Near Eastern Temples - Biblical Studies - Oxford Bibliographies [Link]

Near Eastern Temples

Michael Hundley

LAST MODIFIED: 26 JULY 2017

DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780195393361-0243

Introduction

Temples were nearly ubiquitous across the ancient Near East. Rather than serving as a gathering place for a worshipping congregation,
a temple served as a terrestrial divine abode. In it, the god(s) lived amid society, yet carefully sequestered from it behind walls and
doors. While primarily a residence, the temple also granted people limited access, usually for the purpose of divine service. The people
believed that gods dwelt outside of the realm of human experience. Temples bridged the gap between human and divine, allowing
regulated access to the deity, usually present in the form of a cult statue, and giving people the opportunity to influence the gods.
Through this mutually beneficial interchange, the gods received the service they desired, while the people hoped their service would
elicit divine protection and blessing. Protection and blessing, though, were conditional. The gods would remain and stay favorably
disposed only if they were satisfied with their accommodation and service. Temples then, at least in theory, were lavishly and
fastidiously constructed and maintained in order to keep the gods happy. This article focuses on the major temples, especially those
from 1500–500 BCE, in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Hittite Anatolia, and Syria-Palestine. The article also focuses on the structure and
ideology of the temples, not the rituals performed within them. For the most part, biblical and Israelite references will be kept to a
minimum, as they are numerous enough to warrant their own article. Too numerous to include, archaeological reports generally have
been excluded, yet they are referenced in the works cited and may be found with a Google web search.

General Overviews

Studies listed in this section are broad-ranging in scope, covering multiple cultures and multiple time periods. Wightman 2007 covers
virtually all ancient cultures and is best suited as an entry point to further studies and for its numerous useful diagrams. Ragavan 2013
is also broad, yet better suited to more advanced students. Meyers 1997 is a useful introductory reference work addressing major
archaeological sites. Sasson 2000 provides a more in-depth survey of major ancient Near Eastern themes. Hurowitz 1992 is most
suited for those interested in biblical comparisons. Boda and Novotny 2010 provides an accessible and up-to-date synthesis of the
textual evidence for temple building, while Kaniuth, et al. 2013 offers generally excellent and up-to-date contributions for more
advanced students and scholars. Hundley 2013 provides an accessible synthesis of temples and divine presence divided by region.

Boda, Mark J., and Jamie R. Novotny, eds. From the Foundations to the Crenellations: Essays on Temple Building in the
Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible. Münster, Germany: Ugarit-Verlag, 2010.
An edited volume in honor of Richard Ellis with up-to-date articles on textual evidence for temple building in ancient Mesopotamia,
Ugarit, Anatolia, Iran, and in the Bible. Accessible for advanced undergraduates students, nonspecialist academics, and the informed
public.

Hundley, Michael B. Gods in Dwellings: Temples and Divine Presence in the Ancient Near East. Atlanta: Society of Biblical
Literature, 2013.
Synthetic study dedicated to temples and divine presence in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Hittite Anatolia, and Syria-Palestine. Accessible for

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advanced undergraduate students, nonspecialist academics, and the informed public. Could serve as a textbook.

Hurowitz, Victor A. I Have Built You an Exalted House: Temple Building in the Bible in Light of Mesopotamia and Northwest
Semitic Writings. Sheffield, UK: Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 1992.
Analyzes and compares a number of Mesopotamian, Syro-Palestinian, and biblical building accounts with a view toward situating the
biblical perspectives in their ancient Near Eastern context. Accessible for advanced undergraduate students and nonspecialist
academics.

Kaniuth, Kai, Anne Leihnert, Jared L. Miller, Adelheid Otto, Michael Roaf, and Walther Sallaberger, eds. Tempel im alten Orient:
7. Internationales Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, 11.–13. Oktober 2009, München. Wiesbaden, Germany:
Harrassowitz, 2013.
A conference volume with important articles in German and English on multiple aspects of temples in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and
Syria-Palestine. Accessible for advanced undergraduate students and nonspecialist academics.

Meyers, Eric M., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. 5 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
A useful entry point to the archaeology of the ancient Near East, with entries distributed by site and topic, each with references for
further study. Accessible for undergraduate students, nonspecialist academics, and the informed public.

Ragavan, Deena, ed. Heaven on Earth: Temples, Ritual, and Cosmic Symbolism in the Ancient World. Chicago: Oriental
Institute, 2013.
Broad-ranging essays cover sacred spaces in the ancient world from China to Mesoamerica. Includes essays on the Hittites,
Mesopotamians, and Egyptians. Accessible for advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Sasson, Jack M., ed. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. 2 vols. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000.
Standard compendium of articles on the ancient Near East, with articles from specialists on various topics, including temples and
religion. Accessible for undergraduate students, nonspecialist academics, and the informed public.

Wightman, Gregory J. Sacred Spaces: Religious Architecture in the Ancient World. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2007.
Extremely broad survey of religious architecture with numerous helpful diagrams, covering virtually every geographic region, including
chapters on Mesopotamia and Elam, Egypt, Syria-Palestine, Anatolia, and the Arabian Peninsula. Accessible for undergraduate
students, nonspecialist academics, and the informed public. Could serve as a textbook.

Mesopotamian Temples

Scholarly works on Mesopotamian temples are numerous and impressive, like the temples themselves, though archaeological remains
are relatively limited. These works cover temples located in and around the two great rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, from roughly
1500 BCE to the Hellenistic period.

General Temple Studies

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Studies in this section are broad in scope, covering multiple temples and ranging from introductory to advanced. Margueron 1997
provides a quick synthesis of Mesopotamian temples, most suited for a general audience. The other works are better suited for more
advanced students (Heinrich 1982 primarily because it is written in German). Heinrich provides the most exhaustive survey of temples,
George 1993 of temple names, and Menzel 1981 of Assyrian temples. Neumann 2014 focuses on Neo-Assyrian temples and employs
the most up-to-date theory and methodology. Consult also Hundley 2013; Kaniuth, et al. 2013; Meyers 1997; Sasson 2000; and
Wightman 2007 (all cited under General Overviews).

George, Andrew R. House Most High: The Temples of Ancient Mesopotamia. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1993.
A reference guide to the (ceremonial) names of Mesopotamian temples. Best used as a reference for graduate students, specialists,
and informed nonspecialist academics.

Heinrich, Ernst. Die Tempel und Heiligtumer im alten Mesopotamien: Typologie, Morphologie und Geschichte. 2 vols. Berlin:
De Gruyter, 1982.
An exhaustive survey of Mesopotamian temples with numerous black-and-white illustrations. Accessible for those competent in
German.

Lloyd, Seton. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest. 2d ed. London: Thames &
Hudson, 1984.
A helpful, though somewhat dated, survey of Mesopotamian archaeology. Best used in tandem with more recent works. Accessible for
graduate students and nonspecialist academics.

Margueron, Jean-Claude. “Temples: The Mesopotamian Temple.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near
East. Vol. 4. Edited by E. Meyers, 165–169. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
An accessible synthesis for undergraduates, nonspecialist academics, and the educated general public on Mesopotamian temples that
focuses on commonalities between temples.

Menzel, Birgitte. Assyrische Tempel. 2 vols. Rome: Biblical Institute, 1981.

Still the largest collection of material relating to Assyrian temples. Volume 1 includes information from written sources on the temple and
its personnel from all periods of Assyrian history, while Volume 2 includes the endnotes, text editions (including some translations), and
indexes. It contains a wealth of information, much of it still not found elsewhere, yet it is a hard read. Best used by specialists and those
with some knowledge of Akkadian.

Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul. Le temple et le culte: Compte rendu de la vingtième rencontre
assyriologique internationale; Organisée à Leiden du 3 au 7 juillet 1972 sous les auspices du Nederlands Instituut voor het
Nabije Oosten. Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul, 1975.
Proceedings of a conference dedicated to temples and cults with mostly short articles primarily related to specific sites and themes. For
advanced students and nonspecialist academics.

Neumann, Kiersten. “Resurrected and Reevaluated: The Neo-Assyrian Temple as a Ritualized and Ritualizing Built
Environment.” PhD diss., University of Califronia, Berkeley, 2014.

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An in-depth study of Neo-Assyrian temples, which helpfully applies ritual theory and built environment studies. Most useful for graduate
students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Studies on Specific Sites

Aside from archaeological reports, extensive studies on specific sites are comparatively rare. Among them, Babylon 3D offers the most
accessible and impressive visual guide to a reconstructed Babylon, while Bongenaar 1997, van Driel 1969, and Waerzeggers 2010
offer more in-depth analyses suited for specialists.

Babylon 3D.
A virtual reconstruction of ancient Babylon by the Royal Ontario Museum. Especially helpful for visualizing the great city. Accessible for
undergraduates and the general public.

