Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Strength of Material

National Institute of Transport-NIT

Simple Stresses and Strains
Delivered by:

By Mr. Lucas Chacha Mwita

Mechanical and Environmental Engineer
Email: classeshomeworks@[Link]
Phone: +255 752 024 320

Simple Stress and Strains Also within this limit, the resistance is equal to the external force
(or applied load).
When external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo
some deformation.
But beyond the elastic stage, the resistance offered by the material
Due to cohesion between the molecules, the body resist is less than the applied load.
deformation.
In such case, the deformation continues until failure takes place.
This resistance by which material of the body opposes the
deformation is known as strength of material. Within the elastic stage, the resisting force equals applied load.
Within a certain limit, (i.e. elastic stage) the resistance offered by
the material is proportional to the deformation brought out on the This resistance force per unit area is called stress or intensity of
material by the external force. stress
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Stress Mathematically:
The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against =
deformation is knows as stress.

The external force acting on the body is called the load or force. Where:

The load is applied on the body while the stress is induced in the =Stress (also called intensity of stress)
material of the body. =External force or load, and
A loaded member remains in equilibrium when the resistance =Cross-sectional area
offered by the member against the deformation and the applied load
are equal. Units of Stress = ⁄

Strain If there is some increase in length of a body due to external force,

the ratio of the increase of length to the original length of the body
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some is known as tensile strain.
change of dimension of the body.

The ratio of change of dimension of the body to the original But if there is some decrease in length of the body, then the ratio of
dimension is known as strain. decrease of the length of the body to the original length is known as
compressive strain.
Strain is dimensionless.
The ratio of change of volume of the body to the original volume is
Strain may be: known as volumetric strain.
Tensile strain, Compressive strain, Volumetric strain, and shear
strain. The strain produced by shear stress is known as shear strain.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Tensile Stress
Types of Stresses The stresses induced in the body, when subjected to two equal and
opposite pulls.
Stress may be normal stress or shear stress

Normal stress is the stress which acts in a direction perpendicular to

the area.
As a result of which there is an increase in length, is known as
It is represented by symbol sigma, tensile stress.

The ratio of increase in length to the original length is known as

The normal stress is further divided into tensile stress and tensile strain.
compressive stress.

The part left or right to the cross-section − will be in

equilibrium if
= ( )

The tensile stress acts normal to the area and it pulls on the area.

Consider a section − , which divides the bar into two parts.

Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

This resisting force per unit area is known as stress or intensity of

stress

( ) ( )
Tensile Stress, = =

=
∆
Tensile Strain, e = =

Compressive Stress
The stress induce in a body, when subjected to two equal and
opposite pushes.
The compressive stress acts normal to the area and it pushes on the
area.

As a result of which there is a decrease in length of the body, is

known as Compressive stress.

The ratio of decrease in length to the original length is known as Consider a section − , which divides the bar into two parts.
compressive strain.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

The part left or right to the cross-section − will be in

equilibrium if
= ( )

This resisting force per unit area is known as stress or intensity of Shear Stress
stress The stress induce in a body, when subjected to two equal and
opposite forces which are acting tangentially or parallel across the
resisting section (surface in contact)

( ) ( )
Compressive Stress, = =
( )
As a result of which the body tends to shear off across the section,
= is known as shear stress, represented by
∆ The corresponding strain is known as shear strain.
Tensile Strain, e = =
Shear stress is the stress which acts tangential to the area.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Consider a rectangular block of height ℎ and Length L, and width

unity

Fix the bottom face, and apply tangential force , along the top For the block equilibrium, the surface , will offer a tangential
face, of the block. reaction , equal and opposite to the applied force

ℎ
ℎ

This force acts tangentially along a surface i.e. shear force.

Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Consider a cross-section − (parallel to the applied force),which The upper and lower part will be in equilibrium if =
divides the block into two parts ( ). This resistance is known as shear resistance

ℎ ℎ

Resistance

Resistance
The shear resistance per unit area is known as shear stress

( )
Shear Stress, τ = =
=
= =
= ∗1
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

As the bottom face of the block is fixed, the face will be As the bottom face of the block is fixed, the face will be
distorted to distorted to , through an angle ∅

∆ ∆

Shear Strain is given by:

∅ ∅
ℎ ℎ
∅=
,

∅=
ℎ

Classification of the Material

Practically, no material is absolutely elastic nor plastic nor rigid.
Elastic Material: Undergoes a deformation when subjected to an
external loading, and the deformation disappears on the removal of the
loading. But we attribute these properties when the deformations are within a
certain limit.
Plastic Material: Undergoes a continuous deformation during the period
of loading and the deformation is permanent and does not regain its
original dimensions on the removal of the loading The member is handled in its elastic range or limit. All structural
members are designed to remain in the elastic condition under the
Rigid Material: Does not undergo any deformation when subjected to action of the working loads.
an external loading.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Stress-Strain Law (Mechanical Properties of Materials) The most common material test is the tension test carried on a
cylindrical specimen of the material.
The mechanical properties of the material are determined in the
laboratory by performing a test on a small specimens of the material, in
the material testing laboratory

 Strength (yield strength and ultimate strength)

 Ductility

 Toughness and

 Resilience

In 1635-1703, Robert Hooke a contemporary of Newton (1642-1727)

postulated the concept through his statement that:

The load are measured on the

main dial of the machine “the extension is proportional to force”
while the elongations are
measured with the help of
extensometer. The concept was further developed into Hooke’s Law, and according to
this law, stress at any point in elastic solid is a function of the strain at
that point
Brittle Fracture Deformation Fracture
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

The stress-strain relationship is obtained by standard laboratory P

experiment tests, through the guideline provided by American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Movable Grip Movable Grip
crosshead crosshead
Width of grip,
Cross-sectional area at grip Radius of filler,
Thickness Thickness
T Gauge length,
L Gauge
Gauge Gauge
Width inside gauge section, Length
B A B Length Length
Total coupon Length, Wedge grip
W C
Length of the grip section,
Test section
R Grip Length of the reduced section,
G
P P
Thickness of the coupon,

Strain is measured directly through the use of two strain gauges ( and
The gauge cross-sectional area A is given as the product of width and
) bonded to the specimen inside the gauge section.
its thickness
Strain gauges

= ∗ P P

The uniform normal stress across the gauge section is calculated as the
ratio of uniaxial load to gauge area and given as: Gauge along the line of action of the load will read longitudinal strain
(normal strain),

= Normal strain in the later direction is read by gauge mounted

perpendicular to the gauge .
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

TOUGHNESS
Brittle Fracture
Ductile Fracture
For different load setting , the experiment is repeated several times so
that stress values can be found.

Stress,
A stress-strain diagram is constructed by plotting strain ε against stress
σ along the x-axis and y-axis respectively

The shape of stress-strain curve depends on the material being tested

0 Strain,

From the experiment, it has been found the resultant strain is

The stress-strain diagram exhibit four distinct zones which includes:
proportional to the corresponding stress up to a limit only and beyond
that, the relation is not linear.
 Linear Region (Elastic Region) At point ,

 Yielding or perfectly plastic zone

Stress,
Beyond this limit, the relationship between the
 Strain hardening zone strain and the corresponding stress is usually
represented graphically (tensile test diagram or
 Necking region stress strain diagram)
Strain,
0
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

From to the stress strain relationship is linear

The proportionality limit is considered the
. . ∝ maximum stress within the elastic region.
Point marks the limits of proportionality, beyond
which the curve becomes slightly curved.
Elasticity is the property of the material to
A Region is called Elastic Region A
Proportional limit return to its original shape and size after the
removal of the external load.
E E

O O
Linear Linear The slope or proportionality of the stress-
region region
strain diagram limit is the Young’s modulus
of the material or modulus of elasticity

This is only true if the stress developed in the body =

due to external load is within elastic limit of the
material This constant of proportionality in known as
Modulus of Elasticity or Elastic Moduli
≤

A Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity A

Proportional limit Proportional limit
is referred to as the Hooke’s law, which “When a material is loaded within elastic
E states that E limit, the stress induced in a material is
proportional to its strain”
O O
Linear “When a material is loaded within elastic Linear
region region
limit, the stress induced in a material is
proportional to its strain”
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

When the stress value of the material is more

than the proportional limit , then it is
Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus called elastic limit
Yield Stress
B
Region is the non-linear region in which
Modulus of rigidity is defined as ratio of shear stress to its
= the stress is not proportional to the strain.
A
corresponding shear strain, and denoted by symbol G. Proportional limit
However, the removal of the load would
E result in complete recovery of the specimen
original shape and size
Shear Stress τ
G= = O
Shear Strain ∅ Linear The elastic region is bounded between
region
and marked and . Beyond this region
the material deforms permanently

Point is called Yielding Point, which Prior to the yield point the material deforms
indicates the limit of elastic behavior and the elastically and returns to its original shape
beginning of plastic behavior or a nonlinear upon the removal of the external load.
(elastic + plastic) deformation begins.
Yield Stress Yield Stress
B B
= =
Yielding stress, is the property of the Beyond yield point, some fractions of
A A
Proportional limit material. Proportional limit material will be permanently deformed and
is defined as the minimum stress at which non-reversible upon the removal of the
E E
external load.
a material begins to deform plastically.
O O
Linear Linear
region region
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Upon the initiation of yielding, the strain Yield point indicate the maximum limit of
increases up to point C without any increase the force the material can handle without
in the stress permanent deformation.
Yield Stress Yield Stress
B The region is called Yielding B
= =
C or Perfectly Plastic region C
In structural design this is the
A A soft failure mode which
Proportional limit Proportional limit

Region and doesn’t cause any catastrophic

E E or ultimate failure.

O O
Linear Perfect Linear Perfect
region Plasticity In this region, the strain increases region Plasticity
Or yielding under constant load . Or yielding

Proof Stress
Since it is difficult to predict the begins of a plastic deformation, then
the yield stress is then assumed to the stress needed to induce a
specified amount of permanent strain typically 0.2 % Proof Point The stress corresponding to the
proof point is called proof stress
Proof Resilience or offset yield stress
In some ductile material, such as Aluminum, Copper, Mild steel, the
yield point cannot be clearly defined, during tension test. This means,
yield stress is unknown.
0.2% Permanent Plastic Strain

For design of such metal, design stress called PROOF stress is If the yield point of the material is not easy defined using stress-strain
calculated using offset method. curve, and offset of 0.1% to 0.2% of the plastic strain is arbitrary
defined, and this called offset yield point or proof stress
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Yield Stress Yield Stress

B B
= Point to is called strain = The stress-strain relationship
C C
Proportional limit
A hardening section. Proportional limit
A in non linear upon the load
removal
The material begins to
E E
harden beyond yielding.
O O
Linear Perfect Linear Perfect
region Plasticity Because in this region, the region Plasticity Because in this region, the
Or yielding Or yielding
strain increases with strain strain increases with strain

This extend up to peak stress

known as ultimate stress. Is the maximum stress that an object can withstand before fracturing
Ultimate Stress with a sudden release of the stored elastic energy. The ultimate stress in
tension is attained at a stage when necking begins.
Yield Stress
B
= Necking is the reduction of area at a relatively weak cross-section of
C
Proportional limit
A the test specimen.

E
Necking and considerable elongation before fracture are characteristics
of ductile material.
O
Linear Perfect Strain
region Plasticity hardening
Or yielding In brittle material there is little or no necking at fracture.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Region is known as necking, the

strain increase with decrease in stress Necking Zone
Ultimate Stress

Necking is the mode of tensile deformation in which a large amount of

Yield Stress
B F (Fracture) strains localizes disproportionately over a particular part of the material
=
C
A
Proportional limit
This results into a local decrease in the cross-sectional area of the
specimen, which is normally referred to as the neck formation
E

O Therefore, necking is defined as the sudden decrease in the area of

Linear Perfect Strain Necking cross-section after ultimate stress has been reached and it continues the
region Plasticity hardening
Or yielding specimen breaks at a stress called fracture stress

The combining region from yielding to fracture which consists of the

Ultimate Stress
three zone is called plastic deformation .

