4.

7 Integrated Circuitry Transistors TE IC or

Diode
and Diodes Flow Sheet Symbol

B. G. LIPTÁK (1995, 2003)

Applications: Because of their low accuracy, integrated circuitry sensors are used in heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) type services and to detect hot or cold spots
in piping. IC sensors are most often used in near-ambient temperature measurement;
germanium diodes are often used in extreme cryogenic applications, and silicon
diodes are used from −60 to 300°F (−51 to 149°C).
Ranges: Integrated circuitry sensors, from −65 to 300°F (−54 to 149°C); silicon diodes, from
−60 to 300°F (−51 to 149°C); germanium diodes, from −420 to 110°F (−251 to 43°C).
Some diodes can cover the range of 1.4 to 475°F (−271.8 to 202°C).
Outputs: Some integrated circuitry sensors generate a linear output with a slope of 1 µA/°C;
others produce an output of 10 mV/°C.
Linearity: 1% of range
Inaccuracy: For integrated circuitry sensors the error can range from 1 to 9°F (0.5 to 5°C) with
sensitivities on narrow spans approaching 0.1°F (0.06°C). For calibrated diodes the error
is 0.2°F (0.1°C) for temperatures above ambient and 0.2% of range below that. Some
calibrated diodes are accurate within 0.05°C (0.1°F) between 2 to 305°K (−271 to 32°C).
Costs: The basic integrated circuitry transistor elements can cost less than $10. Uncalibrated
diode sensor costs range from $75 to $400; calibration can cost an additional $200
to $300. A calibrated diode with packaging and mounting for cryogenic service costs
$600. Indicating monitor readouts for diode elements cost about $800.
Partial List of Suppliers: Analog Devices Inc. (www.analog.com)
Doric Scientific (www.doric-vas.com)
Dynalco Controls (www.dynalco.com)
Elan Technical Corp. (www.elan.com)
Lake Shore Cryotronics Inc. (www.lakeshore.com)
Motorola Semiconductor Products (www. mot-sps.com)
National Semiconductor (www.national.com)
Omega Engineering Inc. (www.omega.com)
Onicon Inc. (www.onicon.com)
OPTO 22 (www.opto22.com)
Raychem Corp. (www.raychem.com) (multipoint IC tape)
S-Products Inc. (www.s-products.com)
Syscon International Inc. (www.syscon-intl.com)
Wahl Instruments Inc. (www.testandmeasurement.com)
Wilkerson Instrument Co. (www.wici.com)
Yokogawa Corp. of America (www.yca.com)

Diodes are two-terminal electronic (usually semiconductor) INTRODUCTION

devices that permit current flow predominantly in only one
direction. Transistors are three-terminal, solid state electronic Diodes and integrated circuitry (IC) transistors have been avail-
devices. They are usually made of silicone, gallium-arsenide, able as temperature sensors for several decades. The silicon
or germanium and used for amplification and switching in (and germanium) transistors are small and inexpensive, but
integrated circuits. before they can be used as part of an industrial system (such
as an intelligent thermostat), they need to be packaged.

620
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
 4.7 Integrated Circuitry Transistors and Diodes 621

One of the first applications of the IC transistor was to Because they produce an analog voltage that is propor-
provide cold junction compensation for thermocouple (TC) tional to temperature, IC transistors have been used for some
circuits. They are also used in multipoint temperature-sensing time for cold junction compensation in TC circuits. IC sensor
cables and in handheld portable temperature monitors. Today modules have also been packaged in flat cables, where they
both the diode and the IC transistor sensors are available as are attached to the cable at regular (several feet) intervals.
fully packaged, off-the-shelf units; some of them are also The cables can be as long as 10,000 ft (3,050 m) and can
integrated with microprocessors, resulting in a so-called have as many as 1,000 sensing modules.
smart sensor. Diodes and transistors can both provide sensi- These cables are an economical way of detecting pipe
tivities approaching 0.1°F (0.06°C) on narrow span applica- surface temperatures or cold or hot spots. IC sensors are also
tions, but in the case of the diodes calibration is needed to being used in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
achieve that level of sensitivity. (HVAC) industry and in other applications where their low
cost and strong linear output outweighs their low accuracy
and limited range. Other disadvantages of IC sensors include
that they require an external power source (4 to 30 V) and
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TEMPERATURE SENSORS
that they are fragile and subject to errors due to self heating.
Transistors are sensitive to temperature variations. It has been
found that if two identical transistors are operated at a con-
stant ratio of collector current densities, then the difference
DIODE-TYPE TEMPERATURE SENSORS
in their base-emitter voltages will be directly proportional to
absolute temperature. Therefore, as temperature decreases the
base bias must be increased to maintain the collector current Diodes are highly sensitive and linear temperature sensors.
constant. The base bias voltage is usually converted to a Silicone and germanium diode temperature elements are
current by a low-temperature coefficient thin film resistor. available from −458 to 395°F (−272 to 202°C). They are
accurate to 0.2°F (0.1°C) for temperatures that are above ambi-
The temperature-proportional characteristic is what
ent and to 0.2% of their full scale range below that.
allows IC transistors to produce output signals that are pro-
Figure 4.7c depicts the diode-based thermometer circuits of
portional to absolute temperature (Figure 4.7a). The IC tem-
perature sensors are available in both voltage and current a silicone diode with a 1 mA constant current source, and
output configurations. The current output units are usually Figure 4.7d shows the circuits of a germanium diode with a
set for a 1-µA output change per degree Kelvin (Celsius), 6-V power supply.
while the voltage output configuration generates 10 mV per
degree Kelvin.
If a digital voltmeter is used as the readout, the current
+ +
output is detected as the voltage drop through a 10,000-Ω
resistor (Figure 4.7b). The temperature-proportional charac-
i = 1µA/K
teristics of IC sensors are highly linear and in the range of 10mv/ To DVM
−67 to 302°F (−55 to 150°C). It is superior to all electronic K
sensors, including resistance temperature detectors. 10K Ω To DVM