Bongenaar, A. C. V. M. The Neo-Babylonian Ebabbar Temple at Sippar: Its Administration and Prosopography. Leiden, The
Netherlands: Nederlands Historisch-Archeologisch Instituut te İstanbul, 1997.
This volume gives a zoomed-in view of the organization and administration of a specific temple. Most useful for specialists, but also
accessible to academics in related fields.

van Driel, G. The Cult of Aššur. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1969.
Gathers archaeological and textual evidence for the cult of the god Assur at Assur. Accessible for advanced students and nonspecialist
academics familiar with Assyriology.

Waerzeggers, Caroline. The Ezida Temple of Borsippa: Priesthood, Cult, Archives. Leiden, The Netherlands: Nederlands
Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2010.
Offers a view of temple life in the second most important Neo-Babylonian temple from the perspective of the temple dependents,
primarily from the archive of the priestly families. Accessible for graduate students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Construction and Decoration

This section includes scholarship on temple decoration, building rituals, and a specific element of temple construction, namely walls and
doors. Compared to the lavishly decorated and preserved palaces, the archaeological remains of Mesopotamian temple decoration
appear rather spartan. As such, they occupy less scholarly attention. The textual record, however, testifies to the at least occasional
lavishness of these edifices. Hundley 2013 offers an overview of the evidence. Seidl 2013 provides perhaps the best archaeological
survey of second millennium temple decoration, while Engel 1987 helpfully sketches the written evidence for nonhuman forms. Hundley
2013 offers a helpful overview of the function of walls and doors, Damerji 1987 the most in-depth study of the archaeological evidence
for doors, and Salonen 1961 the most exhaustive textual study. Regarding building rituals, Ambos 2004 offers an exhaustive study of
first millennium building rituals, while Ambos 2010 provides a more accessible and abbreviated version for nonspecialist academics.
Ellis 1968 is the classic study on foundation deposits, updated and expanded in Boda and Novotny 2010 (cited under General
Overviews).

Ambos, Claus. Mesopotamische Baurituale aus dem 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. Dresden: Islet, 2004.

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Offers a general introduction to first millennium building rituals followed by editions of the various texts. Accessible for graduate
students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Ambos, Claus. “Building Rituals from the First Millennium BC: The Evidence from the Ritual Texts.” In From the Foundations
to the Crenellations: Essays on Temple Building in the Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible. Edited by Mark J. Boda and
Jamie R. Novotny, 221–237. Münster, Germany: Ugarit-Verlag, 2010.
A synthesis of and entry point into his monograph for English readers. Accessible for advanced undergraduate students and
nonspecialist academics.

Damerji, Muayad Said Basim. The Development of the Architecture of Doors and Gates in Ancient Mesopotamia. Translated by
Tomio Takase and Yasuyoshi Okada. Tokyo: Institute of Cultural Studies of Ancient Iraq, 1987.
Based on information current in 1972, the study is an archaeological investigation of entryways, an especially important and often
overlooked element in the built environment. Best used as a reference for advanced students and nonspecialist academics.

Ellis, Richard S. Foundation Deposits in Ancient Mesopotamia. Yale Near Eastern Researches 2. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 1968.
Classic study on the important objects deposited below or in the foundations of Mesopotamian buildings. Accessible for advanced
undergraduates and nonspecialist academics. Best read in tandem with more recent works, such as Boda and Novotny 2010 (cited
under General Overviews).

Engel, Burkhard J. Darstellungen vom Damonen und Tieren in assyrischen Palasten und Tempeln nach den schriftlichen
Quellen. Mönchengladbach, Germany: Hackbarth, 1987.
Discusses the written evidence for nonhuman forms in Assyrian palaces and temples. Accessible for German-speaking graduate
students and informed nonspecialist academics.

Hundley, Michael B. Gods in Dwellings: Temples and Divine Presence in the Ancient Near East. Atlanta: Society of Biblical
Literature, 2013.
Offers a useful overview of function of walls and doors in chapter 1 and discusses some of the relevant evidence and impact in chapter
3. Pages 59–68 summarize the evidence for temple decoration.

Salonen, Armas. Die Türen des alten Mesopotamien: Eine lexikalische und kulturgeschichtliche Untersuchung. Helsinki:
Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 1961.
An examination of the textual evidence for doors that nicely complements Damerji’s architectural study (Damerji 1987). Best used as a
reference for graduate students and specialist and non-specialist academics.

Seidl, Ursula. “Bildschmuck an mesopotamischen Tempeln des 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr.” In Tempel im alten Orient: 7.
Internationales Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 11.–13. Oktober 2009, München. Edited by Kai Kaniuth, Anne
Leihnert, Jared L. Miller, Adelheid Otto, Michael Roaf, and Walther Sallaberger, 467–488. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz,
2013.
Provides the most up-to-date and accessible survey of second millennium temple decoration. Accessible for advanced German-reading

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students and nonspecialist academics.

Temple Ideology and Symbolism

Mesopotamian temples are rife with symbolism, ideology, and theology. While significant studies have appeared, much work remains to
be done. Edzard 1987 provides the most accessible overview of temple imagery and symbolism. Hruška 1996 addresses one aspect in
particular, the important sacred mound. Van Ess 2013 is a groundbreaking study on temple cosmology. Maul 1997 insightfully
addresses the ideology of empires, especially as it pertains to their primary gods and religious capitals. Winter 2010 covers
Mesopotamian art and architecture from multiple informative angles.

Edzard, Dietz Otto. “Deep-Rooted Skyscrapers and Bricks: Ancient Mesopotamian Architecture and Its Imagery.” In Figurative
Language in the Ancient Near East. Edited by Murray Mindlin, Markham J. Geller, and John E. Wansbrough, 13–24. London:
School of Oriental and African Studies, 1987.
An introduction accessible to advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics on Mesopotamian architecture, particularly the
temple, including such elements as the sacred mound and the Ziggurats.

Hruška, Blahoslav. “Zum ‘Heiligen Hügel’ in der altmesopotamischen Religion.” Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des
Morgenlandes 86 (1996): 161–175.
Treats the pedestal constructed of clay bricks in the Mesoptamian temple representing the sacred mound upon which creation emerged
from the primeval waters. Accessible for informed German-language readers and nonspecialist academics.

Maul, Stefan M. “Die altorientalische Hauptstadt - Abbild und Nabel der Welt.” In Die Orientalische Stadt: Kontinuitat, Wandel,
Bruch; 1. Internationales Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, 9.-10. Mai 1996 in Halle/Saale. Edited by Gernot
Wilhelm, 109–124. Saarbrücken, Germany: SDV Saarbrücker Druckerei & Verlag, 1997.
Addresses the rhetoric of the empires and their religious capitals, Nippur, Assur, and Babylon, and its consequences. Each claimed to
be the center of the world both vertically and horizontally with the temples of the high gods Enlil, Assur, and Marduk as the centerpoints.
Accessible for those competent in German and nonspecialist academics.

van Ess, Margarete. “Babylonische Tempel zwischen Ur III- und neubabylonischer Zeit: Zu einigen Aspekten ihrer
planerischen Gestaltung und religiösen Konzeption.” In Tempel im Alten Orient: 7. Internationales Colloquium der Deutschen
Orient-Gesellschaft, 11.–13. Oktober 2009, München. Edited by Kai Kaniuth, Anne Löhnert, Jared L. Miller, Adelheid Otto,
Michael Roaf, and Walther Sallaberger, 59–84. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2013.
A study addressing the little understood cosmological concepts of the Mesopotamian temple, especially in comparison with the
Egyptian temples. Accessible for informed German-language readers and nonspecialist academics.

Winter, Irene. On Art in the Ancient Near East. Vol. 1, Of the First Millennium B.C.E. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
A collection of studies by leading art historians spanning thirty-five years especially related to palatial art and architecture, which also
references temple art and architecture. Accessible for advanced students along with specialist and nonspecialist academics.

Ziggurats

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Some scholarship focuses on the enigmatic ziggurats, the massive stepped pyramids upon which temples presumably rested. The
ziggurat in Babylon, in particular, has often been compared to the Tower of Babel in Genesis 11. Notably, George 2011 defends the
consensus perspective, which Allinger-Csollich 1998 and Allinger-Csollich 2013 challenges. Schmid 1995 offers a useful yet speculative
reconstruction of the famous ziggurat of Babylon.

Allinger-Csollich, Wilfrid. “Birs Nimrud II: ‘Tieftempel’ – ‘Hochtempel’: Vergleichende Studien Borsippa – Babylon.”
Baghdader Mitteilungen 29 (1998): 95–330.
An article that challenges the general consensus on ziggurats, suggesting that the ziggurat temple was divided over the different levels
of the ziggurat rather than resting on the top. Accessible for graduate students and specialists.

