleozoic, but declined towards the end of the era. the Burgess Shale
• The earliest plants colonised land approximately 430 million years ago, site.
having evolved from the nearby algae growing along lakes and other
coastal areas.
• Forests of primitive plants covered the Earth’s surface, resulting in in-
creased oxygen levels and decreased carbon dioxide levels in the earth’s
atmosphere.
• The first insects appeared, and later on some species developed wings.
• Later in the Paleozoic amphibians became common and diverse and
started moving onto land.
• Early reptiles (synapsids) colonised land.
• Towards the end of the Paleozoic gymnosperms (seed-bearing plants) re-
placed much of the earlier plant-types.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 357

FACT The end of this period was marked by a mass extinction event (called the
Cycads occur across Permian-Triassic extinction event) which eliminated almost all marine life but
much of the
had a less devastating impact on terrestrial species.
subtropical and
tropical parts of the
world including South African fossil record: fossils of early land plants such as clubmosses, ly-
here in South Africa copods, ancestral gymnosperms and algae were found near Grahamstown and
where their
Port Alfred. Fossils of plants belonging to the Glossopteris flora are found in the
evolutionary
importance has Karoo. This plant flourished throughout the ancient landmass of Gondwana-
made them a land. However, by the end of the Permian period this crop had become extinct.
’protected species’. The fossilised remains of these plants are found in silts and in rocks through-
out the country, where coal deposits can be found (Figure 11.9). Among the
organisms that moved on to land at this time were the ammonoids, which are
marine invertebrate animals with spiral-shaped shells, the fossils of which are
found in the Makhatini flats in KwaZulu Natal.

Figure 11.9: Map of coal deposits in SA: often these deposits are the sites of plant and
animal fossils as they are created by the same process.

”Living fossils” in South Africa:

Cycads have been in existence for
over 280 million years. There are
several rare species of cycads found
exclusively within South Africa. They
grow very slowly and live for up to a
1000 years. Because they are such a
rare species, there are several
restrictions on what can be done to
them. In South Africa, unless required
for conservation purposes, it is illegal
to collect, pluck, destroy, export or
possess cycads without a special
Figure 11.10: Cycads have been in exis-
permit.
tence for over 280 million years.

358 11.3. Life’s History

 FACT
Mesozoic (251-72 million years ago) ESGCQ The existing sequoia
trees found mainly
in the United States
The Mesozoic Era is often referred to as the ’age of reptiles’ because throughout were also thought to
have evolved in the
the marine and terrestrial habitats, reptiles (especially dinosaurs) were domi-
Mesozoic.
nant. This era is divided into three major periods: Triassic, Jurassic and Creta-
ceous.

The major events of this era included significant changes in the climate, evolu-
tionary activity and land mass of Earth.
Figure 11.11:
• The climate of the Mesozoic fluctuated dramatically between cooling and
Sequoia trees in
warming periods. California, USA.
• Until this point, the Earth existed as one giant land mass called Pangaea.
During the Mesozoic era, this land mass broke up, and by the end of
the era, the continents as we know them today drifted into their current
positions.
• The extinction of nearly all animal species in the former Paleozoic era
led to rapid evolution of many new life forms.
• Dinosaurs appeared on land, becoming the major terrestrial vertebrates
for nearly 135 million years.
• Pterosaurs (flying reptiles) dominated the skies and aquatic reptiles such
as ichthyosaurs were found in the oceans.
• During the Triassic, Archaeopteryx, a link between reptiles and birds was
thought to evolve.
• The earliest birds appeared during the Jurassic period having evolved
from an order of dinosaur called theropods.
• Dinosaurs became extinct around 65 million years ago, at the end of the
Cretaceous period.
• The dominant land plant species of the time were the seed-producing
plants known as the gymnosperms. These include the cycads and conifers.

South African fossil examples: The mammal-like reptile, Lystrosaurus was by

far the most dominant terrestrial vertebrate during the Early Triassic period.