Yield Stress
B F (Fracture)
= Plastic region is defined as the region in which material deforms
C
Proportional limit
A permanently

E
Ductile materials undergoes large plastic deformation before fracture.
O
Linear Perfect Strain Necking
region Plasticity hardening Brittle material shows little or no plastic deformation before fracture.
Or yielding
Plastic region
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Ductility = Length of the test specimen at fracture and

= is the gauge length.
Ductility is the material property that enables it to be drawn out or
elongated to an appreciable extent before fracture The ductile material exhibits considerable elongation prior to fracture

Or the ability of the material to accumulate inelastic deformation It also absorbs considerable amount of strain energy before fracture
without breaking
The ductile materials are tough.
It is measured as the percentage elongation at the fracture r hundred
times the strain at fracture Toughness is the ability of the material to absorb energy and plastically
deform without fracturing or the amount of energy per unit volume that
% elongation = 100 = 100 ∗ a material can absorb before rupturing.

The shaded are is called the density of Brittle materials break with little
the strain energy that has been absorbed accumulation of plastic deformation.
Fracture
Fracture by the material before rapturing. Stress
The materials are brittle if the percentage
Stress
Strain
of elongation is <5%
The materials are ductile if the
Stress
Energy
Strain percentage of elongation is >15% Density Glass, plastic, cast iron, concrete, and
Energy
Stress

most ceramics
Density
Lead, Copper, Aluminum, and steel. Failure in brittle material happen
Strain suddenly due to small percentage of
Strain
Ductile material break with warning i.e. Brittle Material elongation at failure i.e. no necking
Ductile Material
necking formation formation
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Engineering stress-strain and True stress-strain Diagram

Ultimate Stress

Engineering stress is the applied load divided by its original cross-

sectional area of a material Yield Stress
B F (Fracture)
=
C
A
Sometimes it is called nominal stress Proportional limit

E
Engineering stress doesn’t take into account the area changes during
the experiment
O
Linear Perfect Strain Necking
region Plasticity hardening
It is only considering the original cross-sectional area of a material Or yielding
Plastic region

True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area
of a material Ultimate Stress

It considers the change in cross-sectional area of a material with respect

Yield Stress
to time =
B F (Fracture)
C
A
This means, when a material is subjected to an external force, its length Proportional limit

increase (longitudinal strain)

E
While the other dimension perpendicular (transverse) to the line of
action of the applied load decreases (lateral strain). O
Linear Perfect Strain Necking
region Plasticity hardening
The actual area decreases due to Poisson’s effect Or yielding
Plastic region
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

In tension, engineering stress is always lower as compared to the true

stress, as it only considers the original area of the material. Engineering strain is the amount of the material that has been deformed
per unit length during tensile testing
In experiment the cross-sectional area decrease with time (necking), but
until now necking effect which takes place during the experiment has
Sometimes it is called nominal strain
been neglected.

If the necking is neglected, the stress calculated is called engineering Engineering strain consider the original length of the specimen or
stress, and if the necking is not neglected the stress calculated is called material.
true stress as it consider the effect of change in area with time.
The stress increase with decrease in area i.e. the external load applied is The effect of necking is negligible.
direct proportional to its area

True strain is the amount of the material that has been deformed per The true strain considers the actual length of a specimen or material
unit length during tensile testing
Therefore it should be integrated over a given length:
True strain consider the actual length of the specimen or material.

The effect of necking formation is considered =

When the body is under tension, its cross-sectional area decreases Upon integration, we get:
while its length increases

The increase in length is compensated by the decrease of the specimen = = ln

cross-sectional area due to poison's effect.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

The engineering strain considers the initial or original length of a Apply natural logarithm on both sides, we get:
specimen or material and is given by:

− ln = ln 1 + = ln
= = = −1

Simplify the equation above, we get: Upon simplification, we get:

=1+ = ln 1 +

In order to establish the relationship between engineering stress and Now, from the engineering stress, we get:
true stress, then the volume of the specimen before and after
experiment is considered to be the same.
= = = ∗
Initial Volume = Final Volume

=
= ∗
Also engineering stress and true stress can be defined as:

= and = = 1+
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Analysis of Bars of Composite Sections For the composite bars

A composite bars section is a bar which made up of two or more bars of  Strain in each bar is equal i.e. the extension or compression in bar is
equal length but of different materials rigidly fixed with each other. equal.
 Total external load on composite bar is equal to the sum of each
individual bar load carried by each different material.

= + = =
2 1
= +
Strain in Bar 1 = Strain in Bar 2

Thermal Expansion Types of Thermal Expansion Coefficient

Solids and liquids expand when heated and their physical dimension
changes with temperature We have three types of thermal expansion coefficient, that includes:

 i.e. expands when heated and contracts when cooled

 Linear Expansion Coefficient

Thermal expansion is defined as the tendency of matter to change in

volume in response to the temperature change  Area Expansion Coefficient and

i.e. change in length or area of a substance, for example buckling of  Volume Expansion Coefficient
railroad truck
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Linear Expansion Coefficient

=
Is a fractional change in length per degree change in temperature

Fractional change in length is directly proportional to the temperature

change ∆

The constant of proportionality is known as coefficient of expansion, The estimation works well, only if α remains constant over change in
denoted by, temperature and the fractional change in length is very small i.e. ≪ 1

If either of these condition is not fulfilled, the exact differential

∝ =
equation must be integrated.

Upon integration, we get: +

ln = −

=
ln 1 + = −
ln =

= −1
ln = −

represents the linear thermal expansion coefficient as a function of

The final length = + temperature .
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

For isotropic materials the area thermal expansion coefficient is twice

Area Expansion Coefficient the linear coefficient i.e. =2

The area expansion coefficient relates the change in material area Consider a square of steel sided by length
dimensions with the change in temperature.
=

∆
The object expands in all direction
+ = +
i.e. their areas, volume as well as length changes with an increase in + = + 2. . +
temperature.
Neglecting the high-power coefficient
∝ = + ≈ + 2. .
∆

+ ≈ +2 Volume Expansion Coefficient

For a solid, the effect of pressure on the material is ignored and the
+ ≈ +2 fractional change in volume is direction proportional to its length

The constant of proportional is known as volumetric expansion

≈2 coefficient
For gases, the effect of pressure to be held constant is very important,
=2 as the gas volume varies with pressure and temperature change.

=2 =
= for gases
=2 for solid effect of pressure is negligible
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

represents the material volume and is the rate of change of volume Upon integration, we get:
with temperature
=
=

The above equation assumes that expansion coefficient doesn’t change ln =

with temperature and the change in volume is small as compared to the
original volume
ln = −
This is valid only at small change in temperature, if the volumetric
expansion coefficient does change with temperature, the above
equation needs to be integrated The final length = +

+ For isotropic materials the volume thermal expansion coefficient is

ln = − thrice the linear coefficient i.e. =3

Consider a square of steel sided by length

ln 1 + = − =

+ = +
= −1 + = + 3. . + 3. . +

Neglecting the high-power coefficient

represents the volumetric expansion coefficient as a function of
temperature . + ≈ + 3. .
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

+ ≈ +3 Thermal Stresses

When the material subjected to a change in temperature its dimension

+ ≈ +3 changes, the material either expand or contracts

≈3  This will depend either the temperature is being increased or reduced

Then, thermal stresses are the stresses induced in the body due to the
=3
body temperature change
=3
When calculating thermal expansion, it is very important to consider if
=3 the material is free to expand or the body is constrained

If it is freely expanded the relative expansion of the substance or strain

due to the temperature change is calculated using thermal expansion
coefficient.

The constrained body (body that does not allowed to expand) develops ∆
internal stresses when subjected to temperature changes.

We calculate the stress in the body by considering the strain that would is the original length and is an increased length due to
occur if the body is freely to expand and the stress required to reduce temperature change.
this strain to zero when deformation is within elastic limit.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Now, thermal compressive strain is given by:

ℎ
= =
ℎ +

But, we know that:

∆

=
The external force is now applied
at end so that the length is Then, the change in length is given by:
decreased from + to
=

If stress and strain support yielding by an amount equal to δ, then the

Upon simplification, we get: actual extension or expansion is given by:
= −
= = =
+ = −

If the deformation is within elastic limit, stress will be directly Then, the actual strain is given as:
proportional to its strain −
∴= =
ℎ
=
And the actual strain is given as:

= ∗ = −
= ∗ = ∗
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Deformation due to temperature changes;

Alternatively
For a homogenous rod mounted between unyielding supports = . .

and deformation due to the equivalent axial stress;

= =

Equating the two deformation i.e. due to temperature change and axial
stress

= . .

If the wall yields a distance of x as shown

Deformation due to temperature changes;

= . .

and deformation due to the equivalent axial stress;

= =
= +
Equating the two deformation i.e. due to temperature change and axial
. . = +
stress

= . . . . −
= ×
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Two different materials i.e. Brass and Steel

Thermal Stresses in Composite Bars Brass Steel
(composite bar bonded together)
Thermal expansion of these materials is not
When two or more bars of different material and size are bonded the same.
together, then the combination of these bars is known as composite bar When subjected to a temperature change,
each material will attempt to expand by
 The bars can be bonded in series or parallel. different amount.
If the members are freely to expand then no stresses will be induced
When composite bar subjected to change in temperature, it is most in the member
likely that the composite bar will expand or contract together and by
the same amount But the two members are rigidly fixed together, hence the composite
bar as a whole will expand by the same amount

Brass will expand more as compared to The load on the brass is given as
Brass Steel
steel, because it has more expansion
coefficient as compared to steel. = Stress in the brass * Area in the brass
Brass Steel

But both members are not free to expand, = ∗

hence the composite bar expansion as a
whole will be less than that of brass but Similarly, the load on the steel = ∗
more than that of steel

Brass will experience compressive stress whereas the stress in the At equilibrium, the compression in the brass should be equal to the
steel will be tensile stress. tension in steel or load on the brass should be equal to the loads on
steel.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

For the loads, it can be written as:

Similarly, the actual expansion of brass is given as:
∗ = ∗

For the expansion, we deduce that: The actual expansion of steel is given as:
Actual expansion of brass = Actual expansion of steel

The actual expansion of steel is given as: = Free expansion of brass - Contraction due to compressive
stress in brass
= Free expansion of steel ( ) + Expansion due to tensile stress in
steel
= −
= +

Equating the two equations for the expansion of steel and brass: Comparison of Engineering and the true-strain curve
The true stress-strain curve is also known as the flow curve.
+ = −
True stress-strain curve gives a true indication of deformation
characteristics because it based on the instantaneous dimension of the
Upon further simplification, we get: specimen
Engineering stress-strain curve, stress drops down after necking, since
+ = − it is based on the original area.

In true stress-strain curve, the stress however increases after necking

Whereas T represents the rise in temperature. since the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases rapidly after
necking
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

When deformation is completely disappears on the removal of the

Elasticity and Elastic Limit force.

When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo The value of stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as
some deformation. If the external force is removed and the body the elastic limit of the material.
comes back to it is origin shape and size i.e. deformation disappears
completely, then the body is known as elastic body If the external load is so large that the stress exceeds the elastic
limit, the material loses to some extent its property of elasticity
This property by virtue of which certain materials return back to
If now the force is removed, the material will not return to its origin
their original position after the removal of the external forces, is
shape and size, and there will be residual deformation in the
called elasticity.
material.

HOOKE’S LAW AND ELASTIC MODULI Modulus of Elasticity (or Young’s Modulus)

Hooke’s Law states that, when the material is loaded within the The ratio of tensile or compressive stress to the corresponding
elastic limit, the stress is direct proportional to the strain produced strain is a constant.
by the stress.

This ratio is known as Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity

This means, the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain is a
and is denoted by symbol, .
constant within the elastic limit.

This constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or Elastic Moduli. = =

Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Modulus of Rigidity (or Shear Modulus) Factor of Safety

The ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain with Is defined as the ratio of ultimate tensile stress to the working (or
elastic limit, is known as Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus permissible) stress.

Is denoted by symbol Factor of Safety:

ℎ
= = =
ℎ ∅

Constitutive Relationship between Stress and Strain Constitutive Relationship between Stress and Strain
For One Dimensional Stress System, the relationship between stress
and strain for unidirectional stress (i.e. for normal stress in one For Two Dimensional Stress System, one must define longitudinal
dimension only) is given by Hooke’s Law. strain, lateral strain, and Poisson’s ratio.

“Within elastic limit, the normal stress developed is proportional to Longitudinal Strain
the strain produced”
When a body is subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an
= = = increase in the length of the body.