Allinger-Csollich, Wilfred. “Gedanken über das Aussehen und die Funktion einer Ziqqurrat.” In Tempel im alten Orient: 7.
Internationales Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, 11.–13. Oktober 2009, München. Edited by Kai Kaniuth, Anne
Löhnert, Jared L. Miller, Adelheid Otto, Michael Roaf, and Walther Sallaberger, 1–18. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz,
2013.
Another article that challenges the general consensus on ziggurats, suggesting that the ziggurat temple was divided over the different
levels of the ziggurat rather than resting on the top. Accessible for advanced German-speaking undergraduates and nonspecialist
academics.

George, Andrew R. Cuneiform Royal Inscriptions and Related Texts in the Schoyen Collection. Bethesda, MD: CDL, 2011.
Discusses the evidence for ziggurat temples and supports the traditional interpretation that a small temple rested atop, offering textual
and iconographic support. Accessible for advanced undergraduates.

Schmid, Hansjörg. Der Tempelturm Etemenanki in Babylon. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern, 1995.
Comprehensive and speculative reconstruction of the ziggurat of Babylon, based on minimal remains. Accessible for advanced
German-speaking students and non-specialist academics.

Egyptian Temples

Teeming with well-preserved temples, Egypt has captivated popular and scholarly imaginations. The following works focus on the vast
and diverse scholarship on temples, primarily before the Greco-Roman period. This selection also focuses on the divine temples, those
dedicated to nonroyal deities, as opposed to royal mortuary temples that honor deceased and deified monarchs. Regarding mortuary
temples, see especially Stefanie Schröder, Millionenjahrhaus: Zur Konzeption des Raumes der Ewigkeit im konstellativen Konigtum in
Sprache, Architektur und Theologie (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2010), and Martina Ullmann, Konig fur die Ewigkeit–Die
Hauser der Millionen von Jahren: Eine Untersuchung zu Konigskult und Tempeltypologie in Agypten (Wiesbaden, Germany:
Harrassowitz, 2002).

General Studies

Studies in this section are broad in scope, further subdivided into Encyclopedias, General Studies: Temple Overviews (covering multiple
temples), and Religion, Art, and Architecture.

Encyclopedias

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Bard 1999 offers a useful and accessible archaeological reference. Of the two comprehensive encyclopedias, Redford 2001 covers the
most topics, while the UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology is more recent, and the topics it includes generally are covered more
thoroughly.

Bard, Kathryn A., ed. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 1999.
Comprehensive overview of Egyptian archaeology, focusing on archaeological sites, terms, and excavators, with chapters organized
chronologically. Accessible for advanced undergraduates.

Redford, Donald, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Entries on a wide range of topics related to Ancient Egypt, including a substantial discussion of the temple, with bibliographies for
further reading. Intended for the general public and non-specialist academics.

UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Willeke Wendrich, editor in chief.

Online encyclopedia covering various topics related to Egyptology in depth, including a list of references for further study. Not as
expansive as Redford 2001, but very useful for what it covers. Accessible for undergraduates and the general public.

Temple Overviews

Numerous scholarly overviews of Egyptian temples have been published. Among them, Arnold 1997 provides the most accessible
survey. Arnold 1992 offers a more detailed, yet still accessible survey for German audiences, while Snape 1996 is especially helpful
and accessible for English-speaking audiences. Wilkinson 2005 provides an exhaustive and helpful popular-level synthesis and survey,
while Arnold 1999 focuses on the temples of the last pharaohs. Spencer 1984 offers the most exhaustive treatment of temple
terminology for a more advanced audience.

Arnold, Dieter. Die Tempel Ägyptens: Götterwohnungen, Kultstätten, Baudenkmaler. Zurich: Artemis & Winkler, 1992.
An accessible survey of Egyptian temples, places of worship, and monuments for a German-speaking audience.

Arnold, Dieter. “Egyptian Temples.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Vol. 4. Edited by Eric M.
Meyers, 174–179. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
A synchronic survey of Egyptian temples. Accessible for undergraduates and the general public.

Arnold, Dieter. Temples of the Last Pharaohs. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Surveys temples from the collapse of the New Kingdom to the end of Roman rule, including the lost temples, offering both written
analysis and reconstructed plans. It pays special attention to the temples’ continuity with their Egyptian past and development as it
interacted with other cultures. Accessible for advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

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Snape, Steven R. Egyptian Temples. Princes Risborough, UK: Shire, 1996.

Slim volume that surveys temples chronologically with many black-and-white images. Accessible for undergraduates and the general
public and could be used as a textbook.

Spencer, Patricia. The Egyptian Temple: A Lexicographical Study. London: Kegan Paul, 1984.
Grouped thematically and arranged by root, Spencer provides an accessible reference on the Egyptian terminology that ably
complements studies focused more on the architecture itself. Accessible for advanced undergraduates.

Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2005.
Introductory volume split into two parts. The first provides a synthetic analysis of temples, tracing their history, construction, and
function, while the second surveys the individual temples themselves from north to south. Includes numerous illustrations. Accessible
for undergraduates and the general public.

Religion, Art and Architecture

Badawy 1954–1968 provides a comprehensive survey of Egyptian architecture (including temples), which is most useful for its
descriptions, plans, and reconstructions. Smith 1999 accessibly surveys both art and architecture and includes helpful illustrations.
Assmann 2001, Koch 1993, and Quirke 1992 each address temples within their larger treatments of Egyptian religion. Hornung 1983
gives helpful and readable access to Egyptian concepts of the divine. Robins 2008 is the classic work on art, while Baines 2009
addresses more specifically the ideas informing visual representation.

Assmann, Jan. The Search for God in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001.
Translation of Ägypten: Theologie und Frömmigkeit einer frühen Hochkultur, first published in 1984 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer). A
translation of the noted German Egyptologist’s classic treatment of Egyptian religion, with attention to the temple. Accessible for
advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Badawy, Alexander. A History of Egyptian Architecture. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1954–1968.
Comprehensive analysis of Egyptian architecture, including temples. While dated, its building descriptions, plans, and temple
reconstructions are especially helpful. Best used with more recent treatments (such as Bard 1999, cited under General Studies:
Encyclopedias). Accessible for graduate students and informed nonspecialist academics.

Baines, John. Visual and Written Culture in Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Collected volume addressing written and visual culture, especially useful for its illumination of the ideas behind Egyptian visual
representation, which abounds in temples. Accessible for advanced students and nonspecialist academics.

Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. Translated by John Baines. London: Routledge,
1983.
Translation of Der Eine und die Vielen: Altägyptische Götterwelt, first published in 1971 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche
Buchgesellschaft). A classic treatment of Egyptian religion, translated into English. Although it gives little attention to temple details, it is
an invaluable resource on Egyptian conceptions of the divine that inform temple construction and ideology (to be read alongside

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Assmann 2001).

Koch, Klaus. Geschichte der ägyptische Religion: Von den Pyramiden bis zu den Mysterien der Isis. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer,
1993.
While most single volumes on Egyptian religion treat it synchronically, Koch traces its diachronic development. Chapter 2 offers a study
of the mythic background of Egyptian language that helps to immerse the reader in the ancient Egyptian context. Accessible for those
competent in German and nonspecialist academics.

Quirke, Stephen. Ancient Egyptian Religion. London: British Museum, 1992.

Accessible overview of Egyptian religion with a chapter on king and cult, including a general discussion of temples. Accessible for
advanced undergraduates and the informed general public.

Robins, Gay. The Art of Ancient Egypt. 2d ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
Revised version of the classic, well-illustrated guide to ancient Egyptian art. Organized chronologically and accessible to a general
readership, while remaining useful for students and academics.

Smith, W. Stevenson. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. 2d ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999.
Revised version of classic diachronic look at art and architecture of ancient Egypt with more than 400 well-produced illustrations.
Accessible for undergraduates and the informed general public.

Essay Collections: Primarily English

Numerous conferences have been held related to Egyptian temples, producing a wealth of helpful conference volumes. Dolińska and
Beinlich 2010 offers the fruit of a conference connections between temples, Dorman and Bryan 2007 on sacred space and function,
Gundlach and Spence 2011 on comparisons between palaces and temples, Jánosi 2005 on the structure and significance of
architecture, and Quirke 1997 on the state of Egyptology circa 1997, all for a more specialized audience. Shafer 1997 provides a more
accessible overview, especially the introduction and the chapter on Luxor, yet it remains beneficial to graduate students and scholars.

Dolińska, Monika, and Horst Beinlich, eds. 8. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung: Interconnections between Temples, Warschau,
22–25 September 2008. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz, 2010.
Collection of conference presentations focusing on the relationship between the various temples.

Dorman, Peter F., and Betsy Bryan, eds. Sacred Space and Sacred Function in Ancient Thebes. Chicago: Oriental Institute of
the University of Chicago, 2007.
Collection of presentations that focus on the interplay between physical ritual spaces and activities for which they were conceived, built,
and decorated. Part 1 focuses on divine temples. Best used by specialists and graduate students.

Gundlach, Rolf, and Kate Spence, eds. 5. Symposium zur ägyptischen Königsideologie: Palace and Temple: Architecture -
Decoration – Ritual: Cambridge, July, 16th–17th, 2007. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz, 2011.

