Pharmacology is a medical science that forms the backbone of the medical profession since

drugs are the cornerstone of human disease therapy. To maximize the benefits and minimize
the risks of medicines to recipients, it is of utmost importance to describe the therapeutic
pharmacological basis. 

In this section, the essential terms relevant to pharmacology are defined to establish a typical
frame of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter
these terms as we go through the study of pharmacology. Please refer to these definitions in
case you will face difficulty in understanding concepts basic to studying pharmacology.

1.     Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions on the body. It is defined as the
science that studies the interaction of the chemical substances with live organisms, drug
administration for treatment, and prevention of various diseases and pathological processes.
2.     Clinical Pharmacology: It evaluates the pharmacological action of the drug preferred
route of administration and safe dosage range in humans by clinical trials.
3.     Drugs: These refer to chemicals that change the functions of living organisms and are
generally administered for the diagnosis, prevention, treatment of disease
4.     Drug therapy (also called Pharmacotherapy) is the use of drugs to prevent, diagnose,
or treat signs, symptoms, and disease processes. 
5.     Medications: Term usually used if drugs given are for therapeutic purposes. 
6.     Pharmacy is the study of medicine that deals with identification, selection, preservation,
standardization, compounding, and dispensing of medical substances or drugs. The word may
also refer to the place where drugs are prepared and dispensed.
7.     Pharmacodynamics is the study of the biological and therapeutic effects of drugs 
8.     Pharmacokinetics is the study of the absorption, distribution metabolism, and excretion
(ADME) of drugs.
9.     Pharmacotherapeutics deals with the proper selection and use of drugs for the
diagnosis, prevention, suppression, and treatment of disease.
10.  Toxicology is the science of poisons or biologic toxins.ces.
11.  Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs in their original unaltered state. (e.g., penicillin
from penicillium which is a fungus)
12.  Posology deals with the dosage of the drug required to produce a therapeutic response; or
simply the drug dosage.
13.   Pharmacogenetics studies the influence of heredity on the  
  pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic response of the drug
14.  Pharmacogenomic describes the use of genetic information to guide the choice of drug
therapy on an individual basis. It discovers which specific gene variations are associated with
a good or poor therapeutic response to a particular drug.
15.  Chemotherapy refers to the effect of drugs upon microorganisms, parasites, and
neoplastic cells living and multiplying in living organisms.
16.  Pharmacopoeia:  It is a medical reference summarizing standards of drug purity,
strength, and directions for synthesis.
17.  Genetic engineering: The process of altering DNA, usually of bacteria, to produce a
chemical to be used as a drug.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three (3) weeks of
the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid
down in the succeeding pages. You should not limit yourself only to these resources. Thus,
you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are
available in the university’s library e.g., ebrary, search.proquest.com, etc.
 
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF PHARMACOLOGY 
Pharmacology is coined from two Greek words: pharmakon, which means “drug or
medicine,” and logos, meaning “study or knowledge.” Thus, pharmacology is most simply
defined as the study of drugs. Pharmacology is a clinical science that serves as a backbone of
clinical calling as medications form the foundation of treatment in human ailments. In this
manner, it is of utmost significance to depict the pharmacological premise of therapeutics so
as to augment the advantages and limit the dangers of medications to clients. This discussion
on pharmacology is principally a note for nursing students whose profession includes safe
administration of medications as part of the delivery of holistic care. To effectively learn the
discipline, nursing students must have a comprehensive knowledge base from various
foundation areas such as anatomy and physiology, chemistry, microbiology, and
pathophysiology.
 
Sources of Drugs
1. Plants: Plants are the oldest source of drugs and, in fact, where
most drugs in ancient times were derived. Almost all parts of
the plants have been utilized that include the leaves, stem, bark,
roots, and fruits. An example is the leaves of the eucalyptus,
which gives oil, an important component of cough syrup.
2. Animals: Animal products are used to replace human
chemicals that fail to produce as a result of disease or genetic
problems. An example of this is insulin for treating diabetes,
which was before extracted entirely from the pancreas of cows
and pigs. But now, with genetic engineering—the process of
altering DNA—allows scientists to obtain human insulin by
altering Escherichia coli bacteria, making insulin a better
product without some of the impurities that come with animal
products. 
3. Minerals: Minerals are the solid inorganic substance of natural
occurrence. Many drugs are obtained from mineral substances
and their compounds. Mineral sources of the drug can either be
obtained from a metallic (like Iron, which is used in the
treatment of Iron Deficiency Anemia) or non-metallic elements
(like Iodine, which is commonly used as antiseptic).
4. Microorganisms:  Most notable antibiotics are produced from
various microorganisms. For instance, the fungus Penicillin
notatum is the source of penicillin.
5. Human: Some drugs are obtained from man. The processing of
these drugs is done via genetic engineering or genetic
modification (a technique employing a direct manipulation of
an organism’s genome using biotechnology in preparing certain
drugs like the Human insulin and Erythropoietin).
6. Semi-synthetic source: This source is obtained when the
nucleus of the drug from a natural source is retained, but its
chemical structure is altered, such as that of semi-synthetic
human insulin (pork insulin).
 7. Synthetic source: This source is obtained when the nucleus of
the drug from a natural source as well as its chemical structure
is altered. This source gives us synthetic drugs like antipyretics,
antihistamines, anticonvulsants, etc.
 