This gives the stress and strain relation for the normal stress in one But at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the
direction. body at right angles to the line of action of the applied load.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Let:
Thus the body is having axial deformation and also deformation at = Length of the body
right angles to the line of action of the applied load i.e. lateral = Tensile force acting on the body
deformation.
= Increasing the length of the body in the direction of

The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is

known as longitudinal (or linear) strain.
+

The longitudinal strain is also defined as the deformation of the

body per unit length in the direction of the applied load.
+

Lateral Strain

The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known

as lateral strain. +

But at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the Longitudinal strain
body at right angles to the line of action of the applied load.
=
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

= Breath = Increase in length

= Depth = decrease in breath −

= Length of the body = decrease in depth

+ −

= Tensile force acting on the body

Longitudinal strain

=
Lateral strain
−

+ − =

If the longitudinal strain is tensile, the lateral strain will be If the longitudinal strain is compressive, the lateral strain will be
compressive tensile

− +

−
−
+
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

For every longitudinal strain in the direction of load is Poisson’s ratio

accompanied by lateral strain of the opposite kind in all direction
The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant for a
perpendicular to the load
given material, when the material is stressed within the elastic limit.

This ratio is called Poisson’s ratio

= ∗

Relationship between stress and strain

Consider a two-dimensional figure subjected to two Consider the strain produced by
mutually perpendicular stresses and
The will produce strain in the direction of and also in
=Normal stress in − direction

The strain produced in direction will

be longitudinal strain, and will be equal
to:
=Normal stress in y −
Longitudinal strain, =
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Consider the strain produced by

The strain produced in direction will
be lateral strain, and will be equal to: The will produce strain in the direction of and also in
direction

Lateral strain = − The strain produced in direction will

be longitudinal strain, and will be equal
to:
∴ Lateral strain = − ∗Longitudinal strain
Longitudinal strain, =

Let,

The strain produced in direction will = Total strain in −

be lateral strain, and will be equal to: = Total strain in y −
Now, total strain in the direction of due to stresses and is:

Lateral strain = − = −

Similarly, total strain in the direction of due to stresses and

is:
∴ Lateral strain = − ∗Longitudinal strain
= −
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Total strain in the direction of due to stresses and is: For Three-Dimensional Stress System.
Consider a three dimensional body subjected to three orthogonal
= − normal stresses, , , and acting in the direction of , and
respectively.
Total strain in the direction of due to stresses and is:

= −

The above two equations give stress and strain relationship for the
two dimensional stress system.
Tensile Stress is always taken as positive and
Compressive Stress is always taken as negative

The will produce strain in the direction of and also in the

Similarly, will produce strain in the direction of and also in
direction of and direction
the direction of and direction
The strain produced in direction will
be: The strain produced in direction will
be:
= =

Whereas the strain in the direction of

Whereas the strain in the direction of
and will be
and will be
=−
=−
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Total strain in the direction of due to stresses , and is:

Similarly, will produce strain in the direction of and also in
the direction of and direction = − −

The strain produced in direction will Total strain in the direction of due to stresses , and is:
be:
= = − −

Whereas the strain in the direction of Total strain in the direction of due to stresses , and is:
and will be
= − −
=−
, , Are total strain in , , − respectively

Total strain in the direction of due to stresses , and is: Total strain in the direction of due to stresses and is:

= − − = −

Total strain in the direction of due to stresses , and is: Total strain in the direction of due to stresses and is:
= − − = −
Total strain in the direction of due to stresses , and is:
The above two equations give stress and strain relationship for the
two dimensional stress system.
= − −
Tensile Stress is always taken as positive and
The above two equations give stress and strain relationship for the
three dimensional stress system. Compressive Stress is always taken as negative
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Volumetric Strain of a Rectangular Bar which is

Volumetric Strain Subjected to an axial Load P in the direction of its length

The ratio of change in volume to the original volume of a body

(when a body is subjected to a single force or a system of forces) is
called volumetric strain.

, =

= Change in Volume, = Original volume

= Length = Length
= Width = Width
= Depth = Depth

The axial load is applied in the direction of its length. Original Volume =
Let:
Final Volume = + − −
= Change in Length Final length of the bar = +
= − − + + −
= Change in Width Final width of the bar = +
− +
= Change in Depth Final depth of the bar = +
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

= Length = Length
= Width = Width
= Depth = Depth

Ignore the product of small quantities Change in Volume = Final Volume − Original Volume
Final Volume = − − + + −
Change in Volume = − − + −
− +
Final Volume = − − + Change in Volume = − −

= Length = Length
= Width = Width
= Depth = Depth

= = − −
, =
= Longitudinal Strain
− −
= = − −
= Lateral Strains
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Volumetric Strain of a Rectangular Bar which is

= Length
Subjected to three forces which are mutually Perpendicular
= Width
= Depth

= − −
= Longitudinal Strain − 2 * Lateral Strain

= Longitudinal Strain − 2ϑLongitudinal Strain

= Longitudinal Strain 1 − 2 = 1−2

=
log = log + log + log
1 1 1 1
= + +

= + +
Consider a rectangular block of dimensions, , subjected to
three direct tensile stresses along three mutually perpendicular axis ℎ
as shown above: = =

Volume of the block,

, , = Change in strain, in , direction
= Taking logarithm to both sides,
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

= Tensile stress along z− direction will produce:

= + +
Tensile strain = , in the z − direction, and
= Tensile stress along − direction will produce:

Tensile strain = , in the x − direction, and Compressive strain = − , in the x, and y − direction

The Net strain along , -direction is given by:

Compressive strain = − , in the y, and z − direction
+
= − − = −
= Tensile stress along y− direction will produce:
+
Tensile strain = , in the y − direction, and = − − = −
+
Compressive strain = − , in the x, and z − direction = − − = −

Adding all the strains, we get:

, are all tensile, if any of the stresses is compressive, it
= + + may be regarded as negative.

+ + +
= − + − + −
If the value of + it represents increase in volume, whereas
1 2
= + + − + +

If the value of − it represents decrease in volume, whereas

1
= + + 1−2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Volumetric Strain of a Cylindrical Rod

−

+ Consider a cylindrical rod which is subjected to an axial tensile load

Consider a cylindrical rod which is subjected to an axial tensile load Let:
Let: = diameter of the load, =Length of the rod
= diameter of the load, =Length of the rod
Due to tensile load , there will be an increase in the length of the
Consider a cylindrical rod which is subjected to an axial tensile load load, but the diameter of the rod will decrease

Final Volume = − ∗ +
−

= ∗ −2 + ∗ +
4
+
= ∗ ∗ + ∗ −2 ∗ ∗ −2 ∗ ∗ + ∗ + ∗
4
Final length = +
Final diameter = − Neglecting the products and higher powers of two small quantities

The Original Volume of the Rod = ∗ = ∗ ∗ + ∗ −2 ∗ ∗ −2 ∗ ∗ + ∗ + ∗

4 4
Final Volume = − ∗ +
4 = ∗ ∗ + ∗ −2 ∗ ∗
4
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Change in Volume = − Bulk Modulus

= ∗ ∗ + ∗ −2 ∗ ∗ − ∗ When a body is subjected to the mutually perpendicular like and
4 4
equal direct stress, the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding
= ∗ ∗ −2 ∗ ∗ volumetric strain is found to be constant, for a given material when
4 the deformation is within a certain limit.
ℎ
, = = This ratio is known as bulk modulus and is usually denoted by

∗ ∗ −2 ∗ ∗ , =
=4 = −2 = 1−2
∗
4
= Change in Volume, = Original volume, and = Direct
= Strain of length and = lateral strain in diameter Stress

Expression for
Young’s Modulus in terms of Bulk Modulus
When a body is subjected to the mutually perpendicular like and
equal direct stress, the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding
volumetric strain is found to be constant, for a given material when
the deformation is within a certain limit.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Cube is subjected to three mutually and perpendicular Now, consider the strain of one of the side of the cube ( )
tensile stresses of equal intensity under the action of three mutually perpendicular stresses.
1: Strain of due to stresses on
Let:
the face and .
= Length of the cube This strain is tensile and is equal to
= Change of Length of the cube =
= Young’s Modulus of the
2: Strain of due to stresses on
material of the cube
the face and .
= Tensile stress acting on the face This strain is compressive tensile
= Poisson’s ratio later strain and is equal to

= The volume of the cube =−

The total strain of is given by:

3: Strain of due to stresses on
= − −
the face and .

= 1−2
This strain is also compressive
tensile later strain and is equal to The Volume (original Volume):
=
Differentiating with respect to L
=−
=3
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Principle of Complementary Shear Stresses

=3
It state that a set of shear stresses across a plate is always
=3 . accompanied by a set of balancing shear stresses
(. . ℎ ) across the plane and normal to it.
3 . 3
= = A rectangular block , subjected
to a set of shear stresses of intensity
on the face and
3
= 1−2
Assume the thickness of the block
normal to the plane of the paper is
=3 1−2 unity

The force acting on the face

The force acting on face and are equal and opposite and
= ∗ hence these forces will form a couple
= ∗ ∗1=
The moment of these couple = ∗
Similar force acting on face
= ∗ ∗1= = = ∗
∴ =
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Let the shear stress of intensity is set up on the face and

The force acting on face and are equal and opposite and
The force acting on the face hence these forces will form a couple
= ∗ ∗1 =
The moment of these couple = ∗
Similar force acting on face
= ∗ ∗1 = = = ∗
∴ =

For the equilibrium of the block, the moment of the couples should The stress is known as complementary shear and the two stresses
be equal. i.e. at right angles together constitute a state of simple
shear.
∗ = ∗
∗ = ∗
=
=

The set of shear stresses is always accompanied by a transverse set The set of shear stresses is always accompanied by a transverse set
of shear stresses of the same intensity of shear stresses of the same intensity
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

The direction of the shear stresses on the block are either both Stresses on Inclined Sections when
towards or both away from a corner. the element is subjected to simple shear stresses
Consider a rectangular below, . Face , , , and is
subjected to a set of shear stresses of intensity
Let the thickness of the block normal to the plane of the paper is
unity

As the result of two couples, formed by shear forces, the diagonal

will be subjected to tension and the diagonal
will subjected to compression.

Draw the line , as shown below:

=Normal force, is one perpendicular

to the direction of motion

=Tangential force, is the force acting

along the direction of motion
Tasks:

Find the normal and tangential stresses across an inclined plane

, which is having inclination with the face
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Shear force on face

= ℎ ∗

= ∗ ∗1

Shear force on face

= ℎ ∗

= ∗ ∗1

= Normal force to the plane

= Tangential force to the plane

Resolving and along direction, we have: Resolving and along direction, we have:

Consider ∆ Consider ∆

sin 90° − = cos 90° − =

= ∗ sin 90° − = ∗ cos 90° −

90° − = 90° − =

sin 90° − = sin 90° cos − cos 90° sin cos 90° − = cos 90° cos + sin 90° sin
sin 90° − = cos cos 90° − = sin
= cos = sin
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Resolving and along direction, we have: Resolving and along direction, we have:

Consider ∆ Consider ∆

sin = cos =

90° − = ∗ sin 90° − = ∗ cos

= =

= sin = cos

For equilibrium, the net force normal,

to the plane should be Zero
− sin − cos =0
= sin + cos
= ∗ ∗ sin + ∗ ∗ cos
90° − For equilibrium, the net force along,
the plane should be Zero
+ sin − cos =0
= cos − sin
= ∗ ∗ cos − ∗ ∗ sin
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Let:
=Normal Stress on plane
=Tangential Stress on plane
Then: =
=
∗ ∗ cos − ∗ ∗ sin
∗ ∗ sin + ∗ ∗ cos = =
= = ∗1
∗1
= = ∗ − ∗
= = ∗ ∗ sin + ∗ ∗ cos ∗1
∗1
= − = cos 2
=2 ∗ ∗ sin = sin 2

For the plane carrying the maximum normal stress, should be

maximum
When = 45°,
2 = ±1
2 = 90° − 90°
= 45° − 45° = cos 2 = cos 90° = 0

When = 45°,
= sin 2 = sin 90° = (+ ) This means the planes, which carry the maximum normal stresses, are
When = −45°, having zero shear stress.

= sin 2 = sin −90° = − (− )

Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Shear stress will be maximum when: When = 0°,

cos 2 = ±1
= sin 2 = sin 0° = 0
2 = 0° 180°
When = 90°,
= 0° 90°

When = 0°, = sin 2 = sin 180° = 0

= cos 2 = cos 0° = (+ ) This means the planes, which carry the maximum shear stresses, are
having zero normal stresses.
When = 90°,

= cos 2 = cos 180° = − (− ) These planes are known as the planes of simple shear.