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Conference proceedings comparing the palace and temple, according to structure, decoration, and function.

Jánosi, Peter, ed. Structure and Significance: Thoughts on Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Vienna: Verlag der
Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2005.
Collection of essays on Egyptian archaeology, constructional engineering, and building technology as well as surveys of Egyptian
temples, and special studies on the decorative features of Egyptian temples from the Old Kingdom to the Coptic period in French,
German, and English.

Quirke, Stephen, ed. The Temple in Ancient Egypt: New Discoveries and Recent Research. London: British Museum Press,
1997.
Wide-ranging collection of articles addressing the (then) current state of Egyptology. Most useful for graduate students and specialists.

Shafer, Byron E., ed. Temples of Ancient Egypt. London: Taurus, 1997.
The product of a conference on Egyptology at Fordham University. Each chapter addresses either divine or mortuary temples from
different periods and includes anthropological insights. Aside from Shafer’s introduction, the article on New Kingdom Luxor is perhaps
the most accessible entry. Accessible for advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Essay Collections: Primarily German

The series Ägyptologische Tempeltagung is easily the most extensive (producing 8 volumes to date), offering generally high-quality
studies organized by theme, especially suited for graduate students and specialists owing to its complexity and the fact that much of it is
written in German.

Beinlich, Horst, ed. 5. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung, Würzburg 23.–26. September 1999. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz,
2002.
Collection of conference presentations, unlike others in the series, not organized according to topic. Like the others, most useful for
graduate students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Beinlich, Horst, ed. 9. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung: Kultabbildung und Kultrealität: Hamburg, 27. September – 1. Oktober
2011. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz, 2013.
Collection of conference presentations gathered around the theme of the relationship between image and reality in the temple.

Gundlach, Rolf, and Matthias Rochholz, eds. Ägyptische Tempel – Struktur, Funktion und Programm: Akten der
Ägyptologischen Tempeltagungen in Gosen 1990 und in Mainz 1992. Hildesheim, Germany: Gerstenberger, 1994.
The fruit of the first two conferences on the Egyptian temple, loosely organized according to the structure, function, and plan.

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Gundlach, Rolf, and Matthias Rochholz, eds. Feste im Tempel: 4. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung, Köln, 10. – 12. Oktober 1996.
Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz, 1998.
Conference proceedings focusing on the festivals in the temples.

Haring, Ben, and Andrea Klug, eds. 6. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung, Leiden, 4.–7. September 2002: Funktion und Gebrauch
altägyptischer Tempelräume. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz, 2007.
Conference proceedings focusing on the function of the rooms and the use of wall reliefs to elucidate these functions.

Kurth, Dieter, ed. Systeme und Programme der ägyptischen Tempeldekoration: 3. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung, Hamburg
1.–5. Juni 1994. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1995.
Conference proceedings focusing on the voluminous temple decoration with a view toward understanding the system informing the
images.

Preys, René, ed. 7. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung: Structuring Religion: Leuven, 28. September–1. Oktober 2005. Wiesbaden,
Germany: Harrassowitz, 2009.
Conference proceedings examining the relationship between the technical and theological demands of temple building, focusing on the
materiality of structuring religion.

Studies on Specific Sites

This section focuses on the wealth of studies on the most prominent New Kingdom temples at Karnak, which are the most impressive,
best preserved, and most studied. Schwaller de Lubicz 1999 provides the most complete photographic record in print, and Blyth 2006
offers a helpful diachronic treatment, especially useful as a guidebook. Golvin and Goyon 1990 is most accessible to a French- or
German-speaking audience. The websites are accessible and thorough with a wealth of images and even videos and they provide an
excellent entry point for an English-speaking audience. Digital Karnak is the larger site and Karnak Great Hypostyle Hall Project more
specifically examines the great hypostyle hall at Karnak. Kurth 1994 helpfully surveys Greco-Roman Edfu and interestingly aims to
present the material from an Egyptian perspective. For a recent survey of the anomalous Amarna temples, see Stevens 2015, and for
an exhaustive guide to ritual at Abydos as inscribed on the walls, see David 1973.

Blyth, Elizabeth. Karnak: Evolution of a Temple. London: Routledge, 2006.

Well-written piece that traces the development of Karnak. Offers numerous helpful maps, plans, and illustrations. Accessible for
advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics, especially as a guide to the site when visiting.

David, A. Rosalie. Religious Ritual at Abydos, c. 1300. Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips, 1973.
Exhaustive guide to the religious ritual at Abydos as inscribed on the walls in images and writing. Accessible for graduate students,
specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Digital Karnak.
Site designed by UCLA to provide digital access to Karnak with numerous color photographs and reconstructions as well as several

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videos. Accessible for undergraduates and the general public.

Golvin, Jean-Claude, and Jean-Claude Goyon. Karnak, Ägypten: Anatomie eines Tempels. Tübingen, Germany: Ernst
Wasmuth, 1990.
Translation of Les bâtisseurs de Karnak, first published in 1987. Accessible survey of Karnak for either French- or German-language
readers. While focusing on the Amun temple at Karnak, it also gives attention to understanding the Egyptian temple more broadly and
placing it within the worldview of Egyptian religion.

Karnak Great Hypostyle Hall Project. University of Memphis.

Website dedicated to a comprehensive study of the great hypostyle hall at Karnak, including numerous color images. Accessible for
undergraduates and the general public. The project is directed by Peter J. Brandt.

Kurth, Dieter. Edfu: Ein ägyptischer Tempel, gesehen mit den Augen der alten Ägypter. Darmstadt: Wissenschafliche
Buchgesellschaft, 1994.
Survey of the Greco-Roman temple of Edfu, written from the ancient Egyptian perspective, not that of the modern observer. Accessible
for those competent in German.

Schwaller de Lubicz, R. A. The Temples of Karnak: A Contribution to the Study of Pharaonic Thought. London: Thames &
Hudson, 1999.
A tour through the temples offering the most complete photographic record of the site. Accessible for undergraduates and the interested
public.

Stevens, Anna. The Archaeology of Amarna. Oxford Handbooks Online. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Provides an updated survey (with references) of the Amarna temples currently being excavated. Accessible for advanced
undergraduate students. Available by subscription.

Construction and Restoration

Temple construction and restoration has received a fair amount of general scholarly attention, yet this topic has inspired fewer studies
devoted exclusively to it. Grallert 2001 comprehensively examines temple construction and restoration inscriptions for a more
specialized audience, while Grallert 2007 more accessibly focuses on the dedicatory inscriptions and decoration.

Grallert, Silke. Bauen, Stiften, Weihen: Ägyptische Bau- und Restaurierungsinschriften von den Anfangen bis zur 30.
Dynastie. Berlin: Achet, 2001.
Comprehensive and chronological survey of construction and restoration inscriptions. Accessible for advanced German-reading
students and specialists.

Grallert, Silke. “Pharaonic Building Inscriptions and Temple Decoration.” In Sacred Space and Sacred Function in Ancient
Thebes. Edited by Peter F. Dorman and Betsy N. Bryan, 35–49. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.

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Condensed English version of the monograph, focusing on the organizing role played by dedicatory inscriptions and decoration.
Accessible for advanced undergraduates.

Decoration and Function

Multiple studies focus on the lavish decoration of the temples and how their decoration in many ways correlated with their function. This
section subdivides into works that consider decoration and function more generally (see Egyptian Temples: General Studies) and works
focusing on specific elements (see Studies on Specific Elements).

General Studies

Arnold 1962 is the classic study on the relationship between wall reliefs and temple function. Kurth 1995 and Haring and Klug 2007
expand upon Arnold’s work in multiple and important directions. Brand 2007 focuses on the wall decoration and is particularly notable in
discussing decoration as access points to the resident deity.

Arnold, Dieter. Wandrelief und Raumfunktion in agyptischen Tempeln des Neuen Reiches. Berlin: Hessling, 1962.
Examines the rich representations and inscriptions on New Kingdom temple walls, both their function and what they reveal about the
function and symbolism of the temple in whole and in part. Best used by German-reading graduate students, specialists, and informed
nonspecialist academics.

Brand, Peter J. “Veils, Votives and Marginalia: The Use of Sacred Space at Karnak and Luxor.” In Sacred Space and Sacred
Function in Ancient Thebes. Edited by Peter F. Dorman and Betsy N. Bryan, 51–83. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2007.
Explores the history and use of wall decoration. Especially useful is the discussion of the use of exterior decoration as access points to
the deity for those with little access to the temple interior. Accessible for graduate students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist
academics.

Haring, Ben, and Andrea Klug, eds. 6. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung, Leiden, 4.–7. September 2002: Funktion und Gebrauch
altägyptischer Tempelräume. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz, 2007.
Conference proceedings focusing on the function of the rooms and the use of wall reliefs to elucidate these functions. For advanced
German-reading students and academics.