500 Current Sensor Voltage Sensor

FIG. 4.7b
400 Current and voltage output type IC transistors.
Output (µA)

300

200
200 300 400 500 50 µA
M
(−73) (27) (127) (227) Meter
1 mA Constant
Temperature °K(°C) Current Source
+
FIG. 4.7a
The temperature-proportional characteristics of the silicone tran- FIG. 4.7c
sistor. (Courtesy of Analog Devices Inc.) Simple silicon diode thermometer circuit.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

622 Temperature Measurement

the disadvantages is that the variations between diodes

require a calibration procedure for absolute accuracy, which
0-50 µA also increases their costs.
Span
M Meter
12K Reference
6V
1. Courts, S.S. et al., “Cryogenic Thermometry: An Overview,” in Appli-
cations of Cryogenic Technology, Vol. 10, Kelley, J.P., Ed., New York:
FIG. 4.7d
Plenum Press, 1991.
Germanium diode thermometer circuit.

Bibliography
5
Adler, C.B., “Reliability Aspects of Temperature Measurement,” Instrumen-
4 tation, Systems, and Automation Society Conference, Chicago, 2001.
Diode Forward Voltage [V]

Bluestein, I., “Understanding Contact Temperature Sensors,” Sensors, October

2001.
3
Courts, S.S. et al., “Cryogenic Thermometry: An Overview,” American
GaAIAs Diode Physical Society Conference, 1991.
2 Fraden, J., Handbook of Modern Sensors, 2nd ed., Heidelberg: Springer-
Verlag, 1997.
Hage, J., “Smart Temperature Transmitter Accents Accuracy,” Control,
1 September 1999.
Silicon Diode Hewlett-Packard, Application Note 290, “Practical Temperature Measure-
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0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 February 1991.
Temperature [°K] Johnson, R., “Measuring the Hot, Difficult and Inaccessible,” Control Engi-
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FIG. 4.7e Kelley, J.P., Ed., Applications of Cryogenic Technology, Vol. 10, New York:
1
Characteristics of silicone and gallium-aluminum-arsenide diodes. Plenum Press, 1991.
Krause, J.K. and Dodrill, B.C., “Measurement System Induced Errors in
Diode Thermometry,” Review of Scientific Instruments, 57(4),
661–665, 1986.
Krause, J.K. and Swinehart, P.R., “Demystifying Cryogenic Temperature
The current through the silicon diode thermometer read-
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higher currents result in higher errors due to self-heating, the InTech, October 1991.
currents are usually kept between 100 and 500 µA. The Magison, E., “Temperature Measurement,” InTech, October 25, 2001.
meters used with germanium diodes usually have a range of Michalski, L. et al., Temperature Measurement, 2nd ed., London: John Wiley
& Sons, 2001.
0 to 50 µA. Because of the low source impedances, a simple
Peterson, W., “Choosing the Right Temperature,” InTech, April 1991.
microampere indicating meter can be used. Prentice, G.R., “Seven reasons Why Temperature Transmitters Are Better
This sensor can also be used to detect small temperature than Direct Wiring,” Process Heating, June 1999.
differences. The main advantages of the diode-type sensors Stockham, R., “Temperature Transmitters Take the Lead Over Direct Wir-
are their high accuracy, particularly at cryogenic tempera- ing,” Control and Instrumentation, Product Survey Directory, 1999.
Volbrecht, A. and Gordon, W., “Temperature Measurement: Making Sense
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© 2003 by Béla Lipták