Figure 11.12: Lystrosaurus skeletal diagram.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 359

FACT Specimens of the Lystrosaurus were unearthed in the Balfour and Katburg for-
When the mations in the Karoo. The discovery of Lystrosaurus in the Coalsack Bluff in
coelacanth was
the Transantarctic Mountains helped confirm the theory that the continents of
initially discovered
by an East London the Earth were once joined, as Lystrosaurus had already been found in the Early
fisherman in 1938, Triassic fossil record of Southern Africa, India and China.
and identified as
such by Professor
JLB Smith, this ”Living fossils” in South Africa:
surprised scientists Coelacanths were thought to have
because they
gone extinct towards the end of the
thought it had
become extinct. Cretaceous period but were
Soon there were re-discovered in 1938 off the northern
other such coast of South Africa in
discoveries of the
KwaZulu-Natal. The coelacanth is
coelacanth off the
coast of thought to have evolved into its
KwaZulu-Natal as current form over 400 million years
well as Northern ago and is nicknamed a ’living fossil’
Madagascar. Figure 11.13: Coelacanths, which repre-
because knowledge of the species was sent a link between fish and amphibians,
Coelacanths
represent a link previously based on fossils, as it was were though to have gone extinct at the
between fish and thought to have gone extinct. end of the Cretaceous period.
amphibians.

Coelacanths and amphibians share a common ancestor- the lobe-finned fish.

Lobe-finned fish have fleshy fins unlike fins in other fish which are joined to the
body by a single bone. Pectoral and pelvic fins have articulations resembling
those of tetrapod limbs. These fins evolved into legs in the earliest tetrapod land
vertebrates which were amphibians. Living lobe-finned organisms include the
coelacanths and lungfish.

Activity: Is the Coelacanth the missing link between fish and amphibians?

Aim:

This activity is designed to help you to understand whether coelacanths repre-

sent a link between fish and amphibians.

Instructions:

1. Use resources such as the Internet, encyclopaedias and magazines.

2. Find out what structural features lead scientists to suggest that coelacanths
represent a link between fish and amphibians.
3. Once you have completed their research, have a class discussion.

360 11.3. Life’s History

 FACT
Cenozoic era (65 million years ago to present) ESGCR In Grade 12 you
will study the
course of human
If the Mesozoic was the ”age of dinosaurs”, then the Cenozoic has been the evolution in great
detail to gain a firm
”age of mammals”. The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event occurred to-
understanding of
wards the end of the Mesozoic era and half the animal species on Earth, in- how we evolved.
cluding the dinosaurs were wiped out. As a result mammals diversified to fill For Grade 10, we
ecological niches. will learn some of
the significant
changes that have
• The continents moved into their existing locations, with Australia-New occurred in our
Guinea which split from Gondwana during early Cretaceous, drifting species in Africa
over the last four
north and eventually colliding with Southeast Asia. Antarctica moved million years.
into its current position over the South Pole and the Atlantic Ocean
widened and South America became attached to North America.
• 54–33 million years ago, Africa was an island, not yet joined to the Mid-
dle East and Europe.
• The climate warmed significantly until 55 million years ago, followed by
long-term cooling since 49 million years ago.
• Many species of grass evolved from flowering plants between 33 and 24
million years ago.
• As the Earth cooled, grasslands began to expand and forests shrank.
• Animals evolved to fit the new, open landscape and many fast-running
prey and predator species arose as a result.

It is during the Cenozoic Era that our species, Homo sapiens evolved into the
anatomically modern humans we are today.

The evolution of Homo sapiens: evidence from Africa ES-

GCS

Humans are thought to have evolved from their ape-like ancestor over the last
6 million years. Human evolution has involved changes in physical appear-
ance and behavioural traits. Some important physical developments include
bipedalism, and a larger, more complex brain. Bipedalism is the ability to stand
upright on two legs; it was an important adaptation as it freed the hands to be
used in other tasks. Developments in behavioural characteristics include the
ability to use fire, the ability to make and use tools, and the ability to commu-
nicate by means of language.

