N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
Construction
A Guide to Non Structural Cracks
In
Concrete and Cementitious
Materials
N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Types of Intrinsic Cracks
2.1 Formation of Cracks
2.1.1 Tensile Strength
2.1.2 Influence of Reinforcement
2.2 Curing
Construction
2.3 Judgement of Cracks
3.0 Plastic Cracks
3.1 Plastic Settlement Cracks
3.1.1 Prevention of Plastic Settlement
3.2 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
3.2.1 Types of Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
3.2.2 Causes of Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
3.2.3 Primary Cause
3.2.4 Secondary Causes
3.2.5 Curing
3.2.6 Prevention of Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
4.0 Thermal Contraction Cracks
4.1 Prevention of Thermal Contraction Cracking
5.0 Long Term Drying Shrinkage Cracks
5.1 Factors Affecting Shrinkage
5.2 How to Reduce Drying Shrinkage
5.3 How to Reduce Drying Shrinkage Cracking
6.0 Crazing
6.1 Factors Affecting Crazing
6.2 How to Reduce the Incidence of Crazing
7.0 Conclusions
8.0 On Site Curing Guide
9.0 Questions to Ask when Carrying Out a Crack Assessment
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cracking of concrete or mortars can occur in the hardened or plastic state
due to stresses, which are generally imposed by internal forces caused by
temperature and moisture changes within the material.
The objective of this guide is to enable to reader to analyse the type of
cracking experienced on site, but moreover, to be aware of how to prevent
cracking in the first place and advise others.
This document should provide a valuable reference when discussing the
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subject of cracking with Engineers or Contractors.
Much of the information contained within this document has been modified
with reference to cementitious materials (concrete repairs, screeds, etc).
There is however some information on cracking in general, which may be
useful when assessing cracks for crack injection works.
The guide is restricted to non-structural dormant cracks and does not include
cracking caused by the corrosion of reinforcement or ASR.
2.0 TYPES OF INTRINSIC CRACKS
The main types of cracking considered in this guide are:
1 Plastic
2 Thermal
3 Long term drying shrinkage
Crazing on the surface of concrete is also included.
Additional types of cracks are shown in Figure 1. The time periods in which
these cracks occur are:
Plastic – first few hours. Cracks taper quickly from the surface.
Thermal Contraction – One day – two/three weeks. Cracks remain
approximately parallel throughout the section.
Drying Shrinkage – After several weeks or months.
Crazing – One/seven days.
It should be borne in mind that classification of such cracks in some cases
might involve combinations of the various types.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
Classification of Cracks
a) Dormant
b) Live
The above can be subdivided as follows:
Micro cracks < 0.01 mm
Fine cracks up to 1 mm wide }
Wide cracks from 1 mm – 6 mm } Macro cracks
Fissures over 6 mm wide }
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Shrinkable Aggregates
Physical Drying Shrinkage
Crazing
Corrosion of Reinforcement
After Hardening Chemical Alkali-Aggregate Reactions
Cement Carbonation
Freeze/Thaw Cycles
Thermal External Seasonal Temperature Variations
External
Restraint
Early Thermal Contraction
Types Internal
of Cracks Temperature
Gradients
Accidental Overload
Structural Creep
Design Loads
Early Frost Damage
Before Hardening Plastic Plastic Shrinkage
Plastic Settlement
Formwork Movement
Constructional Movement
Sub-Grade Movement
Figure 1 – Types of Crack
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
Construction
Figure 2: Examples of Intrinsic cracks in hypothetical concrete structure
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
Type of Letter Primary Cause Secondary Remedy Time of
Cracking (excluding restraint) causes/factors appearance
Plastic A B C Excess bleeding Rapid early Reduce Ten minutes
settlement drying bleeding (air to three
conditions entertainment hours
or revibrate)
Plastic D E F Rapid Ditto plus Low rate of Improve early Thirty
shrinkage early steel near bleeding curing minutes to
drying surface six hours
Early G H Excess Excess Rapid cooling Reduce heat One day or
thermal heat temperature or/insulate two/three
contraction generation gradients weeks
Long term I Inefficient joints Excess Reduce water Several
drying shrinkage content weeks or
shrinkage inefficient improve months
curing curing
Crazing J K Over trowelling Rich mixes Improve One to
poor curing curing and seven days,
finishing sometimes
much later
Table 1 – Classification of Intrinsic Cracks
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
2.1 Types of Intrinsic Cracks
The mechanisms of the formation of cracks in concrete is complex,
mainly because of time dependent factors. There are two basic
philosophies, either of which may be used as convenient or
appropriate.