Kurth, Dieter, ed. Systeme und Programme der ägyptischen Tempeldekoration: 3. Ägyptologische Tempeltagung Hamburg
1.–5. Juni 1994. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1995.
Conference proceedings focusing on the voluminous temple decoration with a view toward understanding the system informing the
images. For advanced German-reading students and academics.

Studies on Specific Elements

David 1973 focuses on the reliefs of the single temple of Abydos and what they communicate about ritual, while Hussy 2007
synthetically reconstructs the daily cult ritual from various (especially) Greco-Roman temple reliefs. Guglielmi 1994 focuses on temple
entrances and exterior shrines as access points. Verbovsek 2004 considers the statues of individuals dedicated to temples. Hall 1986
examines the motif of the pharaoh smiting his enemies and is especially useful for its multiple images. Gessler-Löhr 1983 exhaustively

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treats the sacred sea, while Refai 2000 examines the hypostyle hall in detail and Refai 2003 in brief.

David, A. Rosalie. Religious Ritual at Abydos, c. 1300. Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips, 1973.
Especially useful as it exhaustively examines the religious ritual of a specific site, Abydos, solely from the temple reliefs. Accessible for
graduate students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Gessler-Löhr, Beatrix. Die heiligen Seen ägyptischer Tempel: Ein Beitrag zur Deutung sakraler Baukunst im alten Ägypten.
Hildesheim, Germany: Gerstenberg, 1983.
Offers a comprehensive and chronological analysis of the sacred sea with a view toward elucidating the meaning of Egyptian sacred
architecture. Accessible for German-reading graduate students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Guglielmi, Waltraud. “Die Funktion von Tempeleingang und Gegentempel als Gebetsort: Zur Deutung einger Widder- und
Gansstelen des Amun.” In Ägyptische Tempel – Struktur, Funktion und Programm: Akten der Ägyptologischen
Tempeltagungen in Gosen 1990 und in Mainz 1992. Edited by Rolf Gundlach and Matthias Rochholz, 55–68. Hildesheim,
Germany: Gerstenberger, 1994.
Addresses the religious function of temple entrances and cult places built behind the temple complex as places of prayer and access
points to the deity resident inside. Accessible for German-reading graduate students and nonspecialist academics.

Hall, Emma Swan. The Pharaoh Smites His Enemies: A Comparative Study. Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1986.
Collection of the available data, especially images, of pharaoh smiting his enemies. Accessible for graduate students, specialists, and
informed nonspecialist academics.

Hussy, Holger. Die Epiphanie und Erneuerung der Macht Gottes: Szenen des täglichen Kultbildrituals in den ägyptischen
Tempeln der griechisch-römischen Epoche. Dettelbach, Germany: Röll, 2007.
Addresses the individual ritual scenes in Greco-Roman temples related to the daily cult ritual, offering a synthesis of previous studies
and stressing that the daily ritual renews the divine potency. Accessible for German-speaking undergraduates and nonspecialist
academics.

Refai, Hosam. Untersuchungen zum Bildprogramm der grosen Saulen in den thebanischen Tempeln des Neuen Reiches.
Vienna: Afro-Pub, 2000.
Offers the most comprehensive study of the images in the New Kingdom great hypostyle halls. Accessible for advanced German-
reading students and specialists.

Refai, Hosam. “Notes on the Function of the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Egyptian Temple: A Theban Approach.” In Egyptology
at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century: Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptology, Cairo 2000. Vol. 1,
Architecture. Edited by Zahi Hawass, 393–399. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2003.
Synthesis of his dissertation for an English-speaking audience, focusing on the still enigmatic function of the Theban great hypostyle
hall, which he suggests was used primarily for festivals.

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Verbovsek, Alexandra. “Als Gunsterweis des Königs in den Tempel gegeben. . .”: Private Tempelstatuen des Alten und
Mittleren Reiches. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2004.
Comprehensive study on statues dedicated by individuals to the temple in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, arguing that the establishment
of statues helped secure a place in the afterlife. Best suited for German-reading graduate students and specialists.

Ideology, Theology, and Symbolism

Several scholarly works highlight the especially rich Egyptian temple symbolism, and how this symbolism was informed by Egyptian
ideology and theology. Wilkinson 1999 is an accessible introduction to Egyptian symbolism. Reymond 1969 and Finnestad 1985 offer
intriguing theories on temple symbolism, which are best read alongside newer and more accessible studies such as Bryan 1992 on
temple cosmology. Konrad 2006 speculates on the connection between pharaonic terms and theology, while Brunner 1970 comments
more specifically on the significant path of the sun.

Brunner, Helmut. “Die Sonnenbahn in ägyptischen Tempeln.” In Archäologie und Altes Testament: Festschrift für Kurt Galling
zum 8. Januar 1970. Edited by Arnulf Kuschke and Ernst Kutsch, 27–34. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr, 1970.
Considers the path of the sun and its integration into temple architecture and ideology. Accessible for German-reading students and
non-specialist academics.

Bryan, Betsy N. “Designing the Cosmos: Temples and Temple Decoration.” In Egypt’s Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep III and His
World. By Arielle P. Kozloff, Betsy N. Bryan, Lawrence M. Berman, and Elisabeth Delange, 73–115. Cleveland: Cleveland
Museum of Art, 1992.
Based on the collection in the Cleveland Museum of Art, this article focuses on the temple as cosmos and helps the reader to
understand the significance of New Kingdom temple design, including its texts and images. Accessible for advanced undergraduates
and nonspecialist academics.

Finnestad, Ragnhild Bjerre. Image of the World and Symbol of the Creator: On the Cosmological and Iconographical Values of
the Temple of Edfu. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1985.
With the late temple of Edfu as the model, it argues for a coherent ideology behind the temple’s complexity. It makes controversial
claims that the temple represented not the ordered, but the chaotic cosmos and that since the cosmos was the body of the creator, the
temple itself functioned as an icon of the creator. Best consulted alongside other, preferably newer, works. Accessible for graduate
students and non-specialist academics.

Konrad, Kirsten. Architektur und Theologie: Pharaonische Tempelterminologie unter Berücksichtigung königlicher Aspekte.
Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2006.
Addresses individual architectural terms used of pharaonic temples and offers speculative arguments for how they reflected pharaonic
theology. Accessible for German-reading graduate students and informed nonspecialist academics.

Reymond, Eve A. E. The Mythical Origin of the Egyptian Temple. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1969.
Based primarily on the texts from the Greco-Roman temple of Edfu, Reymond aims to reconstruct the Egyptian views on the origin of
the temple. A difficult read. Probably most useful for specialists.

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Wilkinson, Richard H. Symbol and Magic in Egyptian Art. London: Thames & Hudson, 1999.
Provides accessible interpretations and explanations of the symbols employed in Egyptian art, which feature in Egyptian temples.
Accessible for undergraduates and the general public.

Hittite Temples

Significant scholarship addresses the Hittite kingdom, which flourished in second millennium Anatolia until its collapse c. 1180 and
featured numerous temples. Our evidence for their temples, though, comes primarily from excavations at the capital Hattusa and textual
data primarily about other temples scattered throughout the empire. The Neo-Hittite states, which survived from the collapse of the
Hittite Kingdom until the 8th century, are not included in the discussion.

General Studies

This section incorporates General Studies: Temple Overviews and background studies on Hittite Art and Religion and Culture that
include discussion of temples.

Art

Archaeologists have recovered significant artwork that featured in the temples. Bittel 1976 is the most comprehensive and best-
illustrated treatment, while Akurgal remains useful, especially for an English-speaking audience.

Akurgal, Ekrem. The Art of the Hittites. Translated by C. McNab. London: Thames & Hudson, 1962.
Treats comprehensively all forms of art from earliest times to the late Hittite period. Discussion accompanied by numerous illustrations.
Accessible for undergraduates and the informed public.

Bittel, Kurt. Die Hethiter: Der Kunst Anatoliens vom Ende des 3. bis zum Anfang des 1. Jahrtausends v. Chr. Munich: Beck,
1976.
Like Akurgal, comprehensive treatment of Hittite art from 2500–700 BCE with significantly more and perhaps more impressive
illustrations. Accessible for German-reading undergraduates, nonspecialist academics, and the informed public.

Religion and Culture

Several important studies have addressed Hittite religion and culture, which informed their temple construction and understanding, and
included discussions on temples. Goetze 1957 is the classic study, Haas 1994 is the most exhaustive, and Taracha 2009 is the most
recent and more accessible to an English-speaking audience. Collins 2007 offers a helpful and accessible overview that is especially
useful for biblical scholars, including an analysis of the Hittites mentioned in the Bible.

Collins, Billie Jean. The Hittites and Their World. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2007.
An accessible introduction to the Hittites written with biblical scholars in mind. Includes information on temples and religion.

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Goetze, Albrecht. Kleinasien. Munich: Beck, 1957.