The first five sources identified above are natural sources of drugs.
Out of the above sources, the majority of the drugs currently used in therapeutics are from a
synthetic source.
 

 
 
Drug forms
Drugs are manufactured in many different forms, such as solids, liquids, suppositories, and
inhalants. Other drug forms include sprays, which are used with several administration
routes; creams, lotions, and patches, which are
administered topically; and lozenges, which are used to treat local effects.
 
Solid drug forms include capsules and tablets. 
q Capsules are hard or soft gelatin shells that contain the drug in powder, in sustained-release
beads, or in a liquid form. 
q A tablet is a drug that’s been compressed to form a certain shape. Some 
tablets are uncoated, while others differ in composition:
 Enteric-coated tablets have a thin coating that allows the tablet to pass through the
stomach and disintegrate or dissolve in the small intestine, where the drug is
absorbed.
 Osmotic pump tablets release the drug through a single tiny hole in the tablet.
 Wax matrix tablets distribute the drug through a honeycomb-like material made of
wax.
 
Liquid medications are usually given orally or parenterally.
Orally administered liquids contain the drug mixed with some type of fluid 
and are classified as:
q Syrups—drugs mixed in a sugar-water solution
q Suspensions—finely divided drug particles suspended in a suitable liquid medium
q Tinctures—hydroalcoholic drug solutions
q Elixirs—hydroalcoholic solutions that contain glycerin, sorbitol, or other sweeteners.
 
Parenteral is a term that literally means outside the intestines. Drugs given 
parenterally are administered outside the GI tract and are available in three 
package styles:
q Vials—bottles sealed with a rubber diaphragm that contain a single dose or several doses
q Ampules—glass containers with a thin neck that’s typically scored so it can be snapped off
easily
q Prefilled system—a single dose of a drug contained in a plastic bag or a prefilled syringe.
 
Suppositories deliver medications in a solid base that will melt at the body. 
1. They can be administered rectally or vaginally.
 
Inhalants are drugs that are administered in powdered or liquid form using the respiratory
route. Inhalants are absorbed by the rich supply of capillaries in the lungs.
 
 
Naming (Nomenclature) and Classifying drugs
 
DRUG NOMENCLATURE
Drugs have a specific kind of nomenclature—that is, a drug can go by three different names:
 The chemical name is a scientific name that precisely describes the drug’s atomic and
molecular structure.
 The generic, or nonproprietary, the name is an abbreviation of the chemical name. It
is the common general name assigned to the drug, differentiated from trade name by
an initial lowercase letter, never capitalized.
 The trade name (also known as the brand name or proprietary name) is a drug name
selected by the drug/ pharmaceutical company responsible for manufacturing and
selling the drug. Trade names are protected by copyright. The symbol ® (for
“registered” trademark) after a trade name, usually beginning with a capital letter,
indicates that the name is registered by and restricted to the drug manufacturer.

 
In 1962, the federal government mandated the use of official names so that only one official
name would represent each drug. The official names are listed in the United States
Pharmacopeia (USP) and National Formulary (NF).

 
 
 
 
 
 
DRUG CLASSIFICATION
Drugs are classified into different groups. Drugs that share similar characteristics are grouped
together as a pharmacologic class (or family). Beta-adrenergic blockers are an example of a
pharmacologic class.
 
A second type of drug grouping is the therapeutic class, which categorizes drugs by
therapeutic use. Antihypertensives are an example of a therapeutic class.
 
 

 
 
Another way of classifying medications is as controlled versus non-controlled. Non-
controlled medication is medication that is not considered to be a depressant or a stimulant
and is not considered addictive or with a potential for abuse. Non-controlled medication may
include over-the-counter medication or prescription medication. 
 
Controlled medication is a medication that is tightly controlled by the government because it
may be abused or cause addiction. Controlled medications include opioids, stimulants,
depressants, hallucinogens, and anabolic steroids. Controlled substances with known medical
use, such as morphine, Valium, and Ritalin, are available only by prescription from a licensed
medical professional. These medications are divided into five schedules based on their
potential for abuse and physical and psychological dependence.
 
1. Schedule I:
Drugs that currently do not have accepted medical use, have a high potential for abuse, and
lack accepted safety measures for use (i.e., LSD, peyote, heroin).
1. Schedule II:
Drugs that have medical use and a high potential for abuse; those that tend to cause severe
dependence (i.e., morphine, secobarbital, amphetamines (Ritalin), methadone).
1. Schedule III:
Drugs used in medical practice with less potential for abuse than schedule II drugs; those that
tend to cause moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence (i.e.,
nalorphine, drug combinations containing small amounts of narcotics such as codeine).
1. Schedule IV:
Drugs that have medical use and lower potential for abuse than schedule III drugs; those that
tend to cause limited physical or psychological dependence (i.e., meprobamate,
chlordiazepoxide, diazepam).
1. Schedule V:
Drugs that have medical use and lower potential for abuse than schedule IV drugs; those that
tend to cause less physical or psychological dependence (i.e., mixtures of limited quantities of
narcotics such as cough syrups containing codeine).