The most widely accepted theory of how anatomically modern humans evolved,
suggests that Homo sapiens evolved in Africa approximately 200 000 to 150 000
years ago in what has now become known as the ”Out of Africa” theory. Some
of the evidence for the key events as found in Africa is shown in the table
below.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 361

FACT Human ancestors evolved and migrated out of Africa in a series of ’waves’.
Philip Tobias
(October 1925–June
2012) was a South Event in human evolutionary history Evidence of event from Africa
African palaeoan- Hominins and chimpanzees diverge The earliest known human ancestor
thropologist at the from a common ancestor. after the chimpanzee/ human
University of
Witwatersrand, separation is Orrorin tugenensis
whose work has (Millenium Man, Kenya, around 6
contributed million years ago).
enormously to our Evidence of development of Human-like footprints discovered on
understanding of
how humans bipedalism in humans in volcanic ash in Laetoli, Tanzania from
evolved. He is best Australopithecus afarensis. 3,9–2,9 million years ago.
known for his work Bipedal austrolopithecines lose body Loss of body hair occurs in parallel
with fellow hair 3–2 million years ago. with the development of bipedalism.
palaeoanthropolo-
gist Louis Leakey. Homo habilis is able to make and use Fossil tools discovered in Olduvai
He identified the tools 2,3–1,4 million years ago. Gorge, Tanzania and at Lake Turkana,
ancestral species of Kenya.
human beings Approximately 200 000 years ago, The earliest fossil evidence found is
known as Homo
habilis. His work at anatomically modern humans near Omo river in Ethiopia.
the Sterkfontein evolved.
caves in Gauteng
has led to it
becoming a World Fossil sites from South Africa providing evidence for pre-humans and humans
Heritage site. He
was also famous for
his opposition to South Africa has been the site of
apartheid and gave various fossil discoveries and has
speeches been home to some of the world’s
condemning leading paleoanthropologists such
apartheid at protest
rallies and also to
as Robert Broom, Raymond Dart
academic and Phillip Tobias. Fossils of
audiences. pre-humans and humans found
across the country have
contributed significantly to our
understanding of human history on
Earth. The table below shows
some of the evidence and where it Figure 11.14: The ’Taung Child’.
is located in South Africa.

Fossil Evidence and Age Location in South Africa Importance

Australopithecus North West Province Most direct ancestor of
africanus (the ”Taung modern humans
Child”) (approximately
2,5 million years ago)
Australopithecus sediba Malapa Nature Reserve, First evidence of
(approximately 2 million Cradle of Humankind transition to tool-making
years ago) in humans
Homo sapiens Klasies River Caves, Discovery of earliest
(approximately 75 000 Eastern Cape anatomically modern
years ago) humans

362 11.3. Life’s History

 FACT
11.4 Mass extinctions ESGCT Learn about the five
major mass
extinctions that
occurred in Earth’s
A mass extinction is a sharp decrease in the amount of plant and animal life. history.
There have been five major mass extinction events in Earth’s history. These are See video: 2CY4
shown in the table given, along with the major events that characterised each.
FACT
Earth’s sixth mass
Major mass Date of occurrence Major events extinction?
See video: 2CY5
extinction event
Cretaceous- 65 million years ago Approximately 75% of all
Paleogene species became extinct.
extinction event Mammals and birds emerged
as the dominant land
vertebrates.
Triassic-Jurassic 205 million years Most non-dinosaur species
event ago were eliminated, leaving land
dinosaurs with no competition.
Permian-Triassic 250 million years This was Earth’s largest
event ago extinction event. It resulted in
the loss of 96% of marine
species and 70% of land
species. The event had great
evolutionary significance
because it allowed the vacant
habitats and ecosystems to be
filled by new species through
natural selection.
Late Devonian 375–360 million This was a prolonged period of
extinction years ago extinction lasting up to 20
million years. During this
period up to 70% of living
species were eliminated.
Ordovician-Silurian 450–440 million Over 50% of all genera were
extinction event years ago eliminated during this period
and is ranked as the second
largest mass extinction in
Earth’s history

Ongoing sixth mass extinction ESGCV

• We are currently living through the ’sixth’ mass extinction according to

many scientists. The present rate of extinction is thought to be 140 000
species per year. This rapid extinction rate started in approximately 10 000
BC and has continued into the 21st century.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 363