Classic comprehensive survey of Anatolian archaeology and cultural history. Dated but still worth consulting for German-reading
graduate students and nonspecialist academics.

Haas, Volkert. Geschichte der hethitischen Religion. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1994.
The classic and most substantial treatment on Hittite religion with many comparisons to contemporaneous cultures. Accessible for
advanced German-reading students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Taracha, Piotr. Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2009.
Recent comprehensive and chronological treatment of Hittite religion, including information on temples and cults. Accessible for
advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Temple Overviews

Most studies address either the archaeological evidence for Hattusa temples or the textual record for other temples. Some treat Hittite
temples more broadly. Among them, Bittel 1981 is the still-useful classic study, best read alongside the more recent Müller-Karpe 2013,
which includes newer data and methodology. Schirmer 2002 offers a broader survey of Hittite and Neo-Hittite architecture.

Bittel, Kurt. “Hittite Temples and High Places in Anatolia and North Syria.” In Temples and High Places in Biblical Times.
Edited by Avraham Biran, 63–73. Jerusalem: Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology of Hebrew Union College–Jewish
Institute of Religion, 1981.
Now somewhat dated, yet still helpful survey of Hittite temples. Accessible for undergraduates and lay readers but still useful for
graduate students and nonspecialist academics.

Müller-Karpe, Andreas. “Zu einigen archäologischen sowie archäoastronomischen Aspekten hethitischer Sakralbauten.” In
Tempel im Alten Orient: 7. Internationales Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 11.–13. Oktober 2009, München.
Edited by Kai Kaniuth, Anne Löhnert, Jared L. Miller, Adelheid Otto, Michael Roaf, and Walther Sallaberger, 335–354.
Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2013.
Takes into account the recently excavated temples of Sarissa and compares them with the better-known and now better-understood
temples in Hattusa, the capital. Accessible for German-reading students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Schirmer, Wulf. “Stadt, Palast, Tempel: Charakteristika hethitischer Architektur im 2. und 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr.” In Die
Hethiter und ihr Reich: Das Volk der tausend Götter; Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Bonn
2002). Edited by T. Özgüç, 204–217. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2002.
An accessible overview for a German-speaking audience on Hittite and Neo-Hittite architecture.

Archaeology of Specific Sites

Archaeological evidence comes predominantly from Hattusa, the Hittite capital. Neve 1996 is the classic German study, while Neve
1993 is a condensed English version and Neve 2002 is an English treatment of the great temple. Singer 1998 offers another, more

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accessible English survey. Seeher 2006 and especially Schachner 2011 provide updated results and should be read alongside the
works by Neve and Singer. Seeher 2011 is perhaps the best, most accessible, and best illustrated treatment of the rock-cut sanctuary of
Yazilikaya located near Hattusa. For Sarissa/Kusakli, see Müller-Karpe under General Studies: Temple Overviews and the articles he
cites.

Neve, Peter. “Hattusha, City of Gods and Temples: Results of the Excavations in the Upper City.” Proceedings of the British
Academy 80 (1993): 105–132.
An English version of the same material as Neve 1996, but with less coverage and far less extensive illustration. Accessible for
advanced undergraduates.

Neve, Peter. H ̮attuša-Stadt der Götter und Tempel: Neue Ausgrabungen in der Hauptstadt der Hethiter. 2d ed. Mainz,
Germany: Von Zabern, 1996.
Small volume on the excavations in the upper city with its multiple temples accompanied by a plethora of plans and photographs. Best
read in conjunction with newer research. Accessible for German-speaking students and informed nonspecialist academics.

Neve, Peter. “The Great Temple in Boğazköy-H ̮attuša.” In Across the Anatolian Plateau: Readings in the Archaeology of
Ancient Turkey. Edited by David C. Hopkins, 77–97. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research, 2002.
Accessible summary of data on the great temple in Hattusa. Once again, best read in conjunction with newer research. Accessible for
advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Schachner, Andreas. Hattuscha: Auf der Suche nach dem sagenhaften Grossreich der Hethiter. Munich: Beck, 2011.
Presents a well-illustrated and up-to-date archaeological survey of the Hittite capital with sounder methodology than previous
generations of scholars. Necessary and accessible for those interested in temple architecture. Accessible for those competent in
German.

Seeher, Jürgen. Hattuscha-Führer: Ein Tag in der hethitischen Hauptstadt. 3d ed. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları, 2006.
An accessible survey of Hattusa for a German-speaking audience, including information on its multiple temples.

Seeher, Jürgen. Gods Carved in Stone: The Hittite Rock Sanctuary of Yazılıkaya. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları, 2011.
Lavishly illustrated, up-to-date, and accessible overview of the rock cut sanctuary of Yazilikaya near Hattusa.

Singer, Itamar. “A City of Many Temples: H ̮attuša, Capital of the Hittites.” In Sacred Space: Shrine, City, Land: Proceedings of
the International Conference in Memory of Joshua Prawer, Held in Jerusalem, 8–13 June 1992. Edited by Benjamin Z. Kedar
and R. J. Z. Werblowsky, 32–44. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998.
A useful survey of Hattusa, with special attention to its temples. Like Neve’s work, best read in tandem with more recent research.
Accessible for advanced undergraduates and nonspecialists.

Textual Data

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Several prominent studies have focused on the numerous textual descriptions, which nicely complement the architectural evidence.
Popko 1978 exhaustively studies the written record for cult objects, and Hazenbos 2003 presents the cult inventories. Beckman 2010
presents a more accessible compendium of Hittite texts relating to temple building. Lebrun 1976, Popko 1994, and Popko 2009 are
collections of the textual data on the important sites Samuha, Zippalanda, and Arinna.

Beckman, Gary M. “Temple Building among the Hittites.” In From the Foundations to the Crenellations: Essays on Temple
Building in the Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible. Edited by Mark J. Boda and Jamie R. Novotny, 71–89. Münster, Germany:
Ugarit-Verlag, 2010.
Translates and annotates Hittite texts related to temple building and offers a brief conclusion, with references in Appendix 1. Accessible
for advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Hazenbos, Joost. The Organization of the Anatolian Local Cults during the Thirteenth Century B.C.: An Appraisal of the Hittite
Cult Inventories. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
This volume makes the Hittite religious-administrative documents containing cult inventories accessible to the scholarly community.
Best used as a reference by graduate students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Lebrun, René. Samuha: Foyer religieux de l’empire Hittite. Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Institut Orientaliste, 1976.
A comprehensive investigation of the cult and pantheon of the important city of Samuha from the perspective of the texts. Accessible for
specialists and graduate students.

Popko, Maciej. Kultobjekte in der hethitischen Religion (nach keilschriftlichen Quellen). Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu
Warszawskiego, 1978.
Comprehensive study of cult objects from the cuneiform record with an analysis of the individual objects and a synthetic overview.
Accessible for German-reading graduate students, specialists, and informed nonspecialist academics.

Popko, Maciej. Zippalanda: Ein Kultzentrum in hethitischen Kleinasien. Heidelberg, Germany: Winter, 1994.
Provides a complete overview of texts relating to the Hittite city of Zippalanda, along with comments on its topography, cult, and relation
to other cities. His identification of Zippalanda with Alaca Höyük has been questioned. Accessible for specialists and German-reading
graduate students.

Popko, Maciej. Arinna: Eine heilige Stadt der Hethiter. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz, 2009.
Examines the history and cult of Arinna, reconstructed from fragmentary written sources, indicating its Hattic character and the likely
small size of its primary temple. Accessible to specialists and German-reading graduate students.

Syro-Palestinian Temples

Scholarship on Syria-Palestine (or the Levant), especially the south, has flourished, since much scholarship and archaeology have
focused on the connections to biblical Israel and its temple. Here, we include only studies that discuss non-Israelite sanctuaries,
focusing on the larger temples. Studies particular to Israelite and biblical sanctuaries are numerous enough to warrant their own article.

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General Studies

This section encompasses the multiple studies that either treat temples more generally or include evidence from both Syria and
Palestine. Wright 1985 is a useful and extensive survey; Steiner and Killebrew 2014 is more accessible, and the most updated and
extensive survey of Levantine archaeology. Margueron 1991 represents the classic synthetic treatment, while Nakhai 1997 offers an
abbreviated synthesis for English readers. Mierse 2012 helpfully surveys and interprets Iron Age temples, while Kamlah presents the
most up-to-date research in English and German. Richard 2012 considers multiple sites, yet focuses on the southern Levant. See also
the surveys in Hundley 2013 and Wightman 2007 (both cited under General Overviews. Keel and Uehlinger 1998 offers a pioneering
and exhaustive (as of 1992) treatment of especially small-scale iconography.