Construction
2.1.1 Tensile Strength
Concrete will crack when the tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength
of the concrete. If a concrete element is cooled or dried, then provided
it is free from restraint, it will reduce in length and no cracks will
develop. If however, the ends of the element are fixed so the original
length is maintained, then a tensile stress will develop in the concrete
which is equal to the stress that would be required to pull the free
element back to its original length. In practise, most concrete repairs
are restrained against the original substrate. If there is some sort of
restraint, cracks will occur. The intensity of cracking will depend on a
number of factors as will be identified later in the document.
2.1.2 Influence of Reinforcement
Reinforcement acts as a form of internal restraint and governs the
spacing and widths of cracks in hardened concrete.
Where a crack is evident in a structure to be repaired, if it is diagnosed
by a Structural Engineer to be caused by insufficient movement joints,
then a joint should be provided at this position or reflective cracking will
occur through the repair material.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
2.2 Curing
From Table 1, it can be seen that the most common cause of cracking
is related to the effectiveness of curing. In addition, it can also affect
the final mechanical properties of the material.
In simple terms, curing means regulating the temperature and
preserving the water already contained in the concrete or cementitious
repair material. The concrete/mortar should be cured so that internal
stresses within the repaired area, whether due to differences in
temperature or to differences in moisture content, are minimised.
Construction
A steady decline in attention given by contractors to curing, probably
caused by considerations of economy or lack of understanding, has
given rise to cracking within concrete repairs and cementitious polymer
screeds.
By many, a piece of wet hessian draped over the area at the end of the day
and allowed to dry is considered to be all that is needed. At the end of this
guide, you should be armed with information to discuss with the contractor the
curing regime necessary to suite the site conditions. On the same contract,
different methods may need to be employed depending on the climatic
conditions.
The preceding sections presuppose that the concrete is properly cured (ie
protected from rapid drying out and rapid cooling).
If the concrete is not properly cured, then uncontrolled cracks may form.
As a guide for the contractor, the following documents are available as
reference.
1) The Curing of Concrete
Peter Russell C&CA 1976, Ref. 47.020
2) Concrete in Hot Weather
Fitzgibbon. ME C&CA
3) Curing Concrete – an appraisal of attitudes, practices and knowledge
CRA Report number 43, Birt JC
4) Curing
BCA Guide No 6
5) Winter Working
BCA Guide No 11
6) Curing and Protection Section 4.3
National Structural Concrete Specification for Building Construction
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
However, most of the information required to prevent the various types of
cracking are contained within this guide.
Site conditions may prove difficult to secure sheeting systems. However, with
the correct attitude and a little bit of innovation, the problem can be overcome.
There is never an excuse not to cure and the Contractor should be aware of
the ramifications if adequate curing is not carried out.
2.3 Judgement of Cracks
Construction
Cracks may be regarded as a failure if they:
a) are aesthetically unacceptable
b) make the structure non watertight
c) affect the durability of the structure
d) are structurally significant
The judgement of cracks is a matter of subjective assessment, and many
clients may regard one or more of the above to be deemed a failure.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
3.0 PLASTIC CRACKS
Plastic cracks occur in concrete before it hardens, they are not however,
usually noticed until the following day. Generally, they can be identified as
one of two types:
1) Plastic settlement
2) Plastic shrinkage
Plastic settlement cracks are generally restricted to deep section and flowable
repairs. This effect is less likely in sprayed or hand placed repairs. Plastic
shrinkage cracks are most common where the concrete/cementitious material
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is exposed to high rates of evaporation.
3.1 Plastic Settlement Cracks
These cracks occur only when there is a relatively high amount of bleeding
and/or settlement and there is some form of restraint to the settlement ie fixed
reinforcement can be found on large sprayed or pourable repairs, especially
on corners or columns, walls or abutments.
3.1.1 Prevention of Plastic Settlement Cracks
There are three ways of dealing with plastic settlement cracks
i) Reduce the bleeding and settlement ie reducing w/c ratio.
ii) Reduce the restraint ie. increase cover to reinforcement as reinforcement
in structures is usually fixed.
iii) Vibrate the concrete after cracks have formed (not possible with sprayed
concrete).
