< The Complete Python Peli c ly Pk Sols ArtyDiscover more of our complete manuals on Readly today... Pre Complete The Complete y ai Wee untu fh Es maliits FR efeye ate} Manual an WWeleivell ie atsAp f staprar ats, Instagram Ne, Hh M 4 The Complete Linux IV Eraterel The Complete WordPress ELM eT ee The Complete The Complete ais =5 ‘Google | | Android Mandal Manual The: orp ~) m - ite | Photo: phy Photography | [Photography 1) Manual yManu PyBau a iu soleus Cer ede cola eT ona i) a clear eye a Pea id Our modern digital world is made up of code. The Internet, our phones, TVs, games consoles, banking and virtually anything else you can think of, that’s connected in some way to the wider world, ESE Aco Remco MMe R AR NASM Ue Rose) Dre acolo That code can come in different forms, called programming languages. Some offer better stability, speed and complex Elfen Olan ee Me ese la Teoma St) Frerro Tee lee ea TM 010s CCOM oD emE-T aT Lt Co) Eleectse-ure heer Deak Tale e-Lec¥- Dale bl cell Keele eM ite Wenn Ro me cole eM AM ole RSMMC Teh HiTal(AU TONY IAeU Ee) WANN ol-leetol elt Cm Vleet clea Maa cod cca MCR Sole mesa TOE) few simple lines of code can create something amazing and can cite ARLE ue h oll meee lV ane ake aod of the most popular and powerful languages to learn and with the help of this book plus a little imagination, you will soon be eter T ecole a Now, turn the page and let’s start learning how to code. —— @bdmpubs |] som pubi )ape ets C] 9 £ 4] ¥ t i Ey ry 4 : The Complete Python Manual 8 ct re cr eee ea Dena lee eae Where Next? (16) PS Vae kena Zen on) oy 20 Fry Fy 26 30 Er 34 Ed 38 rr rr 44 ery 48 Ey Pt 56 a Renny Equipment You will Need ere Ce Ua Coes unread Sena Mom aaa See ne ry ET ea ete orig Executing Code from the Command Line Pee Using Comments on orn er east cere Conditions and Loops Python Modules Lists a Cee eee Ee eee Cees Renee) CMe Cea Ra 66 Opening Files 68 Writing toFiles eres on Ee ed 76 Calendar Module LCs Cacao cs Caer Cee Cocca tan 90 Create Your Own Modules PPM ent) Pen) ce ees Teal teeteae nT 102 Howto Set Up C++ in Linux 104 Other C++ IDEsto Install CMM etees trict) Crete etc pee uc Econcdie @ w Z [ a 9 rT MOS eouurcy STM rnc CMT? POs cre eee iy ) (ovaries eer pro ecm ncn Ei Tees PM ei rae ery Pe Mage cy eee er) comes Trae Sy MRecn ME boty Cee ead (1s0) Code Repository See Ea 154 Number Guessing Game re ees 157 Random Password Generator Cece enc mua keg “Good code is short, simple, and ene Rene ate a Figuring out how to get there.” ~ Sean Parent (Developer and author) eee)Working with CodeIt’s always worth looking at the common pitfalls of coding before you start hitting away at the keyboard; after all, bad habits are often formed at the start of a process. IF you're aware of how to structure your code before you begin, then you will learn to avoid most of the mistakes that usually accompany poorly developed code. This section starts your coding journey by examining those common mistakes, as well as investigating where your coding skills can take you as your experience grows. “Most good programmers do programming not because they expect to get paid or get adulation by the public, but because it is Fun to program.” Linus Torvalds (developer of the Linux kernel)mmon Coding Mistakes Co UN tReeeMehea MMe NR ME Aue come neIy Tag CMe ee edie ne ore at een aad Seo aeM oat Relea Oa Sa MUN Cod CCUM MSEC Cole] X=MISTAKE, PRINT Y There are many pitfalls For the programmer to be aware of, Far too many to be listed here. Being able to recognise a mistake and fix it is when you start to move into more advanced territory, and become a better coder. Everyone makes mistakes, even coders with over thirty years’ experience. Learning from these basic, common mistakes help build a better coding Foundation. e EASY VARIABLES "Meaningful naming for variables is @ must to eliminate common coding mistakes. Having letters ofthe alphabet isfine but what happens when the code states there's. a problem with x variable. I's not too dificult to name variables tives, money, playert and soon. would be wonderful to be able to ‘work lke Neo from The Matrix movies Simply ask, your operator loads it into your memory and you instantly know everything about the subject. Sadly though, we can't do that. The First ‘major pitfallis someone trying to learn too much, too quickly. So take coding in small pieces and take your time. points = 1023; lives = 3; tovaltime = 457 write("Points: "spoints); write("Lives: "s1ives); write("Total Tine: "+totalTine write( //COMMENTS write("Your total Score is: "+totalscore) ; Use comments.’ simple concept but commenting on jour code saves so many problems when you next come to took overt Inserting comment Uneshelps you auch sift PLAN AHEAD through the sections of code that are causing problems; also useful if you need to review an older piece of code. Ce a ee ee a classic text adventure, it's not always practical without a ‘900d plan. Small snippets of code can be written without too much thought and planning but longer and more in depth cade requires a good working plan to stickto and help iron out the bugsUSER ERROR BACKUPS Sa ECR a ama} SECURE DATAz= Working with Code ) Python Beginner's Mistakes SCC eon Meee ence Meer schisms Ree Le Coe Me Rae er) language, it can be easy to make common mistakes that'll stop your code from running. DEF BEGINNER(MISTAKES=10) Here are ten common Python programming mistakes most beginners Find themselves making. Being able to identify these ‘akes will save you headaches in the Future. VERSIONS Todd to the confusion that most beginners already face when coming into programming, Python has two live versions of its language available to download and use. There is Python version 2.T.xand Python 3.6.x. The 3.6.x version isthe most recent, and the one we'd recommend stating. But, version 2.7 xcode doesn't always work with 3.6.x code and vice versa, python THE INTERNET Every programmer has and does at sme point goon the Internet {and copy some code to insert nto their own routines. There's ‘nothing wrong with using others’ code, but you need to know how the code works and what it does before you go blindly running ton, your own computer. Creatldelete xt fle na pynon program EDD ows eFintive Gude series-Volume 4 INDENTS, TABS AND SPACES Python uses precise indentations when displaying ts code. The indents mean that the code in that section s apart ofthe previous statement, nd not something linked with another part ofthe code. Use four spaces to create an indent, not the Tab key. COMMENTING ‘Again we mention commenting. t's a hugely important factor in programming, even if you're the only one wito is ever going to view the code, you need to add comments as to what's going on. Is this Function where you lose aife? Write a comment and help you, or anyone else, see what's going on,COUNTING LOOPS Remember thatn Python 3 loop doesn't count the last number you specify ina range. Soif you wanted the loop to count from 1 to 10, then you will need to use: n = List(range(1, 11)) Which will return 1 to 10. TW reeatine =e x CASE SENSITIVE Python is acase sensitive programming language, so you will need to.check any variables you assign For example, Lives=10 isa different variable to lives=10, calling the wrong variable in your code can have unexpected results Fle Edit Shell Debug Options Python 3.6.2 (¥3.6.2:5¢a33b5, Jul fon wins? Type "copyright", DSS Lavess10 >>> Lavesss >>> prins (Lives, lives) ® 2017, 04 3 Noxedite" or "1icense()" for mor BRACKETS Everyone forgets ta include that extra bracket they should have ‘added to the end ofthe statement. Python relies onthe routine having an equal amount of closed brackets ta open brackets, so any errors in your code could be due to you forgetting to count your brackets including square brackets. def print_game_status(seif): print (board[len(self.missed_letters)]) Print ("Word: ' + self-hide word()) print (‘Letcers Missed: ',) for letter in self.missed letter: print (letcer,) print 0 print ("Letters Guessed: *,) for letter in self.guessed letters: print (letcer,) print () (_ Python Beginner's Mistakes COLONS It’s common for beginners to Forget to add a colon tothe end of a structural statement, such as class Hangman: def quess(self, letter): ‘And so on. The colonis what separates the code, and creates the indents to which the Following code belongs to. OPERATORS Using the wrong operators also common mistake to make. When youre performing a comparison between two values, for example, you need to use the equality operator (a double equals, ==). Using {single equal =) san assignment operator that places a value to 3 variable (such as, Ives=10). OPERATING SYSTEMS \writing code For multiple platforms is dificult, especially when you start to utilise the external commands ofthe operating system, For ‘example, iF your code calls For the screen to be cleared, then For Windows you would use és. Whereas, for Linux you need to use ‘Lear. You need to solve this by capturing the error and issuing it with an alternative command, + coae to aes: ‘ce-ayotem(‘ciess") ————z= Working with Code ) C++ Beginner's Mistakes There are many pitfalls the C++ developer can encounter, especially as this is a more Cou eieunnrn lente esc me chee cere rc) pene eh ars al Coil Kora TaeToay VOID(C++, MISTAKES) Admittedly 's not just C++ beginners that make the kinds of errors we outline on these pages, even hardened coders are prone to the odd mishap here and there. Here are some common issues to try and avoid. UNDECLARED IDENTIFIERS ‘Acommon C++ mistake, andto be honest a common mistake with ‘most programming languages, s when youtry and output a variable that doesnt exist. Displaying the value of x onscreen isfine but not ifyouhaver't told the compiler what the value of xis to begin with File Edit View Search Tools Documents Help AoH&in»e~|xaOH|iag (Citestt.cpp x #include GCC OR G++ IF you're compiling in Linux then you willno doubt come across ‘gccand g++. Inshort, gcc the Gnu Compiler Collection (or Gnu C Compiler as it used to be called) and ge isthe Gnu ++ (the Cr+ version) of the compiler. you're compiling C++ then you need to, use g++, asthe incorrect compiler drivers willbe used. davidermint mate “Documents Fle Edt view Search Termin HelpCOMMENTS (AGAIN) Indeed the mistake of never making any comments on code is back ‘once more. As we've previously bemoaned, the lack of readable identifies throughout the cade makesit very difficult to look backat hhowit worked, for both you and someone else, Use more comments. QUOTES ‘Missing quotes is a common mistake to make, for every level oF user. Remember that quotes need to encase strings and anything that's going to be outputted to the screen or into a file, For example, Most compilers errors are due to missing quotes in the code, EXTRA SEMICOLONS ‘while it’s necessary to have a semicolon at the end of every C++ line, thereare some exceptions to the rule. Semicolons need to be at the end of every complete statement but some lines of code aren't complete statements. Such as: include if lines switch Lines \Fitsounds confusing don’t worry, the compiler lets you know where: you went wrong, (_ C++ Beginner's Mistakes Cl TOO MANY BRACES ‘The braces, or curly brackets, are beginning and ending markers ~around blocks of code. So for every {you must have a}. Often is ‘easy to include or miss out one or the other Facing brace when ‘writing code; usually when writing in a text editor, as an IDE adds them For you. #include > x; cout << x; { cout << "\n\n cout << mystring + INITIALISE VARIABLES In C++ variables arent initialised to zero by default. This means if Yyou create a variable called x then, potentially, itis given arandom number fram 0 to 18,446,744,073, 709,551,616, which can be using namespace std; dint maint) c int x: cout << x; » A.OUT ‘A common mistake when compiling in Linux is Forgetting to name your C++ code post compiling. When you compile Fram the Terminal, you enter: t+ code.cpp ‘This compiles the code in the File code.cpp and create an aut file that can be executed with /a.out. However, iFyou already have code in acoutthenit's overwritten, Use: ‘gt code.cpp =o nameofprogram Fle Ede Vow search Temi! tpz= Working with Code ) Where Next? Coding, like most subjects, is a continual learning experience. You may not class yourself Creve stele TaN et Mole otal Male colc molt mele MCL eee eco} Rae Meee A agree re RCD Ue enol t= 1are CCE olen im cere CANT ed Ue Ue #INCLUDE What can you do to further your skills, learn new coding practises, experiment and present your code and even begin to help ‘thers using what you've experienced so far? OPEN PROJECTS Look for open source projects that you tke the sound of and offer TWITTER ‘Twitter isrtall trolls and antagonists, among the well publicised vitriol are