FACT • The extinction includes disappearance of large mammals such as the
The Golden Toad of woolly mammoth.
Costa Rica has been
extinct since around • The sixth extinction event is thought to be occurring at a rapidly increas-
1989. Its ing rate.
disappearance has
• The two major causes for the sixth extinction are thought to be human
been attributed to a
confluence of hunting and the rapid rise in human population. You will learn more
several factors, about the impact of human activity on the environment in Grades 11 and
including global 12.
warming event
known as El Nino,
fungus, and the
introduction of new
Causes of mass extinctions ESGCW
species that
out-competed it for
habitat and food.
There is still a lot of debate among scientists as to what caused the mass extinc-
tions. To be a valid theory to explain what caused mass extinctions, the theory
FACT must:
Watch a video
about the debate • explain all the losses of species at a particular mass extinction event (not
about what really just specific losses e.g. dinosaurs).
killed the dinosaurs.
• explain why some organisms died and others survived.
See video: 2CY6
• be based on natural events and processes that are shown to have occurred
FACT around the time of extinction.
Watch a video
about the meteor Two of the hypotheses put forward are:
impact that may
have caused the
extinction of the • the impact theory of extinction
dinosaurs. • massive volcanic activity
See video: 2CY7
See video: 2CY8
Impact event

Scientists believe that an asteroid was responsible for the mass extinction that
occurred 65 million years ago. The meteorite that hit Earth was most likely 10
km in diameter, and upon impact it would have released an amount of energy
that was 2 million times more powerful than the most powerful man-made
device ever created. The massive impact caused earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions that produced toxic gases, and ejected dust, soot and debris into
the air, blocking out sunlight and preventing photosynthesis. The impact also
resulted in the production of sulfur rich acid rain and caused forest fires and
mega-tsunamis. The impact of an asteroid smashing into Earth may have caused
food chains to collapse both on land and at sea. They believe this impact
produced the 180 km wide Chicxulub crater found in the Gulf of Mexico.

Volcanic activity

Some scientists believe that volcanic eruptions may have caused the mass ex-
tinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period that led to the extinction
of among others, the dinosaurs. The researchers, through examining a trail of
dead particles floating in the sea, spanning half a million years, developed a
timeline that links mass extinction to large-scale eruptions of the Deccan Traps,
an ancient volcanic range in Western India.

364 11.4. Mass extinctions

Evidence suggests that the massive volcanic eruptions pumped out massive
quantities of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide into the air, thus altering the
climate and contributing to the mass extinction event at the end of the Creta-
ceous period.

Figure 11.15: Illustration of an impact Figure 11.16: Deccan traps, Mahabalesh-

event. war, India.

Activity: What caused the mass extinctions?

Aim:

To use understanding of fossil evidence and scientific method to demonstrate

how each of the hypotheses for mass extinction arrives at its conclusion.

Instructions:

• What are the key requirements of a theory that attempts to explain the
mass extinctions?
• Choose one of the two hypotheses discussed and describe it in your own
words. List the evidence that supports the theory.
• Through your research on the Internet and by reading books in the li-
brary, list any other evidence that you found in support of your chosen
hypothesis.

Activity: Understanding evolutionary history based on evidence from

South Africa

Aim:

We want to locate where the key events in the history of life occurred in South
Africa, based on our earlier discussion of fossil evidence found in South Africa.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 365

 Instructions:

1. The table below lists evidence from South Africa on the history of life.
2. Draw a map of South Africa.
3. On your map, show where each piece of evidence listed in the table is
located.
4. Also show what this evidence indicates about the history of life.
5. In the third column of the table, write down the era from which these
fossils are likely to have emerged. The first part has been done for you.

Evidence Location Era

Stromatolites False Bay, Cape Town Paleozoic,
Pre-Cambrian
Soft-bodied animals Northern Cape
Early land plants Grahamstown
Primitive plants e.g Mooi River, Estcourt
Glossopteris
Coelacanth Northern KZN Coast
Mammal-like reptiles Karoo
e.g. Lystrosaurus,
Thrinadoxon
Dinosaurs Drakensberg and Maluti
Euskylosaurus mountains, Ladybrand, Free
State
First mammals Lesotho, Eastern Cape
Humans and Gauteng, North West, Free
pre-humans State, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo

Activity: Observing fossils

Aim:

Examine fossils at a museum or fossil site or look at photographs of fossils.