3.2 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
Plastic shrinkage cracks occur within a few hours of placement, although it is
usually the next day when they are discovered. These cracks can sometimes
be confused with long term drying shrinkage cracks and it may take a
petrographic examination to establish between the two, if the time in which
the cracks occurred has not been noted. In a petrographic examination,
plastic shrinkage is distinguished by cracks taking the least line of resistance
with cracking occurring around the cement particles.
With drying shrinkage, the cracks pass through the cement particles and in
some instances through the aggregate.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
3.2.1 Types of Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
Plastic shrinkage cracks take one of three forms:
1) Diagonal parallel cracks at approximately 45° to the edges. The cracks
being 0.2 m to 2.0 m apart. Figure 3a.
2) Very large random map patter Figure 3b and Figure 3c.
3) Cracks following the pattern of the reinforcement or other physical
aspects such as change in section.
Construction
The cracks may occur upto 2-3 mm in width at the surface of the concrete,
then rapidly diminish with depth.
With sprayed concrete, cracks following the pattern of the reinforcement, may
also be indicative of voids behind the bars and this effect should be
determined by taking cores through the reinforcement to the concrete
substrate.
Plastic shrinkage cracks rarely reach the free edges of a repair or screed that
is because they are free to move. This is one way of differentiating them from
long term drying shrinkage cracks if the time of formation is known.
Plastic shrinkage cracks will form up to the edge of an adjacent previous cast
or sprayed repair, this is because the steel reinforcement acts as a restraint.
Figures 3a-c
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
3.2.2 Causes of Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
After concrete or a cementitious material is placed, it experiences a multitude
of intrinsic forces, caused by a physical, electrostatic and chemical forces.
These forces cause tensile stresses and strains, the most significant of the
forces is that which causes rapid drying out of the concrete surface.
3.2.3 Primary Cause – Rapid Drying Out
Plastic cracking occurs when the rate of drying evaporation is more rapid than
the movement of water from within the repair to the exposed surface.
Construction
The drying out and cracking of concrete is likely to occur if the rate of
evaporation after placement approaches 1 kg/m2h.
The rate of evaporation of water from concrete is a function of the dryness of
the air (relative humidity) and the wind speed. In addition, the air and
concrete temperature also become contributing factors in the equation.
It can be seen from the homograph in Figure 4 that the effect of wind speed
on the rate of evaporation is significant. The effect is prevalent on exposed
structures especially on bridges and coastal structures.
For example, the rate of evaporation in still air on a warm sunny day with an
air temperature of 22°C, concrete temperature 27°C and rh 50% will be only
0.2 kg/m2.
A light wind of only 5 km/h will double this rate of evaporation. The
temperature difference between concrete and air may also have a significant
effect on evaporation. Large differentials may occur in winter. For instance,
with an air temperature of 5°C and concrete temperature of 20°C with rh of
60% in a 30 km/h wind, the rate of evaporation becomes 1.1 kg/m2.
Therefore plastic shrinkage cracking is not just limited to hot or windy
exposure conditions.
The use of hot air blowers to raise the ambient temperature in an enclosure
during cold periods may promote rapid moisture loss from the surface and
induce plastic cracking. Therefore, curing the concrete in these conditions is
very important. The use of polystyrene to reduce the effect of rapid cooling or
to maintain the correct temperature may need to be used in conjunction with
polythene sheeting.
3.2.4 Secondary Causes
Tensile strains can also be caused by a sudden fall in ambient temperatures
and the early reaction of cement and water known as autogenous shrinkage.
Although these two mechanisms are not sufficient to initiate deep cracks, they
may increase the width of the plastic shrinkage cracks primarily caused by
rapid drying.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
Construction
Figure 4 Effect of ambient conditions on rate of evaporation
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
3.2.5 Curing
The curing of concrete and cementitious materials tends to be carried out
when all the repair and finishing operations have been completed, sometimes
2-6 hours after placement. Although this may not be a problem in some
climatic conditions, certain conditions as already identified, will lead to early
cracking.
Therefore, curing should take place immediately after the concrete has lost its
free surface water, ie losing its surface sheen.
Curing can be carried out using resinous based curing compounds such as
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Sikafloor Proseals once the above condition has been satisfied, but not so
late that the compound will be absorbed into the surface pores. Concrete
repair materials generally have a low w/c ratio, therefore once finishing has
been completed, and the curing compounds can be applied immediately. In
hot conditions, white pigmented or aluminised compounds are effective in
reducing solar heat gain.
Silicate based compounds can be applied to wet concrete, but they take time
to react with the free lime in the concrete and therefore cannot prevent plastic
shrinkage cracks.