some genuine people who are more than wing to spread their coding knowledge. We recommend you find a few who you can ‘late to and follow them. Often they post area tips, hacks and fixes fForcommon cading problems. a = — eo KEEP CODING \f you've mastered Python fairly wel then turn your attention to Cetoreven GH. Sill keep your Python skis going butlearing anew cading language keeps the old bran ticking over nicely and give youa view into another community, and how they do things differently. sos ten ie Sets ome t to.contribute tothe code to keep it alive and up to date. There are millons of projects to choose From, so contact a few and see where they need help. It may only be a minor code update butit’s a noble ‘occupation for codersto getinto SHARE SKILLS Become more active on coding and development knowledge sites, such as StackExchange, If you have the skilto start and help others ‘out, not only will you feel really good for doing so but you can also, learn alot yourself by interacting with other members.GOING MOBILE The mobile market sa great place to test your coding skills and present any games or apps you've created. IF your app is good, then ‘who knows, it could be the next great thing to appear on the app stores. t's a good learning experience nevertheless, and something worth considering Dcoonhoy = i ar ONLINE LEARNING Online courses are good examples of where to take your coding skills next, even iF you start from the beginner level again. Often, an online course follows a strict coding convention, soif you're se taught then it might be worth seeing how other developers lay out their code, and what's considered acceptable. Learn to code interactively, for free. SHARE CODE Get sharing, even if you think your code isnt very good. The iitcism, advice and comments you receive back help you iron out ~any’ssues with your code, and you add them alto your checklist Alternatively your code might be utterly amazing but you won't know unless you share t ( Where Next? Cl PORTFOLIOS IF you've learned how to code with an eye Fora developer jab in the Future, then k's worth starting to build up an online portfolio ‘of code. Look at job postings and see what skills they require, then learn and code something with those skills and add itto the portfolio. when it comes to applying, include alinkto the portfolio, My Work TEACH CODE Can you teach? IF your coding sil are spot on, consider approaching a college or university to see iFthey have need fora programming language teacher, pethaps.a part-time or evening ‘course. not teaching, then consider creating your own YouTube how to code channel HARDWARE PROJECTS Contributing to hardware projects isa great resource For proving your ‘ode with others and learning from ther contributors. Mary of the ‘developer boards have postings for coders to apply to For hardware projects, using unique code to get the most from the hardware that's being designed,Say Hello to Python “The best programs are written so that computing machines can perform them quickly, and so that human beings can understand them clearly.” = Donald E. Knuth (Computer scientist, mathematician and author) sos ten ie Sets ome tSay Hello to Python ‘There are many different programming languages available to learn and use. Some are terrifically complex and incredibly powerful, while some are extremely basicand used as minor utilities For the operating system. Python sits somewhere in the middle, combining ease of use with & a generous helping of power, allowing the user to create projects ranging from minor utilities through to great games and performance-heavy computational tasks. However, there's more to Python than simply being another programming language. It has vibrant and lively community behind it that shares knowledge, code and project ideas, as well as bug fixes For future releases. It's thanks to this community that the language has grown and thrived, so now it's your turn to take the plunge and learn how to program in Python. This section will get you started with Python and introduce you to this. remarkable programming language. Before long, you will be able to code your own helpful systems tools, text adventures and even control a character as they move around the screen. 18 WhyPython? 