Important Points

 The planes of maximum normal stresses are perpendicular to each

other

 The planes of maximum normal stresses are inclined at an angle of

45° to the plane of pure shear

 One of the maximum normal stress is tensile while the other 45°
maximum normal stress is compressive.

 The maximum normal stresses are of the same magnitude and equal
to the intensity of shear stress on the plane of pure shear
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Diagonal Stresses Normal and tangential stress on the place is given by:
Produced by Simple Shear on a Square Block = sin 2 and = cos 2
Consider a square block, , having each side equal to ‘ ′ and The angle made by plane with face
subjected to set of shear stresses of intensity ′ ′ on the face, , , is given by:
and face ,
tan = = =1

θ = 45°
Put this value in the equation above:
= sin 2 = sin 2 ∗ 45° =
= cos 2 = cos 2 ∗ 45° = 0

Similarly, on plane , a direct compressive stress of magnitude

Hence, on plane , a direct tensile of magnitude is acting. This is acting. This tensile stress is parallel to diagonal .
tensile stress is parallel to diagonal .
This compressive stress is along the diagonal or perpendicular
Hence, diagonal is subjected to tensile stress of magnitude to the plane
The diagonal is subjected to compressive stress of magnitude
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

The pure direct tensile and compressive stresses active on the

diagonal planes and are called diagonal tensile and diagonal Hence the set of shear stress on the face , and the faces
compressive stresses are equivalent to compressive stress along the
The stress on the diagonal plane (i.e. along diagonal ) is diagonal and a tensile stress along the diagonal
tensile, whereas on the diagonal plane (i.e. along diagonal )
is compressive

Direct (Tensile and Compressive) Strains of the Diagonals Due to these stresses, diagonal will be elongated, whereas the
diagonal will be shorted.
The diagonal will experience a tensile stress of magnitude ,
whereas the diagonal will experience a compressive stress of
magnitude .

∴ is a square of side ′ ′
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Due to the tensile stress along diagonal , there will be a tensile

strain in diagonal Tensile strains in diagonal BD due to
tensile stress τ along BD is given as:
Due to the compressive stress along diagonal AC, there will be a
tensile strain in diagonal due to lateral strain. τ
longitudinal strain =
E

= Poisson’s ration Lateral strains in the diagonal

due to tensile stress in diagonal
is given as:
=Youngs modulus for the material
block τ
lateral strain = −
E

The total strains along diagonal

Compressive strains in diagonal
is given as a sum of:
due to compressive stress τ along
is given as: Longitudinal strains along diagonal
τ due to tensile stress along
longitudinal strain = −
E diagonal
+
Lateral strain in the diagonal due
to compressive stress in diagonal Lateral strains along diagonal
is given as: due to compressive stress along
diagonal
τ
lateral strain =
E = + = 1+
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Similarly, the total strains in the Due to shear stresses acting on the faces, the square block
diagonal is given as a sum of : will be deformed to position , as shown:
Longitudinal strains along diagonal
due to compressive stress The increase in the length of diagonal
along diagonal
= −
+
∴ Tensile strain in the diagonal
Lateral strains along diagonal
due to tensile stress along diagonal −
=

=− − =− 1+ From , draw a perpendicular , on

Distortion is very small and hence In triangle ,

angle will be very small.
= = +
And ∴ =
< =< = 45°
= + = 2 ∗ AD
Now in triangle ,< = 45°
∴ Tensile strain in the diagonal
cos =
− −
= =
Length, = ∗ cos 45°
Length, = =
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

− Relationship Between
= =
Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity
The total tensile strain along diagonal
− 2
= = = 1+
2 ∗A
= Also the total tensile strain in diagonal
2 ∗A 1
1 = ℎ
= ℎ 2
2 Modulus of Rigidity is also given by:
The total tensile strain in the diagonal is equal to half the shear ℎ
strain. = =
∅ ℎ

Also the total tensile strain in diagonal

1 1 Principal Stresses and Strains

= ℎ = ∗
2 2
Equating the two tensile strain along diagonal , we get
In many engineering problems both direct (tensile or compressive
1 stress) and shear stresses are acting at the same time.
1+ = ∗
2
1 1 In such case, the resultant stress across any section will be neither
1+ =
2 normal nor tangential to the plane.
=2 1+
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Principal Planes and Principal Stresses Method for Determining Stresses on Oblique Section

Principal planes are planes which have no shear stress or plane of There are two methods:
zero shear stress.

Principal planes carries only normal stresses.  Analytical Method and

Principal Stresses are normal stresses acting on a principal plane  Graphical Method

A member subjected to direct stress in one plane

Analytical Method Consider a rectangular member of uniform cross-sectional area ,
for Determining Stresses on Oblique Section and of unit thickness

There are two cases:

 A member subjected to direct stress in one plane

=Area of cross-section, which is perpendicular to the line of
action of force
 The member is subjected to like direct stresses in two mutually
perpendicular directions =Axial force acting on the member in the x-direction
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

A member is subjected to a stress along x-axis

Consider cross-section which is perpendicular to the line of

action of the force

The stress on the section is given by:

= =
,
The Area of section is given by:
The stress on the section is entirely normal stress, there is no
Area = ∗1= shear stress (or tangential stress) on section

Now, consider section F at an angle , with normal cross-section

Area of section = ∗1
∗
Area of section = ∗1= =
Area of section = ∗1= (member having unit thickness)
The stress on the section is given by:
Consider ∆ , resolving into vertical component
= = cos = cos
,
cos = , ∴ = This stress is parallel to the axis of the member, i.e. the stress is
cos
along x-axis
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Area of section = ∗1= (member having unit thickness) This stress can be resolved into two components

Consider ∆ , resolving into vertical component  One component will be normal to the section (normal stress)

 Second component will be along to the section (tangential

cos = , ∴ =
cos stress i.e. shear stress)

Consider Δ or Δ

cos =

90° −
= cos

sin =

= sin
Draw two lines parallel to
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Normal stresses and tangential stress across section are given as:

Normal Stress, Tangential Stress,

,
=
,
=
= From ∆ cos =

cos sin
= = = = = = = sin cos = sin cos = sin 2
2
cos cos

Normal stress on the section will be maximum when Tangential stress on the section will be maximum when
sin2 = 1 or 2 = 90° 270°
=1 cos =1
θ = 0° = 45° 135°

The section will coincide with section . This means that shear stress will be maximum on two planes
inclined at 45° and 135° to normal section
But section is normal to the line of action of the loading.
This means the plane normal to the axis of loading will carry First plane of maximum
45°
maximum normal stress. shear stress = 45°
Maximum normal stress

( ) = = 0° =
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

First plane of maximum

shear stress = 45°
Second plane of maximum
135° shear stress = 135°
45°
135°

The maximum normal stress

=
The maximum shear stress Second plane of maximum
= or half the value of greater normal stress shear stress = 135°

Second Method can be resolved into two components i.e. One normal to the
A member subjected to direct stress in one plane plane and other along the plane

A rectangle member of uniform cross-sectional area of a unit Draw a line parallel to and perpendicular to
thickness. A bar is subjected to a principal tensile stress, on the
face and

= ∗ ∗1
= ∗ ∗1
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Normal stress on the section Tangential or shear stress on the section

sin ∗ ∗ 1 sin
cos ∗ ∗ 1 cos = = = = cos sin
= = = = ∗1 ∗1
∗1 ∗1
= = sin 2
2

= ∗ ∗1

The normal stress is maximum, when The tangential stress (shear stress) is maximum, when
=1 cos =1 = 0° sin 2 = ±1 2 = 90° 270° = 45° 135°
= = cos 0° = = sin 2 = sin 90° =
2 2 2
The section will coincide with section
Section is normal to the line of action of loading.
The maximum normal stress is
This means the plane normal to the axis of loading will carry the
maximum normal stress. ( ) =

The maximum shear stress is

( ) =
2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

This means that shear stress will be maximum on two planes

inclined 45° and 135° to normal section
A Member Subjected to like Direct
First plane of maximum Stresses in two Mutually Perpendicular Directions
shear stress = 45°
45° 45°
Consider a rectangular of uniform cross-sectional area and
a unit thickness.
135° First plane of maximum
shear stress = 45°
135° The bar is subjected to two direct tensile stresses (or two principal
tensile stresses)

= ∗ ∗1 = ∗ ∗1

90° −

= cos = sin
=Tensile force of face
=Tensile force of face = ∗ ∗1 BF = ∗ ∗1 = ∗ ∗1
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

90° −
= cos
= sin
=

= = cos + sin
= ∗ ∗1 = ∗ ∗1
= cos + sin
= ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ cos + ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ sin

= ℎ

∗ ∗ 1 ∗ cos + ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ sin
= =
∗1
∗ ∗ cos + ∗ ∗ sin
=

= = ∗ ∗ cos + ∗ ∗s
= sin − c
= ∗ cos ∗ cos + ∗ sin ∗ s
= ∗ ∗1 = ∗ ∗1
= ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ sin − ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ cos = ∗ + ∗
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

= ℎ
= ∗ + ∗
∗ ∗ 1 ∗ sin − ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ cos
= =
∗1
1 + cos 2 1 − cos 2
= ∗ + ∗ ∗ ∗ sin − ∗ ∗ cos
2 2
=

cos 2 cos 2
= + + − = ∗ ∗ sin − ∗ ∗ cos
2 2 2 2
= ∗ cos ∗ sin − ∗ sin ∗ c
+ −
= + cos 2 −
2 2 = ∗ sin 2 − ∗ sin 2 = sin 2
2 2 2

The resultant stress on the section will be given as: The maximum shear stress ( ) , when:

= + sin 2 = 1 2 = 90° or 270° = 45° or 135°

The angle made by the resultant stress Maximum shear stress, =

with the normal of the oblique plane
Planes of maximum shear stress
is known as OBLIQUITY

∅
tan ∅ = 135°
45°
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Principal planes When = 0°

+ −
Are the planes on which shear stress is zero = + cos 2
2 2
− + −
= sin 2 = + cos 0° =
2 2 2
−
sin 2 = 0 When = 90°
2
+ −
− = + cos 2 ∗ 90°
sin 2 = 0 − can never be Zero 2 2
2
+ −
sin 2 = 0 2 = 0° 180° = 0° 90° = + cos 180° =
2 2

A Member Subjected to
Major principal Plane
Direct Stresses in two Mutually Perpendicular
Angle of Major principal Plane
Directions Accompanied by a Simple Shear Stress
Axis of minor Stress
Consider a rectangular below, of uniform cross-section area
and of unit thickness. This bar is subjected to,

Axis of major Stress 1) Tensile stress on the face and

= 2) Tensile stress on the face and

=
=
3) A simple shear stress on face and
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Simple Shear Stress Mutually Simple Stresses

90° −

= ∗ ∗1
Shear force on face due to shear stress 90° −
90° −
= ∗
= ∗ ∗1= ∗
Shear force on face due to shear stress
= ∗ ∗1
= ∗
= ∗ ∗1 = ∗

Resolving the four force above i.e. , , normal to the

oblique section , we get: Total tangential force,
Total normal force,
= sin − cos − cos + sin
= cos + sin + sin + cos
= ∗ ∗ sin − ∗ ∗ cos − ∗ ∗ cos + ∗ sin
= ∗ ∗ cos + ∗ ∗ sin + ∗ ∗ sin + ∗ ∗ cos
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

The Normal Stress across section

= ∗ cos ∗ cos + ∗ sin ∗ sin + ∗ cos ∗ sin + ∗ sin ∗ cos

= = =
∗1 = + + sin 2

∗ ∗ cos + ∗ ∗ sin + ∗ ∗ sin + ∗ ∗ cos 1 + cos 2 1 − cos 2

= = + + sin 2
2 2

= ∗ ∗ cos + ∗ ∗ sin + ∗ ∗ sin + ∗ ∗ cos

+ −
= + cos 2 + sin 2
2 2
= ∗ cos ∗ cos + ∗ sin ∗ sin + ∗ cos ∗ sin + ∗ sin ∗ cos

The tangential Stress across section

= ∗ cos ∗ sin − ∗ sin ∗ cos − ∗ cos ∗ cos + ∗ sin ∗
= = =
∗1

∗ ∗ sin − ∗ ∗ cos − ∗ ∗ cos + ∗ sin = − cos ∗ sin − −

=

= ∗ ∗ sin − ∗ ∗ cos − ∗ ∗ cos + ∗ ∗ sin −

= sin 2 − cos 2
2
= ∗ cos ∗ sin − ∗ sin ∗ cos − ∗ cos ∗ cos + ∗ sin ∗
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Position of Principal Planes:

The plane on which shear stress i.e. tangential stress is zero, are
sin 2 2
known as principal planes, and the stresses acting on principal = 2
planes are known principal stresses. cos 2 −
2
Tangential stress should be equated to ZERO
−
−
= sin 2 − cos 2 = 0 The diagonal of the right-angle triangle i.e. ∆
2
−
sin 2 = cos 2 =± − + 2 =± − +4
2
sin 2 2 and
= =+ − + 2 − − +4
cos 2 −

Major Principal Stress: +

+ −
= + cos 2 + sin 2
sin 2 2 2 2
= 2 + − − 2
cos 2 −
= + ∗ + ∗
2 2 2
− +4 − +4
−
2 + 1 − 2
sin 2 = = + ∗ +
2 2
− +4 − +4 − +4

− + − +4
cos 2 = = +
2
− +4 2 − +4
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

+ − +4 Minor Principal Stress: −

= + + −
2
2 − +4 = + cos 2 + sin 2
2 2
+ − − 2
= + ∗ + ∗
+ − +4 − +4 2 2
= + ∗ − − +4 − − +4
2
2 − +4 − +4
+ 1 − 2
= − ∗ −
+ 1 2 2
= + − +4 − +4 − +4
2 2
+ − +4
+ − = −
= + + 2
2 2 2 − +4

+ − +4
= −
2
2 − +4

+ − +4 − +4
= − ∗
2 Principal Planes
2 − +4 − +4
= + 90°
+ 1
= − − +4
2 2

+ −
= − +
2 2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Maximum Shear Stress

The shear stress is maximum or minimum, when
sin 2 −
= −
=0 cos 2 2
2
−
sin 2 − cos 2 =0 2
2
− −
∗ 2 cos 2 + 2 sin 2 = 0 sin 2 =
2
− − +4
∗ 2 cos 2 = −2 sin 2 = 0
2 2
cos 2 =
sin 2 − −
=− = − +4
cos 2 2 2

The maximum shear stress is given by: − +4

− =±
= sin 2 − cos 2
2 2 − +4
− − 2
=± ∗ ± ∗ − +4
2 =±
− +4 − +4
2 − +4
1 − 2
=± ∗ ±
2 − +4 − +4
− +4 − +4 =± ∗
− +4 2 − +4 − +4
=±
1
2 − +4 =± − +4
2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

MOHR’S CIRCLE
Mohr’s circle is a graphical method of finding normal, tangential
and resultant stresses on an oblique plane.
Mohr’s circle will be drawn for the following cases:
 A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principal tensile
= + 135° stresses of unequal intensities
 A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principal
stresses which are unequal and unlike . . One is tensile and
other is compressive
 A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principal tensile
stresses accompanied by a simple shear.

A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular

principal tensile stresses of unequal intensities
2
Consider a rectangle subjected to two mutually perpendicular
principal tensile stresses of unequal intensities..

= Major Principal tensile stress,

= Minor Principal tensile stress, and

is a diameter which describe a circle
= Angle made by oblique plane with the axis of minor tensile
Let be the center of a circle
stress
Draw the line , making an angle 2 with
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

2 ∅ 2

From, , draw the line D, perpendicular on

, is a normal stress
Join, , and C
, is a normal stress and , is a tangential stress and
, is a tangential stress and , is a resultant stress , is a resultant stress ∅, angle of obliquity

∅ 2

= +
− +
= + =
− 2 2
Radius of Mohr’s circle = −
2
− = cos 2 = cos 2
= = = ℎ = 2
2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

= + −
= sin 2 = sin 2
+ − 2
= + cos 2
2 2
=
=

Tangential or shear stress is along a line which is perpendicular to

line
Normal stress is along the line The maximum shear stress will be when perpendicular to line is
The maximum stress will be when point is at i.e. = is a drawn from point
maximum stress Then the maximum shear stress will be equal to the radius of Mohr's
Circle
The minimum stress will be when point is at i.e. = is a −
minimum stress =
2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular

principal stresses which are unequal and unlike . .
One is tensile and other is compressive
Consider a rectangle subjected to two mutually perpendicular
principal tensile stresses which are unequal and one of them is
tensile and the other is compressive.
When point is at or at , the shear stress will be zero = Major Principal tensile stress,
= Minor Principal compressive stress, and
The angle ∅ will be maximum,
when the line is tangent to the Mohr’s Circle. = Angle made by oblique plane with the axis of minor principal
stress

∅ 2
2

Compressive (-) Tensile (+)

Compressive (-) Tensile (+)
From, , draw the line D, perpendicular on
is a diameter which describe a circle Join, , and C
Let be the center of a circle , is a normal stress and
Draw the line , making an angle 2 with , is a tangential stress and , is a resultant stress
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

∅ 2 ∅ 2

Compressive (-) Tensile (+) Compressive (-) Tensile (+)

, is a normal stress on oblique plane, +

Radius of Mohr’s circle =
, is a tangential or shear stress on oblique plane, and 2
+
= = = ℎ =
, is a resultant stress on oblique plane ∅, angle of Obliquity 2

= − = +
+ − − +
= − = = + cos 2
2 2 2 2
+
= cos 2 = cos 2 =
2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular

principal tensile stresses accompanied by a simple shear.
Consider a rectangle subjected to two mutually perpendicular
principal tensile stresses of unequal intensities accompanied by a
simple shear stress.
= Major tensile stress,
+ sin 2
= sin 2 = = Minor tensile stress, and
2
= Shear stress across face and
=
= Angle made by oblique plane with the axis of major tensile
stress
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

From point , draw = and = , towards right of

Draw perpendicular at and and cut off and equal to Bisect at
shear stress equal to the same scale. is a center, of radii and . Draw a Circle.

2 2

Draw line making an angle 2 with From, , draw the line D, perpendicular on C
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

, is a normal stress on the oblique plane

, is a tangential or shear stress on the oblique plane
Join , is a resultant stress on the oblique plane

1 1 = +
= = −
2 2 +
= + cos 2 −
= + 2
1 + = cos 2 cos + sin 2 sin = cos 2 cos + sin 2 sin
= + − =
2 2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

cos 2 − = cos 2 + sin 2

Consider ∆
−
cos 2 − = cos 2 + sin 2
cos = = sin = = 2

= = Radius

cos 2 − = cos 2 cos + sin 2 sin +

= + cos 2 −
2
cos 2 − = cos 2 + sin 2
+ −
= = − = + cos 2 + sin 2
2 2
2
= =

= sin 2 −

sin 2 cos − cos 2 sin = sin 2 cos − cos 2 sin sin 2 − = sin 2 cos − cos 2 sin
Consider ∆ cos = = sin = = sin 2 − = sin 2 − cos 2
= = −
= = Radius 2
=
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Maximum and minimum value of normal stress

sin 2 − = sin 2 − cos 2

−
sin 2 − = sin 2 − cos 2
2

The normal stress is given by

The maximum value of will be when coincides with

The maximum value of normal stress:

The minimum value of will be when coincides with = = +
+ +
= + = + = =
2 2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Consider ∆

= +

=
+ +
= = + = + + The minimum value of normal stress:
2 2
= = = −
+ −
= = + + + +
2 2 = = − = − = =
2 2

Consider ∆

= +

= For maximum normal stress, the point coincide with

+ + But when point coincide with , the point also coincide with
= = − = − +
2 2 Hence, for the maximum value of normal stress 2 = ∴ =
2
+ − 2
= = − + tan 2 = tan = = − =
2 2 −
2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

The plane of minimum normal stress is inclined at an angle 90° to

the plane of maximum normal stress.
Line coincides with line

For minimum normal stress, the point coincide with

But when point coincide with , the point also coincide with
Hence, for the minimum value of normal stress 2 = 180° + For maximum and minimum normal stresses, the shear stress is zero
180° and hence the plane, on which maximum and minimum normal
= + = 90° + stresses acts, are known as principal planes and the stresses are
2 2 2 known as principal stresses.

Maximum value of shear stress

The maximum value of shear stress:

= +
Shear stress is given by
−
The maximum value of will be when coincides with and = + = ℎ
coincides with 2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

When the body is strained, the energy is absorbed in the body.

This energy absorbed in the body due to straining effect is called

strain energy.

Strain Energy Straining effect may be due to:

and Impact Loading  Gradually applied load The strain energy will be stored in the
body when the load is applied
 Suddenly applied load or gradually, suddenly or with impact.

 Load with impact

Resilience: Proof Resilience:

Is a total strain energy stored in a body Is a maximum strain energy stored in a body

Whenever the strain energy is removed from strained body, the body The strain energy stored in a body is maximum when the body is
is capable of doing work. stressed up to elastic limit.

Resilience can be defined as the capacity of a strained for doing Hence, proof resilience is the quantity of strain energy stored in a
work on the removal of the strain force. body when strained up to elastic limit.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Expression for Strain Energy Stored in a

Modulus of Resilience: Body When the Load is Applied Gradually
P = Gradually applied load
Is defined as the Proof Resilience of a material per unit volume. x = Extension of the body
A = Cross-sectional Area
L = Length of the body
It is important property of the material.
V = Volume of the body
E = Young’s Modulus
Modulus of resilience =
U = Strained energy stored in a body
σ = Stress induced in the body

Work done by the load = Area of load extension curve 1

= ∗σ∗A∗x
= Area of traingle ONM 2
1 1
= ∗ ∗x = ∗σ∗A∗ ∗
2 2
1
= ∗σ∗A∗x
2 Work done by the Load U = ∗
∆ = Extension (change in Length)
Work done by the load in stretching the
∆ body is equal to the strain energy stored
= in the body
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Proof Resilience:
Modulus of Resilience:

Is a maximum strain energy stored in a body without permanent

deformation ( . . Up to elastic limit) Modulus of resilience = strained energy per unit volume

is taken at the elastic limit, we get proof resilience:

Modulus of resilience =
∗
U= ∗
2 ∗
∗ ∗
Modulus of resilience = =
∗ stress at the elastic limit.

Expression for Strain Energy Stored in a Equating the strain energy in the body to the work done:
Body When the Load is Applied Suddenly
When the load is applied suddenly, the load is constant throughout ∗ = ∗
2
the process of deformation of the body.
∴ Work done by the load = Load ∗ Extension ∗ ∗ = ∗ ∗
2
∴ Work done by the load = P ∗ x
The maximum energy stored up to the elastic limit in a body is = =2∗
2
given by:
The maximum stress induced due to suddenly applied load is twice
U= ∗ the stress induced when the same load is applied gradually
2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Expression for Strain Energy Stored in a

Body When the Load is Applied With Impact
The load is dropped from a certain height before the load Vertical Load Load
commences to stretch the bar in case of a load applied with impact

ℎ ℎ
Collar
Vertical Load Load

ℎ
Collar

P = Load dropped
The strain in the bar is given by:
h = The height through which load is dropped

Vertical Load Vertical Load

A = Cross-sectional rod
Load Load = =
L = Length of the rod
ℎ ℎ
Collar Collar
V = Volume of the rod = AL ∆
=
E = Young’s Modulus

δL = Extension of the rod due to load P

∆ = ∗
σ = Stress induced in the body
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Equating the equations:

Work done by the load:

Vertical Load = ∗ Vertical Load ∗ ℎ+ = ∗

2
Load Load

ℎ = ∗ ℎ+ ℎ ∗ ℎ+ ∗ = ∗
Collar Collar 2
Strain Energy stored by the rod:
∗ℎ+ ∗ ∗ = ∗
2

U= ∗ = ∗ 2 2 ℎ
2 2 − ∗ − =0

This is quadratic equation:  If δL is very small in comparison with ℎ

Work done by the load:
2 2 ℎ
− ∗ − =0 = ∗ ℎ+ = ℎ
Equating the equations:
2 2 2 ℎ
± +4∗ ℎ= ∗
4 8∗ ℎ 2
= = ± +
2∗1 4 4 ∗
2 ℎ 2 ℎ
2∗ ℎ 2∗ ℎ = =
= ± + = + 1+ ∗
∗ ∗
 If ℎ = 0
2 ℎ 2 ℎ 2 ℎ 2
= + 1+ = 1+ 1+ = 1+ 1+ =
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Expression for Strain Energy Stored in a

Body due to shear stress
∆ ∆

∅ ∅
ℎ ℎ

Shear stress, = =
∗

The rectangular block, Length, , Height, ℎ, and breadth = ∗ ∗

If the shear force is applied

gradually, then the average load will
be equal to

Work done by gradually applied load:

∗ ∗ 1
Shear strain, ∅ = = = ∗ = ∗∅∗ = ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗∅∗ℎ
2 2 2
1 1
=∅∗ = ∗ ∗ ∗ = ∗ ∗
2 2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Theories of Failure
When some external load is applied on a load, the stresses and
strains are produced in the body.