Materials:

Some fossil sites have already been described.

• These websites provide a list of museums that contain fossils:

http://www.southafrica.info/travel/cultural/museums.htm
http://www.museumsonline.co.za/
• A list of fossil sites around the world is given below. Identify the ones
that are within South Africa:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites.

366 11.4. Mass extinctions

 • If you are unable to visit the fossil sites or museums, the following website
gives photographs and explanations of the major fossils that have shaped
our understanding of the history of life:
http://english.fossiel.net/determinatie/identification.php.

Instructions:

Travel to your nearest museum, fossil site or the website listed and observe any
fossils on display. Find out how they have been preserved, describe the key
features of each fossil, how they were dated and what they tell us about our
past.

11.5 Impact of humans on biodiversity and the

environment ESGCX

Humans have impacted the biodiversity and environment in several crucial

ways. The broad term used to describe this effect is known as the anthro-
pogenic effect which refers to effects created by human activity and normally
refers to environmental pollution.

A number of activities that humans are involved in contribute to the changes in

the environment. The table below lists some of these activities and their effects
on the environment.

Human activity Environmental Impact

Agriculture Climate change as a result of rising carbon dioxide;
deforestation and desertification as well as use of fossil
fuels.
Fishing Use of dynamite for fishing results in destruction of
habitats; Overfishing results in extinction of fish
species.
Irrigation Results in changes to the quality of the soil and
underground water. It also uses up the water supply in
the local rivers and lake areas.
Meat production This is one of the largest contributors to environmental
degradation worldwide. Current methods of animal
raising contribute to water pollution, land degradation,
climate change and loss of biodiversity.
Oil industry The degradation of land, air pollution and the
environmentally toxic process of oil extraction and
processing results in loss of biodiversity and
destruction of the environment.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 367

FACT
You may have heard Human activity Environmental Impact
of the controversy Mining Mining results in erosion of soil, contamination of the
surrounding
groundwater and surface water by chemicals from
”fracking”. This is
also known as mining processes. It also results in deforestation near
’hydraulic mining sites. Mining processes are highly toxic and
fracturing’ and is the contamination resulting from mining can affect the
process by which
health of the population.
rocks are broken up
(’fractured’) in order Transport The environmental impact of transport is mainly due
to release natural to its use of petroleum, which creates air pollution. Air
gas or petroleum. pollution contributes to global warming through
There is an
emissions of carbon dioxide.
estimated 485
trillion cubic feet of
gas in the Karoo in
South Africa, Group discussion: How do we manage the impact of humans on the
making it the fifth
largest source of planet?
natural gas in the
world. By using this
gas, South Africa The table above presents the various human activities that have impacted on
would be able to
the environment and on biodiversity. In groups, discuss possible methods by
reduce its
dependence on which the impacts listed above could be reduced. How can we reduce the
coal. However the impact humans have on the environment? After your discussion, re-draw the
use of fracking to table and add a third column to the right listing these different ways you have
obtain this gas discussed among yourselves.
would result in a
destruction of the
fossil record present
beneath the Earth’s
surface in this area
of South Africa. 11.6 Fossil tourism ESGCY

Given the intense interest humans have in their origins and the deep knowledge
of our past with which fossils provide us, fossil tourism is an important source
of income and employment in areas in which fossils are located.

South Africa has a number of sites rich in fossils, which attract tourists. The
Cradle of Humankind in the Krugersdorp area of Gauteng (i.e. Sterkfontein,
Swartkrans, Kromdraai and surrounding area) has been declared a World Her-
itage Site, since it has yielded so many significant fossils, such as Mrs Ples, Little
Foot and the recently discovered Karabo Child (2008). There is a tourist centre
at Maropeng near this site (”Maropeng” is the Tswana word for ”origins”).

Many other areas in South Africa also attract tourists due to their rich fossil
deposits, such as Langebaan, Border Cave and the Karoo area.