20 Equipment You Will Need 22 Getting to Know Python 24 How to Set Up Python in Windows How to Set Up Python in Linux ora bdmpublications comWhy Python? DOSE Miccn a ae cua cute ICM Cm murine etcis Pues eR cece hanitetic cect aaarc dents Ere Kel core Cece lee The AOC Ceol CP Cece eR Ue mc R WA Renee) Python out of all the rest? PYTHON POWER Ever since the earliest home computers were available, enthusiasts, users and professionals have toiled away until the wee hours, slaving over an overheating heap of circuitry to create something al ‘These pioneers of programming carved their way into a new Frontier, Forging small routines that enabled the letter ‘to scroll ‘across the screen It may not sound terribly exiting to a generation that's used to ultra high-defintion graphics and open world, multi player online gaming, However, forty-something years ago it was blindingly brillant. ‘Naturally these bedroom coders helped form the foundations for, ‘every piece of digital technology we use today. Some went on to become chief developers for top software companies, whereas ‘others pushed the available hardware tots limits and Founded the billion pound gaming empire that continually amazes us. Regardless of whether you use an Android device, 10S device, PC, ‘Mac, Linux, Smart TY, games console, MP3 player, GPS device builtin to. car, settop box ora thousand other connected and ‘smart appliances, behind them allis programming. tomagi All those aforementioned digital devices need instructions to tell. them what to do, and allow them to be interacted with, These instructions Form the programming core ofthe device and that core ‘canbe built using a variety of programming languages. ‘The languages in use today differ depending on the situation, the platform, the device's use and how the device wil interact wth ts ‘environment or users. Operating systems, such as Windows, macOS ‘and such are usually a combination of C+, CH, assembly and some form of visual-based language. Games generally use C++ whilst web pages can use a plethora of available languages such as HTML, Java, Python and so on. More general-purpose programming is used to create programs, _apps, software or whatever else you want to cal them. They're widely used across all hardware platforms and suit virtually every ‘conceivable application. Some operate Faster than others and some * visenaeecs)@ 9/8 [mee ¥/>/5@ one Giro a el | enema? F oe = void Arrayctrl::childLostrocus() - ae if (cursor >= 0) wo Ret reshRow(cursor); pacman carton tontrocue (hE econ exec a) > [Saris | Bntens | Shaman Sree Shoe Sree ese eSeShaets oer et ae ‘bottom = 0; ou ‘ taarocusonep(); ee, ee $5, estserotls ee ip < column. cartoon; jae) Sonos Ya cx header ti sbaaath (jel Stones FECT ag er ertgrad s Lye'm colum.cetcount() = 20) = 0) Bicone sauce i Seance Soman Sources rc » JSewrce rman || Gator fe = Slndtscolortisbled, scolerbane Sascan” (Graces eal Banc Srna TENELE. etcount() eames rec leet) ah Steestwcp|pnae” =] {bottom = rap t oetLinecy i: BED conserve aude Series-Volume 24Why Python? {are easier to lear and use than others. Python is one such general= purpose language. Python is what's known as a High-Level Language in that ‘talks! to the hardware and operating system using avarety of arrays, variables, objects, arithmetic, subroutines, loopsand countless ‘more interactions. Whilst it's not as streamlined as a Low-Level Language, which can deal directly with memory addresses, cal stacks and registers, ts benefits that i's universally accessible {and easy to lear. Python was created over twenty sixyears ago and has evolved to become an ideal beginners language fr learning how to programa computer.’ perfect for the hobbyist, enthusiast, student, teacher and those who simply need to create their own unique interaction between either themselves or a piece of extemal hardware and the computer itself Python i Free to download, install and use ands available For Linux, \windows, macOS, MS-DOS, 05/2, BeOS, IBM iseries machines, and ‘even RISC OS. Ithas been voted one of the top five programming languages in the world and fs continually evolving ahead (of the hardware and internet development curve. ‘Soto answerthe question: why python? Simply pt, it's Free, easy to learn, exceptionally powerful, universally accepted, effective {and a superb learning and educational tol [/7FiTe: invoke. java. Fimport java. lang.reflect.