The use of damp hessian and or polythene sheeting is an effective way of
curing concrete and can be applied before the free surface water evaporates.
When polythene is used, it is important to prevent the wind tunnel between
the concrete and sheeting. Therefore, all the edges of the polythene should
be held down or sealed. In the winter black polythene should be used to
absorb heat and in the summer white sheeting to reflect the suns rays. To
prevent marking the concrete surface, the polythene can be held away from
the surface by a frame. When using hessian singularly or in combination with
polythene sheeting, the material must be kept continuously moist and not
allowed to dry out, then re-wetted, otherwise the concrete will crack due to
wetting and drying cycles.
In practice, this is not achievable, therefore using a polythene sheet on its
own, with sealed edges is the preferred practical option.
3.2.6 Prevention of Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
The only way to avoid plastic shrinkage cracks is reduce the rate of
evaporation by means of early adequate curing.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
4.0 THERMAL CONTRACTION CRACKS
This type of cracking is generally associated with large concrete pours/repairs
where hydration causes heat development. When cooling of the concrete
occurs, the temperature differential between the 'core' concrete and exposed
concrete face can produce cracking. However, the effect of rapid cooling of a
concrete repair which has been exposed to high temperatures during the day
and rapid cooling during the evening, should not be overlooked if cracking
occurs within the first few days.
A thermal shock effect can cause the cracking of concrete repairs. For
instance, when the repair is exposed to cold water used for curing or from the
Construction
rising tide in estuarine conditions. Also, when an artificial environment is
formed with hot air blowers, rapid cooling of the exposed surface can occur
when the blowers are switched off and the external ambient conditions cause
a sudden temperature differential producing cracking of the concrete.
4.1 Prevention of Thermal Contraction Cracking
Insulate the area of repair and reduce potential of rapid cooling ie exposure to
cold temperatures and water.
Note: SikaCem 133 Gunite uses a limestone aggregate, which has a low
coefficient of thermal expansion and should therefore reduce cracking
potential.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
5.0 LONG TERM DRYING SHRINKAGE CRACKS
Cracks that form for reasons outlined in the previous sections of this guide
are often mistakenly diagnosed as long term drying shrinkage cracks. This
can lead to incorrect technical conclusions with possible contractual
consequences.
Drying shrinkage may be defined as the reduction in volume of concrete
caused by chemical and physical loss of water during the hardening process
and subsequent exposure to unsaturated air. The resulting reduction in
volume can cause cracks if the concrete repair is restrained in some way.
Construction
5.1 Factors Affecting Shrinkage
All constituents of concrete influence drying shrinkage, either individually or
as a result of their interaction. The shrinkage is also affected by other factors
such as temperature history, curing methods, relative humidity and ratio of
volume to exposed surfaces.
The major contribution to drying shrinkage is the contraction of the concrete in
response to loss of water to the surrounding unsaturated air. The more water
that is available to evaporate from the concrete, the higher the tendency to
shrink on drying and the lower the capacity to resist tensile stress.
Consequently, the water content of concrete has the most significant effect on
its long term drying shrinkage.
Whether or not drying shrinkage is sufficient to cause cracks, depends on the
properties of the concrete and the degree of restraint.
Curing has an important role to play on the effects of long term shrinkage. As
concrete dries, it will shrink by an amount of which is almost independent of
when that drying begins. However, curing will have a significant beneficial
effect on the tensile strain capacity and it is this reason that curing reduces
the risk of cracking.
5.2 How to reduce drying shrinkage
Reduce the amount of water in the concrete mix as low as practically possible
to achieve placement and full compaction.
5.3 How to reduce drying shrinkage cracking
In addition to 5.2 provide adequate curing.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
6.0 CRAZING
Crazing is the cracking of the surface layer of the concrete or cementitious
repair into small irregularly shaped contiguous areas.
The crazing pattern is often a hexagonal form with a distance of 5-75 mm
across each 'map' or 'cell'. The cracks are typically between 0.05 mm and 0.5
mm wide and penetrate to a maximum of 2-3.0 mm. As the cracks are so
shallow they do not affect the structural integrity of the concrete and in
themselves, should not lead to the subsequent deterioration of the repair.
Autogenous healing through calcite formation is common and is explained
below.
Construction
The healing process occurs when water percolates through the cracks and
dissolves the calcium hydroxide salts from the cement matrix. On contact
with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, crystals of calcium carbonate are
deposited on the surface, sealing the crack. Cracks upto 0.2 mm can be
healed this way. Healing can take up to a few days or months depending on
the source of water required to promote the reaction ie. relative humidity or
water leakage.