Kamlah, Jens, ed. Temple Building and Temple Cult: The Architecture and Cultic Paraphernalia of Temples in the Levant (2.–1.
Millennium BCE): Proceedings of a Conference on the Occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the Institute of Biblical
Archaeology at the University of Tübingen, 28th–30th May 2010. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2012.
The volume presents the results of recent archaeological excavations in the Levant related to city temples from the Middle Bronze Age
to the end of the Iron Age. It also reassesses the conclusions of earlier excavators and interpreters, offering up-to-date conclusions.
Accessible for advanced undergraduates and useful for nonspecialist academics.

Keel, Othmar, and Christoph Uehlinger. Gods, Goddesses and Images of God in Ancient Israel. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998.
Translation of Göttinen, Götter und Gottessymbole, first published in 1992 (Freiburg, Germany: Herder). Pioneering study on
iconography of amulets and inscriptions with numerous line drawings ranging from 1750 BCE to the end of the Persian period.
Accessible for advanced students and informed academics.

Margueron, Jean-Claude. “Sanctuaires semitiques.” Supplement au dictionnaire de la bible 11 (1991): 1104–1257.

Substantial, though somewhat dated, survey of primarily West Semitic temples with biblical scholars as the target audience. Accessible
for French-reading graduate students and informed nonspecialist academics.

Mierse, William E. Temples and Sanctuaries from the Early Iron Age Levant: Recovery after Collapse. Winona Lake, IN:
Eisenbrauns, 2012.
An examination of Iron Age temples from the perspective of an art and architectural historian, emphasizing both continuity with and
innovative departure from Late Bronze Age forms. Mierse also discusses the political and social forces related to his observations. Best
used as an up-to-date survey and reference for advanced students and nonspecialist academics.

Nakhai, Beth Alpert. “Temples: Syro-Palestinian Temples.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Vol.
4. Edited by Eric M. Meyers, 169–174. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Presents a synthesis of her understanding of Syro-Palestinian temples. Accessible for undergraduates and the general public.

Richard, Suzanne. Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2012.
Designed as a textbook, Richards assembles sixty entries from noted scholars that focus on the southern Levant. Best used as a
convenient reference for scholars, students, and the informed public.

Steiner, Margreet L., and Ann E. Killebrew, eds. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant, c. 8000–332 BCE.

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Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

Exhaustive survey of Levantine archaeology with numerous theme-, place-, and time-specific surveys, including evidence for temples.
Accessible for advanced undergraduates, nonspecialist academics, and the informed public.

Wright, George R. H. Ancient Building in South Syria and Palestine. 2 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1985.
Survey in two volumes consisting of texts and images on architecture more broadly, including temples. Includes more of South Syria
than studies focused on Israel. Useful for graduate students and nonspecialist academics and best used with more recent studies (such
as Kamlah 2012).

Studies Related to the Land of Israel

The majority of studies on Syro-Palestinian temples relate to, if not focus on, the land of Israel. Ben-Tor 1994 and Mazar 1990 present
helpful overviews of archaeology from prehistory to the fall of Jerusalem. Kempinski and Reich 1992 covers slightly more ground,
including the Persian period, while Stern 2001 focuses more particularly on the Assyrian to the end of the Persian period. Stern 1993
presents the most comprehensive, encyclopedic treatment circa 1993. Zwickel 1994 and Nakhai 2001 offer perhaps the best and most
accessible surveys of Middle Bronze to Iron Age temples, respectively, for German and English audiences. All are relatively accessible
to a more general audiences. Zevit 2001 is the most comprehensive study, and as such requires a bit more of the reader, but it can be
beneficial to the informed student. Monson 2006 compares the impressive ‘Ain Dara temple to the Jerusalem temple as described in the
Bible, while Kisilevitz 2015 presents the first Iron Age temple excavated in the Judean heartland. All studies should be consulted with
recent works, especially Kamlah 2012 (cited under Syro-Palestinian Temples: General Studies).

Ben-Tor, Amnon, ed. The Archaeology of Ancient Israel. Translated by R. Greenberg. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
1994.
An illustrated survey of the archaeology of Israel (modern Israel and Jordan) from the Neolithic era (8th millennium BCE) to the fall of
Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Accessible to advanced undergraduates and best used as a summary and reference tool.

Kempinski, Aaron, and Ronnie Reich, eds. The Architecture of Ancient Israel: From the Prehistoric to the Persian Periods.
Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1992.
Like Ben-Tor 1994, this illustrated volume derives from a Hebrew original and presents a chronological survey of archaeology in the
space occupied by the current land of Israel from prehistory to the Persian period. Best used as a summary and reference for advanced
undergraduates, nonspecialist academics, and the informed public.

Kisilevitz, Shua. “The Iron IIA Judahite Temple at Tel Moza.” Tel Aviv 42 (2015): 147–164.
Reviews recent excavations at Tel Moza, the site of an Iron Age IIA temple, exceptional in that it is the first Iron Age temple excavated
in the heart of Judah (seven kilometers from Jerusalem).

Mazar, Amihai. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 10,000–586 B.C.E. New York: Doubleday, 1990.
Like Ben-Tor 1994 and Kempinski and Reich 1992, this volume covers the archaeology of the Bible from prehistory to the fall of
Jerusalem, this time by a single author. Useful as a survey and reference for advanced undergraduates, nonspecialist academics, and
the informed public.

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Monson, John. “The ‘Ain Dara Temple and the Jerusalem Temple.” In Text, Artifact, and Image: Revealing Ancient Israelite
Religion. Edited by Gary M. Beckman and Theodore J. Lewis, 273–299. Providence, RI: Brown Judaic Studies, 2006.
Substantial comparison of the impressive remains of the ‘Ain Dara temple with the Jerusalem temple as described in the Bible.
Accessible for advanced undergraduates and the informed public.

Nakhai, Beth Alpert. Archaeology and the Religions of Canaan and Israel. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research,
2001.
Presents a survey of the cult sites in Canaan and Israel from the Middle Bronze to the Iron Age with a focus on sacrifice. It also includes
the textual evidence for sacrifice from the Bible and Ugarit and a discussion of the benefits of social sciences for the study of religion.
Most useful as an overview of the sites and their development for advanced undergraduates, nonspecialist academics, and the
informed public.

Stern, Ephraim, ed. New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. 4 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster,
1993.
Comprehensive treatment of excavations in Israel circa 1993. Accessible reference for students and the general public.

Stern, Ephraim. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. 2, The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Periods, 732–332 B.C.E..
New York: Doubleday, 2001.
Continues the work of Mazar 1990, analyzing evidence from the Assyrian presence to the end of the Persian period. Like Mazar, useful
as a survey and reference for advanced undergraduates and the informed public.

Zevit, Ziony. The Religions of Ancient Israel: A Synthesis of Parallactic Approaches. London: Continuum, 2001.
The most comprehensive and interdisciplinary study of Iron Age Israelite religion. Focuses on an examination of primary data, informed
by a sophisticated methodology drawn from the comparative study of religion. Accessible for graduate students and nonspecialist
academics.

Zwickel, Wolfgang. Der Tempelkult in Kanaan und Israel: Ein Beitrag zur Kultgeschichte Palästinas von der Mittelbronzezeit
bis zum Untergang Judas. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 1994.
Examines all of the available evidence from the Middle Bronze Age to the fall of Judah, focusing on the transition from the Late Bronze
Age to the Iron Age, with the goal of determining which structures represent temples. He sets forth four criteria and dedicates the bulk
of the book to assessing the evidence. Accessible for advanced German-speaking students and nonspecialist academics.

Studies Related to Non-Israelites

While attention naturally gravitates to the southern Levant, especially as it pertains to Israel, several other important studies address the
northern Levant (though many of the best appear in German). Werner 1994 provides the most comprehensive survey of northern Syrian
and southeastern Anatolian temples. Otto 2013 provides a more up-to-date, concise, and accessible (for a German-speaking audience)
survey of second millennium Syrian temples. Elkowitz 2012 focuses on non-Israelites in the southern Levant, including the Philistines
and those east of the Jordan. Pitard 2010 treats the textual evidence from Ugarit, which compared to other regions is minimal. Various
individual sites also have been discussed in the archaeological reports. Here we focus on one of the most impressive sites in the
northern Levant, Aleppo (for ‘Ain Dara, see also Monson 2006, cited under Studies Related to the Land of Israel). Kohlmeyer, the

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excavator at Aleppo, has produced several impressive works on the temple of the Weather God of Aleppo. Kohlmeyer 2000 is the most
extensive treatment, while Kohlmeyer 2013 is an updated and condensed presentation. Kohlmeyer 2009 briefly and accessibly presents
the research in English with numerous color illustrations. Readers should also consult Kamlah 2012 (cited under Syro-Palestinian
Temples: General Studies).

Elkowitz, Dominik. Tempel und Kultplätze der Philister und der Völker des Ostjordanlandes: Eine Untersuchung zur Bau- und
zur Kultgeschichte während der Eisenzeit I-II. Münster, Germany: Ugarit-Verlag, 2012.
Offers a survey of temples and sanctuaries of Israel’s neighbors, including the Philistines and Sea Peoples, and includes evidence from
the ongoing excavation at Gath. Useful for advanced German-reading students and nonspecialist academics as a companion to the
multiple volumes on Israel.

