Design and Build

Investigating the impacts of

floating solar on the water
environment
Floating PV | Despite the growing popularity of floating solar installations, relatively little is known
about their environmental impacts on water bodies. Ian Jones and Alona Armstrong are leading a
research progamme to understand more about how the environmental benefits of floating PV can
be harnessed and the downsides minimised

W
e are aware that as energy
needs escalate alongside
the simultaneous pressure
to de-carbonise supply, the world has
increasingly been exploring alterna-
tive means of low carbon electricity
production. This has led to fast-paced
deployment of solar photovoltaics (PV),
a large proportion of which has been
ground-mounted. Land, however, is useful
for many things, so ground-mounted
PV systems need to compete against
economic gains which could be generated
by other land-uses. The Far Niente Winery

Credit Lightsource
in California, for example, realised that
deploying solar panels on their land would
displace vines, resulting in a revenue loss
of US$150,000 annually [1]. They hit on
the idea that the pond on their land was
a fallow area of no use for growing vines, sion and averted land-use change. In terms Research is biological properties and processes. Instal-
but which could, nevertheless, be used for of energy system benefits, judicious siting underway to lation, for example, effectively puts a lid on
understand
electricity production by using floating of deployments can enable electricity the water body and will, therefore, inhibit
more about the
solar panels. production to be co-located with demand, positive and evaporation of the water, making floatovol-
Thus, the first commercial ‘floatovoltaic’ such as at reservoir water treatment plants. negative environ- taics particularly attractive in regions of
array was deployed. From this expedient Similarly, co-locating on hydroelectric mental impacts of restricted water availability. Other effects
floating PV
beginning floatovoltaic deployments power reservoirs would enable the use could include changes to water tempera-
have gathered pace across the world. of the same grid connection, potentially ture, nutrient concentrations and algal
Capacity doubled from 2016 to 2017, and enabling a better power curve [3, 4]. There populations.
now exceeds 198MW world-wide, with are efficiency benefits to floating PV panels The significant uncertainty associated
individual installation capacities of up to on water too, as the cooler environment with the likelihood and extent of beneficial
tens of MW [2]. Floatovoltaics have been of the water surface increases electricity and detrimental water quality effects
deployed in several countries, not only production [3]. What, though, would the gives pause for thought, lest an unwanted
in sunny locations such as arid California, impacts be on the water body itself? impact proves more economically or
but also in temperate regions such as Understanding any beneficial or environmentally costly than the benefits
the cloudy, drizzle-soaked, north-west of detrimental environmental impacts is gained. A full understanding of the
England. crucial as water bodies are vital ecosys- ramifications of deployment on the water
The deployment of a floatovol- tems and provide many essential goods, body could, though, enable promotion
taic system in the north-west of England for example drinking water, and services, of a range of costless additional benefits.
stimulated us, scientists at Lancaster such as playing a role in the global carbon Currently, little research has been carried
University and at the Centre for Ecology cycle, on which societies rely for their out on the impact of floatovoltaics to the
& Hydrology, to think whether there were financial prosperity and wellbeing. Placing water environment, prompting the need
other impacts to floatovoltaics beyond the floatovoltaics on water bodies may alter for researchers, regulators and industry to
direct benefits of low carbon energy provi- fundamental physical, chemical and collaborate to develop industry standards

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 Design and Build

ensuring deployments lead to additional

gains and not losses.

Why are water bodies important?