Within the elastic limit, the stresses is directly proportional to the

Theories of Failure strain.

This means when the load is removed, the body will return to its
original shape.

There is no permanent deformation in the body.

If the stress produced in the body due to the application of the load, Why does a component fails?
is beyond elastic limit, the permanent deformation occur in the Some theories have advanced to explain the cause of failure.
body.
 The maximum Principal stress
This means if the load is removed, the body will not retain its
original shape.  The maximum Principal strain
 The maximum Shear Stress
There are some permanent deformations in the body.
 The maximum Strain Energy
Permanent deformations means the body have failed
 The maximum Shear Strain Energy
This should be very clear that, failure does not mean rapture of the ∗
In all of the above cases, , , = Principal stresses in any complex system, and =
body. tensile or compressive stress at the elastic limit
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

In a complex three dimensional stress system:

Maximum Principal Stress Theory
, , = Principal stresses at a point in three perpendicular
directions.
The failure of material will occur when the maximum principal
tensile stress in the complex system reaches the value of the , , = are tensile and is compressive, and is greater than
maximum stress at the elastic limit in simple tension.
According to this theory, the failure will take place if:
OR ∗
= tensile stress at elastic limit in simple tension
∗ = compressive stress at elastic limit in simple compression
The minimum principal stress (i.e., the maximum principal
∗
compressive stress) reaches the value of the maximum stress at the ≥ in simple tension
elastic limit in simple compression. ∗
≥ in simple compression

This is the simplest and oldest theory of failure and is known as

Rankine’s theory Maximum Principal Strain Theory
If the maximum principal stress σ is the design criterion, then
maximum principal stress must not exceed the permissible stress The theory is due to Saint Venant.
for the given material.
The failure will occur in a material when the maximum principal
Hence:
strain reaches the strain due to yield stresses in simple tension or
σ =σ when the minimum principal strain ( . . Maximum compressive
strain) reaches the strain due to yield stress in simple compression.
σ = Permissible stress and is given by:
∗
σ = Yield stress is the maximum stress at elastic limit.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Principal strain in the direction of principal stress Strain due to yield stress in simple tension

1
= − − = ∗

1 1 ∗
= − + = ∗

Principal strain in the direction of principal stress is And strain due to yield stress in simple compression

1 1 ∗
= − + = ∗

OR
According to this theory, the failure of the material will take place ∗
when: ≥

1 ∗
∗
≥ − + ≥

− + ≥ ∗
∗
1 For actual design ( . . where some quantity is to be calculated),
− + ≥
∗ ∗ , the permissible stress σ or σ in simple
instead of
tensile or compression should be used.
∗
− + ≥ ∗ ∗
σ = and σ =
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

∗
Maximum Shear Stress Theory In case of simple, at the elastic limit the principal stresses are , 0,0
In simple tension, the stress is existing in one direction only
The theory is due to Guest and Tresca and therefore known as
Guest’s theory. ∴Maximum shear stress in simple tension at elastic limit
1 ∗
1 ∗
The failure of a material will occur when the maximum shear stress = −0 =
in material the value of maximum shear stress in simple tension at 2 2
elastic limit. ∴For the failure of material,

, , = Principal stresses at a point in a material for which

∗
is a principal stress in simple tension at elastic limit 1 1 ∗
− ≥
− 2 2
= ∗
2 − ≥

For actual design ( . . where some quantity is to be calculated),

Maximum Strain Energy Theory
∗ ∗ , the permissible stress σ or σ in simple
instead of
The theory is due to ℎ and is known as ℎ Theory.
tensile or compression should be used.
The failure of a material will occur when the total strain energy per
∗ ∗ unit volume in the material reaches the strain energy per unit
σ = and σ =
volume of the material at the elastic in simple tension

The strain energy in a body is equal to the work done by the load
Hence, for design, the following equation should be used.
( ) in straining the material.

− = 1
= ∗ ∗ Load is gradually increased from 0 to
2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

For three dimensional stress system, the corresponding strains are:

1 1
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
2 2 = − − = − +

1
= ∗ ∗ ∗ = − +
2

1 = − +
= ∗ ∗ ∗
2
The total strain energy per unit volume:

Strain Energy per unit volume = ∗ ∗ 1 1 1

= ∗ ∗ + ∗ ∗ + ∗ ∗
2 2 2

∗
1 1 1 1 ∗ ∗
1 ∗
1 ∗
= ∗ ∗ + ∗ ∗ + ∗ ∗ = ∗ ∗ = ∗ ∗ = ∗
2 2 2 2 2 2

=
1
∗ ∗ − + +
1
∗ ∗ − + +
1
∗ ∗ − +
1 1 ∗
2 2 2 + + −2 + + ≥ ∗
2 2
1 + + −2 + + ≥ ∗
= + + −2 + +
2
For actual design ( . . where some quantity is to be calculated),
The strain energy per unit volume corresponding to stress at elastic instead of ∗ the permissible stress σ in simple tensile should be
limit in simple tension: considered
1 ∗
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
= ∗ ∗ =Strain due to σ =
2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Maximum Shear Strain Energy Theory The total shear strain energy (or distortion) per unit volume due to
principal stresses , and in stressed material is given by:
The theory is due to and is known as −
Theory. 1
− + − + −
12
This theory is also called the energy of ℎ .
In simple tension is a uniaxial stress system which means principal
The failure of a material will occurs when the total shear strain stresses are , 0, 0
energy per unit volume in the stressed material reaches a value
equal to the shear stress strain energy per unit volume at the elastic
∗
limit in the simple tension. At the elastic limit the tensile stress in simple test is , 0,0

The shear strain energy per unit volume at the elastic limit in simple
tension will be: For actual design ( . . where some quantity is to be calculated),
instead of ∗ the permissible stress σ in simple tensile should be
1 ∗ ∗ considered
−0 + 0−0 + 0−
12
1 1 ∗
∗ ∗
2∗ = σ =
12 6
The failure of the material will occur if,
For the design purpose, we use:
1 1 ∗
− + − + − ≥
12 6
− + − + − ≥2
∗
− + − + − ≥2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

For the two dimensional stress system, =0 Important Points From Theories of Failure used in Design
 The maximum principal stress theory should be used in case of
− + − + − ≥2 brittle materials such as cast iron.

− + + − ≥2  The maximum shear stress or maximum strain energy theories

should be used for ductile material.

2 −2 +2 ≥2  They give good approximation.

 When the mean principal stress is compressive, the shear

− + ≥
strain energy should be preferred

 The maximum strain theory gives reliable results in particular

cases. Hence this theory should not be used in general.
For the case, = i.e. equal tension in two perpendicular direction.  The maximum shear stress theory should not be applied in the
For two dimensional stress system =0 case where the state of stress consists of triaxial tensile stresses
∗ of nearly equal magnitude, reducing the shearing stress to a
− +0 ≥
small magnitude.
∗
1− ≥
∗
=
1−  In this case the failure would be brittle fracture rather than by
∗
As is less than unity, ≥ yielding.
This means, tensile stress at failure is more than the stress in simple
tension. Experiment does not support this conclusion.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Forces and Moments

Transmitted by Slender Members
In slender members the length is greater that its other dimensions

=Axial Force, this components tends to elongate or compress

the member and is often given by

, = These are Shear Force, these components tends to shear

one part of the member relative to the adjacent part and is often = Twisting moment or Torsion. It is responsible for the
given by twisting of the member about it is axis and is often given by
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Sign Conversion

a) Tension

b) Compression
, = Bending moment or Torsion. These cause the member −
to bent and is often given by

Clockwise Rotation Counterclockwise Rotation

Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Clockwise Rotation Counterclockwise Rotation

Positive Negative

Concave Support Conditions

 Roller Support: Restrict the vertical movement only, and it
allows the rotation (preventing a moment reaction to develop)

Convex

Sagging Moment Hogging Moment

Positive Negative
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

 Hinge Support (Pin) : Restrict the horizontal and vertical

 Fixed Support (Cantilever): Restrict the horizontal, vertical,
movement (force) , and it allows the rotation (preventing
and rotation movement (provides the bending moment)
moment reaction to develop), for example Door Hinge

 Simply Supported Beam

Beam Analysis
 Calculate Support reaction

 Cantilever Beam
 Calculate Internal Forces (Shear and Moment)

 Calculate Stresses
 Beam with internal Hinge
 Calculate deflection
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Example: 01 1 1

4 2
4 2
=0 =0
1
=0 + =1 = −0.5

+ =0 4 −6∗1 = 0 = 1.5
4 2

1 Example: 02 0.5 ⁄

4 2
4 2
1
0.5 ⁄

4 2
0.5 4 2
1.5
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

3 3 0.5 ⁄

4 2 4 2
0.75 2.25
=0 =0
3 3

=0 + =3 = 0.75

+ =0 4 −3∗3 = 0 = 2.25
4 2
0.75 2.25

Example: 03 1.5 1.5

6
6
=0 =0
1.5
=0 = 1.5

6 =0 − 6 ∗ 1.5 = 0 =9
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Example: 04 7 ⁄
1.5

6
6
9 1.5 7 ⁄

6
6
1.5

7 ⁄ 1
∗ 6 ∗ 7 = 21
2

6 2
∗6=4
1 3
∗ 6 ∗ 7 = 21 =0 =0
2

=0 = 21

2 =0 − 4 ∗ 21 = 0 = 84
∗6=4
3
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

7 ⁄

84 21

4
21

Steps:

a) Idealize the actual problem: FBD, all forces

b) Using the equations of equilibrium i.e. ∑ = 0, ∑ =0

Shear and Bending Equation
 Calculate the unknown external forces or support reactions

c) Cut the member at a section of interest and find the required

component by applying equation condition.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

A shear force diagram is one which shows the variation of shear Types of the Beam
force along the length of the beam.
 Cantilever Beam
The algebraic sum of the vertical forces at any section of a beam to
the right or left of the section is known as shear force i.e. S.F Cantilever Beam is the beam which is fixed at one end and free at
the other end.
Bending moment diagram is one which shows the variation of the
bending moment along the length of the beam.

The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces acting to the
right or left of the section is known as bending moment i.e. B.M

 Overhanging Beam
 Simply Supported Beam

If the end portion of a beam is extended beyond the support, then

the beam is known as overhanging beam.
Is a beam supported or resting freely on the support at its both ends

Overhanging
Simply Support Beam Portion
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

 Fixed Beam
 Continuous Beam

Is the beam whose both ends are fixed or built in walls.