6.1 Factors affecting crazing
Crazing generally occurs on floated or trowelled surfaces. Crazing is caused
by stresses resulting from differential moisture movement. For instance, a
material whose surface is different from the underlying material because
laitance has been brought to the surface as a result of overtrowelling is likely
to craze. Crazing generally occurs one to seven days after placement of the
cementitious material.
Crazing generally looks a lot worse than it is because the water that is
capillary drawn into the cracks leaves a capping of dirt along the crack. The
capping over a typical 0.05 mm wide craze line can be as wide as 0.5 mm
and is easily removed by rubbing with a finger.
6.2 How to reduce the incidence of crazing
Finishing
a) Avoid excessive finishing or any procedure which will depress the
coarse aggregate and produce a concentration of cement paste and
fines at the surface. Preferably finish with a wooden or plastic float.
b) Delay steel trowelling until the water sheen has disappeared from the
surface. Water should not be thrown onto the repaired area to aid
finishing.
Curing
a) Apply adequate and continuous curing as soon as finishing has been
completed.
b) On no account should a surface be subjected to wetting and drying
cycles caused by inefficient curing.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
7.0 CONCLUSIONS
Cracking in concrete and cementitious materials can occur for many reasons.
They may be produced before hardening takes place and categories as
plastic shrinkage or settlement cracks. They can also be developed after
hardening has taken place caused by physical means such as drying
shrinkage or crazing. Thermal contraction effects may also influence
cracking.
Concrete repair materials at Sika are produced under strict quality control,
contain polymers and are known to have low shrinkage properties.
Construction
Experience and testing has shown that the majority of cracking is caused by
ineffective curing and/or the use of excessive water in the mix. It is vital when
curing, that it is carried out immediately after finishing. Delaying the operation
can initiate cracking in the early stages. The wind tunnel effect when using
sheet systems, should be avoided by sealing all edges. By concentrating on
the correct curing regime, applicable to the site conditions cracking can be
eliminated, as proven on many projects in the past.
8.0 ON SITE CURING GUIDE
Owing to contractors reluctance to continually keep hessian moist, should not
be considered as a practical option.
Therefore, use
1) Curing compounds (90% efficiency) when concrete has lost its free
surface water ie, losing its surface sheen.
Note: Most curing compounds do not work if applied on top of water. Use
aluminised or white pigmented in very hot conditions. The compounds should
generally be applied in two coats at right angles to each other.
2) Polythene sheeting sealed along all edges to prevent wind tunnel
effect. Use white sheeting in summer, black in winter. Apply
immediately after completion of work. The use of polystyrene should
be considered when a rapid change in temperature gradient is
anticipated. Similarly, other insulation materials should be considered.
Note: The use of a curing compound and polythene sheeting maybe
utilised together if necessary.
As curing compounds act as an impervious membrane, the use of
damp hessian in association with the curing compound will be
ineffective and therefore, should no be used.
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N°: MAS UK 06
Author: Mark Shaw
Date: April 2006
9.0 QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN CARRYING OUT A CRACK ASSESSMENT
V What is the product used, batch numbers, quantities etc?
V Did the product come from another site?
V Was running water evident when work was carried out?
V What is the surface finish?
V How was the surface finish carried out?
V What was the curing regime?
V What time was curing applied after application?
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V What was the air and concrete temperature, humidity and wind speed?
V When was the cracking first noticed (hours, days)?
V Does cracking occur everywhere?
V Is the same type of cracking occurring?
V If not, where is it different?
V What is the crack pattern?
V What are the crack widths?
V How deep are the cracks?
V Does the crack width diminish with depth?
V Is the crack live?
V Does the crack move at different temperatures?
V Is the cracking structural or non structural?
V Is the crack covered with dirt capping?
V Is the crack dry or wet?
V Are calcium deposits evident on the surface of the crack?
V Are the cracks aesthetically unacceptable?
V Will the cracks affect the durability of the concrete?
V What is the client/contractors perception of how the cracks have occurred?
V Is corrosion evident from rust staining?
V Photos and diagrams will be a useful aid to assess the problem?
V What was done different to areas, which have cracked, to those which haven't?
V Where is the reinforcement located in relation to the cracking?
V What is the depth of cover to reinforcement where cracks occur?
V What is the depth of cover to reinforcement where cracks do not occur?
V Any other questions you consider appropriate at the time?
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