Water bodies – lakes, ponds and reservoirs
– are hugely interesting, ever-changing
parts of our planet, with every one unique.
For many people, a water body is just a
water body; a feature in the landscape.
Water bodies are, though, much, much
more, providing public goods and services
with resulting economic benefits. They
provide drinking water, a fundamental
need for our existence. In many places
fisheries on water bodies are key sources
of food. Some water bodies are used for
electricity or heat production through
hydroelectric schemes or heat pumps.
Others contribute to flood control. Many
are go-to places for recreation and have
considerable economic potential to the
tourist industry. They are inspirations
for swathes of artists and poets such as
Wordsworth and Coleridge who drew on
the natural beauty of the English Lake
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the range of impacts floatovoltaics may have on the water body. Figure
District to create lasting pieces of verse.
courtesy of Giles Exley, PhD student at Lancaster University and the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology
They are a source of biodiversity contain-
ing countless types of fish, macroinver-
tebrates, zooplankton, phytoplankton, Understanding effects of floatovolta- surface warming substantially whilst the
macrophytes, bacteria and more. A lesser ics on water temperature, stratification, bottom waters remain cool, the accom-
known service that water bodies supply, oxygen content and sunlight receipts panying density difference inhibiting
of particular relevance to those interested is fundamental in determining the vertical mixing of water. Arguably the
in low carbon electricity production, impacts on key environmental aspects extent to which this stratification occurs
is climate change regulation through such as water quality, species diversity is even more important to the water body
processing of the carbon which enters a and nutrient status. Water temperature, environment than the temperature itself.
lake from inflowing streams or from the which affects the rate of many important The depth of stratification, the strength of
atmosphere. In order for this vast array of chemical and biological processes, is the variation in temperature with depth,
benefits from water bodies to be realised it determined by several surface processes and the duration of the stratification
is of critical importance that we under- by which water bodies are heated and all significantly impact the way a water
stand the changes that the deployment of cooled. These processes are surprisingly body functions. While the likely impact of
floatovoltaics could impose on our water complex, each varying differently through floatovoltaics is to reduce the heat coming
bodies. the day, through the seasons and with the into a water body, and thereby make
location of the water body. Wind speed, air stratification less likely, the expected effect
Will floatovoltaics be good or bad temperature, humidity and cloud cover all on the wind is to reduce mixing, making
for the water environment? play a role. We would, though, expect that stratification more likely. Consequently, it
Simply put, we do not know, but we do the presence of floatovoltaics will generally is difficult a priori to unpick the net impact
need to know. The technology is so recent reduce water body temperature, primarily of floatovoltaics on stratification. Almost
and the deployments so new that very by reducing the heating effect of the sun. certainly the answer will also depend on
little research work has been carried out. This will slow the rate of many fundamen- other factors, such as where the water
That said, research starts with theory and it tal water body processes, such as produc- body is located, the size of the water
is possible to hypothesise how floatovol- tivity. To corroborate this and to determine body, and the percentage of floatovoltaic
taics might influence the functioning of the conditions in which this does or does coverage on the water body, as all these
the water body and the benefits that it not occur and the scale of effect, requires influences will shift the odds for or against
provides to society (Figure 1). As a water data collection and scientific analysis. stratification becoming more or less likely.
body is heavily influenced by the weather During colder periods of the year it is When a water body stratifies, the top
at the surface we can be confident that common for water bodies to have the and bottom become very different as
interfering with the air-water interface (as same temperature throughout, enabling nutrients, microscopic algae, and gases,
deploying a floatovoltaic would do) will the water to freely circulate from top to such as oxygen, can no longer be mixed.
have a large impact on the water body, bottom under the influence of the wind. Oxygen plays a crucial role in the water
and the greater the proportion of surface For some water bodies, though, summer- body, entering from the atmosphere or
covered, the greater the influence. time heating leads to water nearer the through photosynthesis from algae and