Is the beam which is provided with more than two supports

Types of Load  Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

 Concentrated load or point load UDL is the one which spread over a beam in a such manner the rate
of loading ⁄ is uniformly along the length i.e. each unit length
A concentrated load is one which is considered to act at a point, is loaded to the same rate.
although in practice it must be really be distributed over a small
area. ⁄
W
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Example: 05
 Uniformly Varying Load or Triangular Loading

UVL is the one which spread over a beam in a such manner the rate
of loading ⁄ varies from point to point along the beam length
i.e. Load is zero at one end and increases uniformly to the other
end.
=0 =0
⁄

=0 =

=0 − ∗ =0
=

n n

0< <
x n
n

Consider section −
=0
n

0< < − =0
n

=
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Consider section s −
n s
0< <
n x

=0 s
a< < +
− + =0 s

= − = − = −

s s
< < + < < +
s s

=0
=0

− − =0 − − + =0

=0 =
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Example: 06, Alternatively n

=0 =0
Consider section −
n
=0 =
0< <
n
=0 − ∗ =0
=

n n

0< < 0< <

n n

=0 =0

− =0 − + =0

= = − = −
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Consider section s −
s
s

x < < +
s
s

s =0
a< < +
s
− − =0

=0

Example: 07 10
s
< < +
s
40 20
=0 =0
=0 10
=0 = 10
− + − + =0 − + − + =0
=0 − 40 ∗ 10 = 0
40 20
=0 = 400
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

400 10 400 n
n
0< < 40
x
n

10 40 n 20 10

Consider section −
400 =0
n

0< < 40 10 − =0
n

10 = 10

400 Consider section s −

n
400 10
s
0< < 40
n
x
10
10 40 20 s
=0
400 10
s
− + 400 = 0 = − 400 40 < < 60
s
= 10 − 400 40
10
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

400 10 400 10
s s
40 < < 60 40 < < 60
s s
10 40 10 40

=0
=0

10 − 10 − =0 + 400 − 400 − =0 =

=0 =0

10 Example: 08, Alternatively 10

40 20 40 20
=0 =0
10
10, 0 < < 40 10 − 400, 0< < 40 =0 = 10
= =
0, 40 < < 60 0, 40 < < 60
=0 − 40 ∗ 10 = 0
40 20
= 400
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

400 10 400 n
n
0< < 40
x
n

10 40 n 20 10

Consider section −
400 =0
n

0< < 40 10 − =0
n

10 = 10

Consider section s −
400 10
400 s
n

0< < 40 x
n
10 40 20 s
10
400 10
=0 s
40 < < 60
s
− 10 + 400 = 0 = 10 − 400
10 40
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

400 10 400 10
s s
40 < < 60 40 < < 60
s s
10 40 10 40

=0
=0

− 10 + 10 − 40 + 400 = 0 − 10 + 10 − 400 + 400 = 0

10 − 10 − =0

=0 =0

10 Basic relation between the

rate of loading, shear force and Bending moment :
Differential equation relationship
Consider simply supported beam carrying a triangular loading
40 20 as shown below
⁄

10, 0 < < 40 10 − 400, 0< < 40

= =
0, 40 < < 60 0, 40 < < 60
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Let us consider a small distance from this distributed load: Detached area of consideration:

⁄
+ +

+
+

The small element must be in equilibrium under the action of these

forces and couples. Take a moment at point

=0

+ − + − − =0
2 2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Under the limit: → 0, =

+ − + − − =0
2 2
=
+ − − − − =0
2 2 2
Resolving the force vertically:
Neglecting the product of as being a small quantities
− − + =0
− =0
+ =0

= ………………. (1) =−

⁄m
1 2
Under the limit: → 0, = x

=− =− =− A dx
1 2 B
M M + dM

=− =−
dx
V + dV
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Let: The portion of the beam of the length, dx is in equilibrium, hence:

V = shear force at section 1 − 1 V − dx − V + d =0
V + dV = shear force at section 2 − 2 − dx − dV = 0
M = Bending moment at section 1 − 1 d The rate of change of shear force, is equal to the rate of
=−
M + dM = Bending moment at section 2 − 2 dx loading.

Taking the moments of the force and couples about section 2 − 2

− + =0
− − + ∗ + + =0
2
The rate of change of bending moment, is equal to the
Neglecting the higher powers of =
− + + =0 rate of shear force at the section.
2 small quantities
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Conclusion:
From equation (1), the area of shear force diagram between any two Example 09
points, from the basic calculus is the bending moment diagram

= Find the reaction support in the beam and draw BMD and SFD

The slope of the bending moment diagram is the shear force: 10

=

If the = 0, the slope of the bending moment is zero and the

bending moment is therefore constant. 4 6

The maximum or minimum Bending Moment occurs where =0

FBD 10
=4 =6
Consider section − along AC

4 6
n
=0 =0
x
=0 + = 10
n
=0 10 − 4 ∗ 10 = 0
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Consider section − along AC n

n 0< <4
n
0< <4 6
n

6 =0
=0

−6 = 0
6 − =0

=6 =6

Consider section s − along CB Consider section s −

10
s
4< < 10
s
s
x
6 4
s
=0

6 − 10 − =0

= −4
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Consider section s −
10
s
4< <6
s
6 4
=0
6, 0< <4 6 , 0< <4
− 6 + 10( − 4) = 0 − 6 + 10 − 40 = 0 = =
−4, 4 < < 10 40 − 4 4 < < 10

= 40 − 4

6, 0< <4
=
−4, 4 < < 10

6
6 , 0< <4 −4
=
40 − 4 4 < < 10 24
6, 0< <4 6 , 0< <4
= =
−4, 4< < 10 40 − 4 4 < < 10
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

FBD
Example 10

Find the reaction support in the beam and draw BMD and SFD

100 ⁄
=0 = 0 … … … … . eqn(1)

=0 + = 500 … … … … … . (2)

5 5
=0 5
10 − 5 ∗ 100 ∗ = 0……….…. (3)
2

Consider section − along AC

= 125 = 375
Consider section − along AC
n
n
0< <5
n
x
375
n
=0 375 − − 100 = 0 = 375 − 100
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Consider section − along AC Consider section s − along BC

n s
0< <5
n
x

375 s

=0 − 375 + 100 =0 = 375 − 50

2

Consider section s − Consider section s −

s s
5< < 10 5< < 10
s s
375 5 375 5
5
=0 =0 − 375 + 500 −5+ =0
2

375 − 500 − =0 = −125 = 1250 − 125

Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

100 ⁄
375 − 100 , 0< <5
=
−125, 5 < < 10

5 5
375 125
375 − 50 , 0< <5
375 − 100 , 0< <5 375 − 50 , 0< <5 =
= = 1250 − 125 , 5 < < 10
−125, 5 < < 10 1250 − 125 , 5 < < 10

Example 11:
Find the Shear and Bending equation
⁄

375
−125
625

375 − 100 , 0< <5 375 − 50 , 0< <5

= =
−125, 5 < < 10 1250 − 125 , 5 < < 10
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Solution: FBD
1 ⁄
2

=0 =0

=0 + =
2 =
2 1 6
3 3 =0 2
L − ∗ =0 =
3 2 3

Consider section − along AB (L, )

n
(0,0)

x
Equation of line can be found as:
n Slope =
∆
=
∆
Equation of line at any point along is then given as:

=
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

⁄ ⁄
2

0< < 0< <

6 6 2 1
3 3

Bending moment is maximum, when =0

= − =0 =
6 2 3
Recall:

= − = 1−
=0 =0 6 6 6

=0 − − =0 = − 3
6 2 6 2 = 1− = ∗ 1−
6 6 3
=0 − + ∗ =0 = −
6 2 3 6 6 =
9 3
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

⁄ Assume, = 15 ⁄ , and = 10

= =
6 3
= {25 − 0.75 , 0< < 10 = {25 − 0.25 , 0< < 10
= − , 0< < = − , 0< <
6 2 6 6

Example 12:
= {25 − 0.75 , 0< < Find the reaction support in the beam and draw BMD and SFD

= {25 − 0.25 , 0< <

Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Solution: FBD

⁄
=0 =0

=0 + =
=
2

2 2 =0
L − ∗ =0 =
2 2

Consider section − along AB

⁄ ⁄
n

0< <
n

2 2 2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

0< <
=0 =0

=0 − − =0 = −
2 2 2 2
2
=0 − + =0 = −
2 2 2 2

Bending moment is maximum, when =0

⁄
= − =
2 2
Recall:

= −
2 2
2 2
= ∗ − ∗ = −
2 2 2 4 4 8

= − , 0< < = − , 0< <

2 2 2
=
8
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Assume, = 1.5 ⁄ , and =8

⁄
= {6 − 1.5 , 0< <8

2 2

= {6 − 1.5 , 0< <8 = {6 − 0.75 , 0< <8 = {6 − 0.75 , 0< <8

Quiz: 3 Stress
Find the reaction support in the beam and draw BMD and SFD
Stress is defined as the internal resistance set up by a body when it
is deformed.
1.5 ⁄
It is measured in ⁄ or simply Pascal ( )

Stress expresses the loading in terms of force applied to a certain

cross-sectional area of an object.
8
From perspective of loading, stress is the applied force or system of
forces that tends to deform a body.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

In material, stress is the internal distribution of forces within a body

Types of Stress
that balance and react to the loads applied. A stress act on the body may be normal or shear stress

Depending on the nature of the load applied, stress may be uniform Normal Stress
or non uniform. Normal Stress is the stress that acts perpendicular to the area.

For pure tension: Tensile stress is uniform distributed. = = =

For Bending: Stress distribution changes with distance The Normal Stress is again subdivided into two parts:
perpendicular to the normal axis.
Tensile and Compressive Stresses

Tensile Stress
 The Tensile stress is a type of normal stress, acts at 90° to
The stress which induced in the body when it is subjected to two the area.
equal and opposite pulls is called tensile stress.
 The strain induced due tensile stress is called tensile strain.
It is equal to the ratio of increase in the length to the
original length

 The Tensile stress increase the length of the body and  =

decrease the cross-section area of the body
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Compressive Stress
 The compressive stress is a type of normal stress, acts at
The stress which induced in the body when it is subjected to two 90° to the area.
equal and opposite pushes is called compressive stress.
 The strain induced due tensile stress is called compressive
strain. It is equal to the ratio of decrease in the length to the
original length

 The Compressive stress decreases the length of the body  =

and increase the cross-section area of the body

Shear Stress Shear can be Single or Double

Shear Stress is caused when the force applied to an object are

= , Single Shear = , Double Shear
parallel to the objects cross-section.

Shear stress developed in a plane parallel to the applied force, and it

perpendicular to the axis of the member

=
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

= , Single Shear 2 = , Double Shear

Double Shear
Single Shear
2 2

Bending Moment
Normal Stress Shear Stress To understand the meaning of Bending Moment, first understand
what is moment of force.
 Direct Load (axial Load)  Direct Load (Transverse Force is simply PUSH or PULL
Direction
 A Tensile Stress
 Torsion
 Compressive Stress
 Shear Stress due to
 Bending Stress Bending
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

A structure member can be divided into two parts: Longitudinal and A force applied in the longitudinal axis of the member would tend
Lateral axis. to elongate the body (Tensile Force) or compress (Compressive) the
member

The amount of elongation, compression or shearing directly

A force applied in the lateral axis of the member would tend to slice dependent on the magnitude of the force applied i.e. more is the
off the member (Shear Force) or would try to bend the member force more is the effect.
(Bending Moment)
But not in the case of Rotation.
The same amount of force if applied at a greater distance would
cause or produce greater rotation.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Applying the same force (F), refer to figure below, rotation would
be more in the second case, since the lever arm is more and thus the The turning effect of a force is known as the Moment, but moment
moment is high. of the force is a product of force and the distance.

This means, it is not only the magnitude of force but also a distance
If this moment of force tries to twist the member, then it is known
at which it is applied, that tell us the effect.
as twisting moment, or torsional moment, and if this moment force
This effect is called Moment Force i.e. tries to bend the members the it is called bending moment.

The bending moment is maximum, when shear force is zero.

= =0

If two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in directions

(they balance each other), we say the body is in equilibrium, and it Simple Bending Theory Or
will not accelerate Theory of Flexure for Initially Straight Beams

If there is unbalanced force in the body, the body then is not in When some external load acts on a beam, the shear force and
equilibrium, unbalanced forces causes acceleration. bending moment are set up at all sections of the beam.

‘A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element

when external force or moment is applied to the element causing Due to some shear force and bending moment the beam undergoes
the element to bend’. certain deformation.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

The material of the beam will offer resistance or stresses against Pure Bending or Simple Bending
these deformations.
If the length of the beam is subjected to a constant bending moment
and no shear force i.e. zero shear force, then the stresses will be set up
These stresses with certain assumption can be calculated. in that length of the beam due to Bending moment only and that length
is said to be in pure bending or simple bending.

The stresses introduced by bending moment are known as bending

The stresses set up in that length of beam are known as Bending
stresses.
Stresses.

Let the beam subjected to different types of loading such as:

Suppose we have a long beam, supported at point ( ) and
( ). POINT LOAD

Fracture/Failure

Maximum deflection
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Distributed Load (udl) Distributed Load (udl)

Maximum deflection

Maximum deflection

A B
C a L a D
= =

A +
C B
D
− SF Diagram
It is clear that, no shear force along , but the bending moment is
C A B D constant.
−
will be subjected to a constant bending moment only, known as
∗ BM Diagram ∗ pure bending or simple bending.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Theory of Simple Bending Assumption

 The material of the beam is homogenous and isotropic  The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend
into circular arc with a common center of curvature
Homogenous means the material is of the same kind
throughout
Isotropic means the elastic properties in all directions are  The radius of curvature is large compared with the dimension of
equal the cross-section

 The value of Young’s Modulus of elasticity is the same in tension

and compression  Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, indecently
of the layer above or below it.
 The transverse sections which were plane before bending,
remain plane after bending.