Many South Africans can find jobs in such tourist areas. They can work as
tour guides, hotel staff, game rangers, drivers, curio sellers and the like. It is
important also that the local people see the tourist site as a potential source of
income and employment, not merely as something academic that has nothing
to do with them.

368 11.6. Fossil tourism

 FACT
A brief video about
Maropeng and what
you can do there.
We can rightly be
proud of this world
class centre!
See video: 2CY9

Figure 11.17: Fossil therapsid skeleton in Figure 11.18: Fossil therapsid skull in Ka-
Karoo National Park, South Africa. roo National Park, South Africa.

11.7 Summary ESGCZ

• Scientists use deductive reasoning to understand fossils and the history of

life on Earth.
• Geological events often caused changes in climate, which in turn influ-
ence the emergence and disappearance of species.
• It takes special circumstances for fossils to form, and fossils can be dated
by radiometric or relative dating.
• Climate and geography helped shape the evolution of life on Earth.
• Geological timescales are divided into eons, eras and periods.
• The Cambrian explosion was a rapid explosion in the diversity of life-
forms. All animal groups have their origin in the Cambrian explosion.
• During the Paleozoic the first fish, animals with shells and insects evolved
and plants first colonised land.
• The Mesozoic was the ‘age of dinosaurs’, later in the era birds evolved,
and gymnosperms evolved.
• The Cenozoic is the most recent era and was the ‘age of mammals’.
• Mass extinctions are massive losses in life, and there have been five mass
extinction events in history.
• In the last 4 million years significant changes have occurred in species
occurring in Africa, including the evolution of humans.
• Humans have a massive effect on biodiversity and the natural environ-
ment and are partially responsible for the ’6th mass extinction’.
• South Africa is rich in many fossils from diverse time periods.
• Fossil tourism is a source of income and employment in fossil localities.

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 369

 Exercise 11 – 1: End of chapter exercises

1. In each of the following cases write down the letter of the most correct
alternative.

a) Which of the fossils have been found in Namibia?

i. Mammal-like reptiles
ii. Glassopteris leaves
iii. Soft-bodied animals
iv. Early mammals
b) A problem in the accuracy of radiocarbon dating is that:
i. scientists are not sure that radioactive decay actually occurs
ii. the decay rate of minerals can change without warning
iii. the rocks that contain the fossils can’t be dated
iv. the half-life of carbon-14 is relatively short, and most fossils are
millions of years old

2. Study the table below that shows the decay of carbon-14 over time and
then answer the questions that follow:

Decay of carbon-14
Years 0 5730 11460 17190 22920 X 34380 40110
from
present
Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
of
half-lives
elapsed
Percentage 100 50 25 12,5 6,25 Z 1,56 0,78
of
original
carbon-
14
remaining

a) State two types of methods used to determine the age of fossils.

b) Calculate the value of:
i. X
ii. Z
Explain why it would not be possible to date the fossil of an organism that existed
80 million years ago using the decay of carbon-14.
d)
c) Give two reasons why there are gaps in the fossil record.

3. Study the graph on the following page which shows the major extinction
events answer the questions that follow.

370 11.7. Summary

 Figure 11.19: Graph of mass extinctions

a) When did the Cenozoic era begin?

b) Which mass extinction took place towards the end of the Paleozoic
era?
c) Approximately how many genera of species went extinct at the end
of the Paleozoic era? Show ALL working.
d) Explain why the number of genera of organisms increased rapidly
after each mass extinction.
4. The following questions are about the extinction of dinosaurs on Earth.
a) What evidence do scientists use to show that dinosaurs once existed
on Earth?
b) How long ago did the dinosaurs become extinct?
c) Describe a hypothesis that has been proposed for the extinction of
many species, including the dinosaurs during the extinction event
at the end of the mesozoic.

Check answers online with the exercise code below or click on ’show me the
answer’. 1a. 2CYB 1b. 2CYC 2. 2CYD 3. 2CYF 4. 2CYG

www.everythingscience.co.za m.everythingscience.co.za

Chapter 11. History of life on Earth 371

 Units used in the book

372 Units used in the book

Solutions to exercises

Solutions 373
List of Definitions