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other aquatic plants near the surface organic carbon (DOC), a key concern for taic deployment impacts water bodies
and being consumed by biological and some water companies. By reducing the should be seen as a boon. The range of
chemical activity. From an anthropogenic sunlight reaching the water, floatovoltaics possible positive and negative environ-
viewpoint, oxygen is good: the more of it may, therefore, inhibit a free service, with mental impacts means that there is much
that gets into the deep waters of a water implications for water treatability and potential for optimising deployments for
body the better. Without oxygen, fish cost. Intriguingly, water bodies also play a additive environmental benefits. Situa-
habitats will shrink, nutrients and heavy part in the global carbon cycle and there tions which could have net uneconomic
metals will be released from the bed are several ways in which floatovoltaics or unpleasant environmental conse-
sediment and more of the potent green- could impact how much carbon the water quences can be avoided while those
house gas, methane, will be produced. body stores and releases. Deployments replete with additional environmental
If floatovoltaic deployment leads to an may therefore alter the extent the water benefits can be identified. The key to
increase in stratification and a reduction body contributes to, or mitigates, climate unlocking this potential is the under-
in oxygen at depth, the environmental change. If floatovoltaic deployment can standing which scientific research can
consequences could be severe and costly. be undertaken in a way which leads to provide; research which will have global
Conversely, if natural stratification is increases in water body storage of carbon relevance given the increasing number of
reduced, then floatovoltaics could provide rather than release, this would increase countries investing in floatovoltaics.
the happy side-effect of offsetting some their appeal over other means of PV The joint pressures of increasing energy
of the predicted unfavourable impacts of deployment. usage, increasing pressure on land and
global warming on water bodies. the need to mitigate climate change
A further, predictable consequence of How can the full environmen- are driving the desire for inventive and
capping a reservoir with floatovoltaics will tal benefits of floatovoltaics be environmentally friendly solutions to
be the reduction in the wavelengths of realised? electricity production to be found. Stake-
sunlight which aquatic plants use to grow, There remains enormous scope for choice holders in the community now have the
particularly the microscopic phytoplank- in the deployment of floatovoltaics. How opportunity to demonstrate how floato-
ton which form the base of the food-web. can they be deployed in a way which voltaics can be one of these solutions.
If the primary concern is producing maximises the myriad potential benefits Researchers, regulators and industry share
clear, clean water this could be a positive to the water body while simultaneously a common goal of developing industry
impact, but if there was more interest in removing or minimising any disadvan- standards which maximise the additional
food supply or biodiversity this could be a tages? How much of a water body should benefits of floatovoltaic deployment. The
negative impact. be covered? Where on the water body beauty or ugliness of floatovoltaics is all in
More subtly, but no less important, should they be put? What size of water the eye of the beholder, but whether they
would be the different impact on the body should they be deployed on? Which are good or bad for the water environ-
many varied types of phytoplankton. geographical locations are best? How ment is within our gift to determine. 
Typically toxic cyanobacteria thrive in should the floats and the PV panels be
warm, sunlit waters, so floatovoltaic designed for maximum environmental References
deployment could be a neat way of reduc- benefit? 1. Smyth M., Russell J. & Milanowski T. (2011) Solar Energy in the
ing this costly environmental problem. Questions such as these were raised Winemaking Industry. London, Springer.
Other types of phytoplankton, such as at a recent floatovoltaic stakeholder 2. Mesbahi M. & Minamino S. (2018) Top 70 Floating Solar PV Plants,
Solar Plaza.
silica-rich diatoms, however, thrive in workshop, and are the focus of prelimi- 3. Sacramento E.M.d., Carvalho P.C.M., de Araujo J.C., Riffel D.B.,
lower light and the associated cooler and nary research at Lancaster University and Correa R.M.d.C. & Neto J.S.P. (2015) Scenarios for use of floating
photovoltaic plants in Brazilian reservoirs. IET Renewable Power
well-mixed waters. Many of these diatoms at the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology Generation, 9, 1019-1024.
are noted for their filamentous structure, (Figure 1). Answering these questions is 4. Redón Santafé M., Torregrosa Soler J.B., Sánchez Romero F.J.,
Ferrer Gisbert P.S., Ferrán Gozálvez J.J. & Ferrer Gisbert C.M. (2014)
useful for absorbing dwindling light but the key to understanding how floatovol- Theoretical and experimental analysis of a floating photovoltaic
also capable of clogging up filters used on taics can be best deployed to increase cover for water irrigation reservoirs, Energy, 67, 246-255.
reservoir intakes, adding substantial costs any beneficial impacts and reduce any
to treatment. Currently, we do not know detrimental impacts. Demonstrating Authors
how floatovoltaic deployment would robust additional benefits beyond low Dr Ian Jones is a lake physicist working at the Centre
impact the phytoplankton community, so carbon electricity provision will enhance for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster. His research has
whether the costs of maintaining water opportunities and support business cases. included working on ocean and atmospheric phys-
quality after deployment, either through Fortunately, although the deployment ics and he now specialises in using automated high
frequency data collection and numerical modelling
treatment processes or reservoir manage- of floatovoltaics is new, scientists have
to study the impacts physical processes have on
ment, would go up or down remains an been studying water bodies for years lake ecology. Email: ianj@[Link]
unknown. Where they are deployed and and have developed numerous tools
which designs are chosen will likely influ- which will aid answering these questions. Dr Alona Armstrong is a lecturer in energy and
ence the net outcome on water quality These range from the ability to deploy environmental sciences and a Natural Environment
Research Council Industrial Innovation Fellow, in the
and treatment costs as well as which automated in situ sensors collecting data
Lancaster Environment Centre and Energy Lancaster
water quality management strategies are on unprecedented scales, to the develop- at Lancaster University. Her research investigates
most appropriate. ment of computer models capable of how renewable energy technologies and the host-
Floatovoltaics may alter the chemical simulating the water body environment. ing environment interact, with the overarching aim of delivering
composition of the water as sunlight can The vast array of factors which are benefits beyond low carbon energy.
Email: [Link]@[Link]
break down compounds such as dissolved likely to affect exactly how floatovol-

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