Beam before bending

Beam after bending
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Tension

N.A

The layer which is neither shorted or elongated is known as neutral

Compression layer or neutral surface.
The line of intersection of the neutral layer is known as neutral
axis, denoted as . always passes through the center of the area or
centroid.

The amount by which a layer increase or decrease in length,

depends upon the position of the layer with respect to N.A After and before bending the length = = will remain
unchanged
This is the theory of simple bending.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

From the figure:

= = × …. (1)

From the bending diagram, the

position has changed to ′ ′.
is distance from N.A

= × + …. (2)

The increased length of the layer

= The angle subtended by the arc at the center = − = − But =
= Radius of curvature i.e. radius of neutral axis × + − × = ×

As is constant, then the strain is proportional to its distance from

neutral axis, . . This means the variation of strain along the depth
The strain in the layer CD is given by, of the beam is linear.
y Change in length
= = Strain
R Original lenght
Increased in length dθ × y dθ × y y
= = =
Original length CD or E F dθ × R R

ΔL y Change in length
= = = Strain
L R Original lenght
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

All layers below the neutral layer are subjected to compressive

Within the elastic limit:
stresses, whereas all layers below the neutral layer will be subjected
to tensile stresses
= E Young s Modulus of Elasticity
Strain
y Change in length Stress
= = Strain =
R Original lenght E
y
=
R
Since and are constant for a given beam. Hence, stress in any
fiber is proportional to the distance of the fiber from the neutral axis
The equation shows variation of stress along the depth of the beam

There is no stress at the neutral axis.

Neutral Axis and Moment of resistance
The stress at any distance from the neutral axis is given by:
Neutral axis is defined as a line of intersection of the neutral layer
with transverse section. E
= ∗
R
It is denoted by a symbol, .
Take a cross-section of a beam,
For the sagging moment, the stresses will be compressive at any having . as shown
point above the neutral axis and tensile below the neutral axis.
Consider a small layer at a
distance from neutral axis
For the hogging moment, the stresses will be compressive at any
point below the neutral axis and tensile abo the neutral axis. Let be the area of this layer
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

The force on the layer is given as: For the pure bending there is no force on the section of the beam or
= Stress on the layer ∗ Area of the layer force is zero
E
= ∗ ∗
R ∴ ∗ =0
The total force on the beam
section is obtained by integrating
Or simply:
the above equation.
The total force on the beam is
= ∗ =0
given as:
E
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ cannot be zero.
R

For the pure bending, the layers above neutral axis are subjected to
∗ represents the moment of area about neutral axis. tensile stresses, whereas the layers below neutral axis are subjected
to compressive stresses
∫ ∗ represents the moment of the entire area of the section
about the neutral axis.

The moment of any area passing through its centroid is also equal
to zero i.e. neutral axis coincides with the centroidal axis

Thus, the centroidal axis of a section gives the position of neutral

axis.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Due these stresses, the force will be acting on the layers. These The force on the layer at a distance from neutral axis is given as:
force will have moment about the neutral axis. E
Force on the layer = ∗ y ∗ dA
The total moment of these forces about its neutral axis is known as R
moment of resistance of that section. Moment of this force about neutral axis is:
E
= ∗ y ∗ dA ∗ y
R
E
= ∗ ∗ dA
R
The total moment of the forces (moment of
resistance) is given as:
E
= ∗ ∗ = ∗
R

At equilibrium the moment resistance ∫ ∗ offered by the This equation is only used for the constant bending moment, and no
section should be equal to the external bending moment, applied shear force on the member.
on the beam
But in practice, moment varies from section to section and shear
E
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ force is not zero.
R
∫ ∗ represents the moment of inertia But shear force is assumed to be zero when bending moment is
of the area of the section about the neutral maximum.
axis,
Then, this satisfies condition of simple bending at any section.
= ∗
The stress produced due the maximum bending moment can be
= = Bending moment equation obtained using bending equation.
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

What will happen when the bending moment varies along the For pure bending, the resultant shear forces are zero on any cross
length of the bar? section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member.

=0
Will the bending stress equation ( = ) be valid?

= = 0 or =
Yes!!, from the experiment it has been seen that the bending stress
equation is quite valid as long as the bending moment varies along Zero shear force means that the bending moment is constant or
the length. bending is the same at any cross-section of the beam.

Shear Stress in Bending Shear Stress at a section

When an object is subjected to a constant bending moment, the shear
Simply supported beam, carrying a uniformly distributed load.
force will be zero i.e. only bending stresses will be in the beam

The shear stress will be zero as shear force is zero.

In reality, the beam is subjected to a bending moment which varies

from section to section.

And the shear force acting on the beam in not zero. It also varies
from section to section. For uniformly distributed load, shear force and bending moment will
vary along the length of the beam.
Due to these shear force, the beam will be subjected to shear stresses
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Shear Stress in Bending

For pure No Bending Moment:

For pure Bending Moment:
 Bending moment changes (varies) along the length
 No change in bending moment along the length

Consider section and at a distance apart. Find the shear stress on the section at
a distance from the neutral axis.

the cross-section of the beam.

Bending stress is the function of B.M

+
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

+ +

+ +

Bending Stress on section Force on the section

= ∗ = ∗ = ∗ ∗
Bending Stress on section Force on the section
+ +
+ = ∗ = + ∗ = ∗ ∗

+ +

+ +
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

At the two ends of the elemental cylinder, Hence there will be unbalance force on
the force are different, acting along the the elemental cylinder.
same line, but are in opposite direction +
= ∗ ∗ − ∗ ∗
= ∗ = ∗ ∗

+ = ∗ ∗
= + ∗ = ∗ ∗

Total unbalance force can be obtained by

integrating all elemental cylinder between Recall:
section and :

∫ ∫
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ ̅= =
∫ ∫

∫ is called the first moment area:

= ∗ =
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Total unbalance force can be obtained by Due to the total unbalanced force acting on the part of the beam
integrating all elemental cylinder between above the level and between the section and the beam
section and : may fail due to shear.

Area, A
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ = ∗

∗ ∗

In order the above part not to fail by shear, the horizontal section of The shear resistance (or shear force) at the level = Total unbalanced force
the beam at level must offer a shear resistance
Area on which shear is acting = ∗
The shear resistance offered should be at least equal to total
unbalanced force to avoid failure due to shear. Shear force due to = ∗ ∗
Area, A Area, A

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Equating: = , Is 1 moment Area about NA

∗ ∗ = ∗ ∗ = , Shear Force =
∗
= ∗ = = = ℎ is a shear stress due to variation in the bending moment in the
Area, A beam
= 0, for pure bending i.e. there is no bending moment variation
∗ ∗ along the beam.
=

Member Subjected To Torsional Loads A shaft is said to be in torsion, when the action of two and equal
opposite torque are applied ends of the shaft (moment of couple)
In solid mechanics, Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an
applied Torque.

Before Twisting

After Twisting
= × = ×2
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Torque is the product of the force applied (tangentially to the end of

a shaft) and radius of the shaft.
Effect of Torsion applied to a Bar

 To impart an angular displacement of one end cross – section

with respect to the other end.
= ×

 To setup shear stresses on any cross section of the bar

perpendicular to its axis.

Assumption
 The materiel of the shaft is homogenous i.e. of uniform elastic
properties exists throughout the material

 The twist along the shaft is uniform

 The shaft is uniform circular section throughout

 Cross-section of the shaft, which are plane before twist remain =2

plain after twist

 All radii which are straight before twist remain straight after twist
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Let O be the center of circular section and B be a point of surface.

AB be the one on the shaft parallel to the axis of shaft. Due to
Torque T applied, the point B will move to B .

BB distortion at the outer surface due to torque at

Shear strain at outer surface = Distortion per unit length If ∅ is equal to shear strain and θ is of angle of twist in length L, then:

BB BB
tan ∅ = =
Shear strain at outer surface = = AB L
For small angle: tan ∅ = ∅
Then the equation becomes:
BB
∅= ………… (1)
L
Similarly, if the point B is considered is at any distance R from the
center instead on the surface, then:
BB = Rθ … … … eqn(2)
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

If τ is the shear stress developed, in the element, the resisting force

Combine equation 1& 2, we get:
is:
Rθ
∅= … . eqn(3)
L
The modulus of rigidity G of the material of the shaft is given as:

Shear stress induced at outer surface τ

G= = … . . eqn(4)
Shear strain produced at outer surface ∅

Equating equation 3 & 4, we get: dF = τdA

Resisting torsional moment becomes:
τ Gθ dT = dF ∗ r
= … … eqn(5)
R L dT = τdA ∗ r … . . eqn(6)

From equation (5), τ is given as, then for small area, R = r, this Gθ
T= r dA
implies that: L
Gθ
τ= But ∫ r dA is nothing but polar moment of inertia of the section,
L
represented by symbol J
Substituting into equation (6)..
Gθr GθJ
dT = dA T= …… (7)
L L
Taking an integral sign on both side of the equation: Combine equation 5 and 7, we get:
Gθr T Gθ τ
dT = dA = =
L J L R
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Example: TL
θ=
J
A hollow steel shaft 2.5 m long must transmit a torque of 25 .
The Total angle of Twist over the length of shaft is not to exceed 2°
2∗ 25 ∗ 10 ∗ 2.5
and the maximum allowable shear stress is 82 ⁄ . Find the =
dimensions of the shaft i.e. inside and outside diameter 180° 80 ∗ 10 ∗ J

Shear Modulus = 80 ⁄ = 2.2381 ∗ 10

From Shear Stress:

Solution:

T Gθ τ TR
= = τ=
J L R J

TR Example:
τ= = From the figure below, calculate the internal Torque, draw the
J 2
internal torque diagram, and find the maximum shear stress.
2τ 2 ∗ 2.2381 ∗ 10 ∗ 82 ∗ 10
= =
25 ∗ 10
= 0.147 147

= −
32

2.2381 ∗ 10 = 0.147 −
32
= 0.124 124 Given = 50
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Solution: Segment AB

→ =0
x x x x

− 60 = 0
= 60

Segment BC Segment CD

x x

→ =0
→ =0

− 60 + 20 = 0 − 60 + 20 − 49 = 0
= 40 = 89
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Segment DE

= 60 = 40 = 89
= 124

− 60 + 20 − 49 − 35 = 0 → =0
= 124

= 124 Example:
= 89
= 60
= 40 By using the previously example, calculate the maximum angle of
twist.
Given that: Shear Modulus = 80 ⁄

TR 16
τ= = =
J
2
32

16 ∗ 124
τ= = 5.052
∗ 0.05
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Solution:
The angle of twist is given by:

=
=

=
= + + +

1
= 60 ∗ 1.5 + 40 ∗ 1 + 89 ∗ 1.8 + 124 ∗ 1.7
= = = = ∗ 0.05
80 ∗ 10 ∗
32
1 0.01° ∗
= + + + = 0.01° = 0.00018
180°
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Example: Solution:

Find the shaft diameter, if the = 25

=0

−60 + − 49 − = 0
− = 109 (1)

=0 =0

= + + + = 0
+ + + = 0

+ + + = 0
+ + + = 0
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Using segment method:

=0

GJ + + + = 0
x x x x

+ + + = 0 (2)

Segment AB Segment BC

x x

→ =0 → =0

− 60 = 0 − 60 + =0
= 60 (3) = 60 − (4)
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

Segment CD Segment DE

x x

→ =0

− 60 + − 49 = 0 − 60 + − 49 − =0 → =0
= 109 − (5) = 109 − + (6)

Substitute equation, 3, 4, 5 and 6 into equation 2, we get:

− = 109
+ + + = 0 4.6 − 1.5 = 559.9

2.2 ∗ 60 +1.5 60 − +1.6 109 − + 1.5 109 − + = 0 = 127.87

132 + 90 − 1.5 +174.4 − 1.6 +163.5 − 1.5 + 1.5 = 0 = 18.87

= 60
559.9 − 4.6 + 1.5 = 0
= 60 − = 60 − 127.87 = −67.87
4.6 − 1.5 = 559.9
= 109 − = 109 − 127.87 = −18.87
Combine with equation 1, and solve the value of and = 109 − + = 109 − 127.87 + 18.87 = 0
Chacha Mwita - NIT 2020

From this analysis, the torque is maximum at segment

= 67.87

TR 32
τ= =
J

16 16 ∗ 67.87
= = = 0.024 24
∗ 25 ∗ 10