Kohlmeyer, Kay. Der Tempel des Wettergottes von Aleppo. Münster, Germany: Rhema, 2000.
Presents the fruit of the excavations of the major, well-preserved, and well-decorated temple of the important transregional weather god
of Aleppo. Accessible for German-reading students and nonspecialist academics.

Kohlmeyer, Kay. “The Temple of the Storm God in Aleppo during the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages.” Near Eastern
Archaeology 72.4 (2009): 190–202.
English summary of research with numerous quality color images. Accessible for undergraduates, nonspecialist academics, and the
general public.

Kohlmeyer, Kay. “Der Tempel des Wettergottes von Aleppo.” In Tempel im Alten Orient: 7. Internationales Colloquium der
Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 11.–13. Oktober 2009, München. Edited by Kai Kaniuth, Anne Löhnert, Jared L. Miller, Adelheid
Otto, Michael Roaf, and Walther Sallaberger, 179–218. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2013.
Updated and condensed presentation of the temple with multiple helpful illustrations. Accessible for those competent in German.

Otto, Adelheid. “Gotteshaus und Allerheiligstes in Syrien und Nordmesopotamien während des 2. Jts. v. Chr.” In Tempel im
alten Orient: 7. Internationales Colloquium der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 11.–13. Oktober 2009, München. Edited by Kai
Kaniuth, Anne Löhnert, Jared L. Miller, Adelheid Otto, Michael Roaf, and Walther Sallaberger, 355–384. Wiesbaden, Germany:
Harrassowitz, 2013.
Presents an up-to-date and accessible summary of second millennium Syrian sanctuaries that helps balance other studies focused on
the southern Levant. Useful for advanced German speaking students and non-specialist academics.

Pitard, Wayne T. “Temple Building in Northwest Semitic Literature of the Late Bronze and Iron Ages.” In From the Foundations
to the Crenellations: Essays on Temple Building in the Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible. Edited by Mark J. Boda and
Jamie R. Novotny, 91–108. Münster, Germany: Ugarit-Verlag, 2010.
Presents the written evidence for temple building, focusing on the Baal epic and an Akkadian building report from Ugarit that mentions
the construction of a window in a temple. Useful complement to archaeological studies, accessible to advanced undergraduates and
nonspecialist academics.

Werner, Peter. Die Entwicklung der Sakralarchitektur in Nordsyrien und Sudostkleinasien vom Neolithikum bis in das 1. Jt. v.
Chr. Munich: Profil, 1994.

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Provides the most comprehensive survey of northern Syrian and southeastern Anatolian sacred architecture. Accessible for advanced
German-reading students and nonspecialist academics as a reference and companion to the many volumes on Israel/Palestine.

Standing Stones

Standing stones are an especially prominent phenomenon in the West Semitic religions, and they have been discussed in numerous
publications. Hutter 1993 addresses them exclusively and thoroughly. Mettinger 1995 is the classic study on aniconism, reviewed and
critiqued in Lewis 1998.

Hutter, Manfred. “Kultstellen und Baityloi: Die Ausstrahlung eines syrischen religiösen Phänomens nach Kleinasien und
Israel.” In Religionsgeschichtliche Beziehungen zwischen Kleinasien, Nordsyrien und dem Alten Testament: Internationales
Symposion Hamburg, 17.–21. Marz 1990. Edited by Bernd Janowski, Klaus Koch, and Gernot Wilhelm, 87–108. Fribourg,
Switzerland: UniversitätsVerlag, 1993.
Standard work on cultic standing stones, used as an alternative to a statue or temple. Accessible for German-reading undergraduates
and nonspecialist academics.

Lewis, Theodore J. “Divine Images and Aniconism in Ancient Israel.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 118.1 (1998):
212–224.
Offers a helpful and accessible review and assessment of the evidence.

Mettinger, Tryggve. No Graven Image? Israelite Aniconism in Its Ancient Near Eastern Context. Stockholm: Almqvist &
Wiksell, 1995.
Classic study on aniconism, the absence of material representation. Includes significant discussion and analysis of standing stones.
Accessible for advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Theoretical Perspectives: General Studies

The following studies address various theoretical approaches to space, place, and material culture that illuminate temple analysis.
McCormick 2002 provides a summary introduction to built environment studies. Bell, et al. 2011 addresses the human environment from
a psychological perspective. Gallagher 1994 is an accessible introduction to the complex relationship between people and their
environment. Woodward 2007 addresses material culture studies from an introductory perspective, while Barrie 2010 considers the
mediating function of sacred architecture.

Barrie, Thomas. The Sacred In-Between: The Mediating Roles of Architecture. New York: Routledge, 2010.
Explores sacred space as the mediating intersection between humans and the divine. Accessible for advanced undergraduates and
nonspecialist academics.

Bell, Paul A., Thomas C. Greene, Jeffery D. Fisher, and Andrew Baum. Environmental Psychology. 5th ed. New York:
Psychology Press, 2011.
Coursebook that considers more broadly the relationship between humans and their environment from a psychological perspective.

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Accessible as an undergraduate textbook and for nonspecialist academics.

Gallagher, Winifred. The Power of Place: How Our Surroundings Shape Our Thoughts, Emotions and Actions. New York:
Harper, 1994.
Explores the relationship between people and where they live. Accessible for undergraduates and the general public.

McCormick, Clifford Mark. Palace and Temple: A Study of Architectural and Verbal Icons. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2002.
Helpful introduction to built environment studies with references in chapter 1. Accessible for advanced undergraduates and
nonspecialist academics.

Woodward, Ian. Understanding Material Culture. London: SAGE, 2007.

Offers a systematic overview of the different ways of studying material culture. Useful as an undergraduate textbook and for
nonspecialist academics.

Theoretical Perspectives: Specialized Studies

Amerlinck 2001 offers various anthropological approaches for a more specialized audience, and Winer provides various
psychoanalytical perspectives for a more advanced audience. Frankl 1968, Rapoport 1982, and Blanton 1994 fill out the material on
built environment studies, mentioned in McCormick 2002 (cited under Theoretical Perspectives: General Studies). Lefebvre 1991, Soja
1996, and Jones 2000 each helpfully address spatial theory from different angles.

Amerlinck, Mari-Jose, ed. Architectural Anthropology. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 2001.
Introduces architectural anthropology, covering a wide range of topics from the sensory perception of space to how space is culturally
constructed, gendered, envisioned, and physically built. Accessible for graduate students and informed nonspecialist academics.

Blanton, Richard E. House and Households: A Comparative Study. New York: Plenum, 1994.
Compares data from ethnographic and architectural research on the household. Argues that the built environment influences social
behavior. Accessible for advanced undergraduates and the informed nonspecialist.

Frankl, Paul. Principles of Architectural History: The Four Phases of Architectural Style, 1420–1900. Translated by
James O’Gorman. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1968.
English translation of Die Entwicklungsphasen der neueren Baukunst, first published in 1914 (Leipzig: Teubner). Translation of classic
German work on architectural history and theory. Especially useful here is his spatial analysis and identification of purposive intention
as a category for archictectural analysis. Accessible for advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Jones, Lindsay. The Hermeneutics of Sacred Space: Experience, Interpretation, Comparison. 2 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 2000.
Synthetic treatment of sacred space, building on Gadamer’s theory, intended to help historians of religion use architectural materials

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with greater sophistication. Jones argues that the meaning of a structure is found in its ritual-architectural events, wherein people play
and converse with buildings. Accessible for advanced undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Lefebvre, Henri. The Production of Space. Translated by D. Nicholson-Smith. Oxford: Blackwell, 1991.
Translation of La production de l’espace, first published in 1974 (Paris: Éditions Anthropos). Classic study on spatial theory, analyzing
social space in three categories: spatial practice, representations of space, and spaces of representation. Accessible for advanced
undergraduates and nonspecialist academics.

Rapoport, Amos. The Meaning of the Built Environment: A Nonverbal Communication Approach. London: SAGE, 1982.
Classic study on the built environment concerned with the effect that the physical constitution of an environment has on the human
activity within it. He analyzes the environment in two ways, according to people’s perceptions and the associations they make.
Accessible for advanced undergraduates and non-specialist academics.

Soja, Edward W. Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and Other Real-and-Imagined Places. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.
Combines Lefebvre’s three categories of space, Foucault’s concept of heterotopia, and the insights of contemporary scholars.
Discusses thirdspace, the space where otherwise disparate worlds are brought together. Advanced.

Winer, Jerome A., James William Anderson, and Elizabeth A. Danze, eds. The Annual of Psychoanalysis. Vol. 33,
Psychoanalysis and Architecture. Catskill, NY: Mental Health Resources, 2005.
A series of essays written from multiple perspectives on the intersection of psychoanalysis and architecture. Accessible for graduate
students and nonspecialist academics.

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