*; class tnvoke Dublie_ static void main( string [) args ) £ try, Crass ¢ = Class. forname( args[0] ); Method m = c-getMethod( argsii], new class 03 5 object ret = _m.invoke( null, null); systen.out.printinc “Tnvoked. static method: " + args{1) + of class: © + args[o] Tn with no args\nResults: " + ret); } catch ( Classnocroundexception e ) { 77 Class. fornane(”) can't find the class } Gatch C Nosuchethodexception e2') { JnaisapovertllamungetiptSuseainwed — ll 8 eee 8 # 8 3 2 HB if Ho Z : iS i Python is a more modern take on BASIC, it’s easy to learn BASIC was once the starter language that early sp Ut esiecbabieabeaey na bempublcatonszx Say Hello to Python) Equipment You Will Need ole TaN aM R YB (Lee CURT Ke LUZ 1k MeL OTL U MRT 1aCe= Ma een ol) clea een arse lao Ui Cee UU ANU ear early freely available. WHAT WE'RE USING Thankfully, Python is a multi-platform programming language available for Windows, macOS, Linux, Raspberry Pi and more. If you have one of those systems, then you can easily start using Python. 01 tn ct Ses volume 24 COMPUTER Obviously you're going to need a computer in order to learn how to program in Python and to test your code. You can use Windows from XP onward) on elther a 32 or 64-bit processor, an Apple Mac or Linux Installed PC. [_] AN IDE AniDE (Integrated Developer Ervironment) is used to enter and execute Python code. It enables you to inspect your program code and the values within the code, as well as offering advanced Features. There are many different IDEs avaliable, so find the one that works For you and gives the best results PYTHON SOFTWARE 1macOS and Linux already come with Python preinstalled as part of the ‘operating system, as does the Raspberry P. However, you need to ensure that you'r running the latest version of Python, Windows users need to download and install Python, which well cover shorty TEXT EDITOR \Whilst a text editors an ideal environment to enter code into, it's not an absolute necessity. You can enter and execute code directy From the IDLEbuta text editor, such as Subime Text or Notepad++, offers more advanced features and colour coding when entering code. INTERNET ACCESS Python isan ever evolving environment and as such new versions ‘often introduce new concepts or change existing commands and code structure to make tt a more efficient language. Having accessto the Internet will keep you upsto-date, help you out when you get stuck and give access to Python's immense number of modules. TIME AND PATIENCE Despite what other books may lead you to believe, you won't become a programmerin 24-hours. Leaming to code in Python takes time, and patience. You may become stuckat times and other times the code wll Flow tke water. Understand you're learning something entiely new, and ‘you wil get there.(aipnentvouvainees CE THE RASPBERRY PI Why use a Raspberry Pi? The Raspberry Pisa tiny computer that’s very cheap to purchase but offers the user a fantasticlearning platform. Its main operating system, Raspbian, comes preinstalled with the latest Python along with many modules and extras. Saag) The Raspberry Pi3 isthe latest version, incorporating a more powerful CPU, more memory, Wii and Bluetooth suppor. You can pick up a Pi for around €32 or as apart of kit For £50+, depending on the kit you're interested in. FUZE PROJECT The FUZE isa learning environment built on the latest model ofthe Raspberry i. You can purchase the workstations that come with an ‘electronics kit and even a robot arm for you to build and program. ‘You can find more information on the FUZE at www.Fuze.co.uk Tele) <3 Codine io Raspberry Pitts available in «cam, Our Pibooks cover how “et Py set tup and use i; there 7S The Rasbery Ps man operating systems Debian based Ur dstrbuton that comes ith everyingyou nee dimple to ue paclage ls stesmined forthe Mandan fet ecrien ‘deal platform for hardware and software projects, Python = ie J programming and even asa desktop computer meetene’ Raspberry Pi » she Beginners’ Guide az= Say Hello to Python) Getting to Know Python Mae iccecceei lca tected eater Raver cite a tatoos you to fully harness the power of a computer, in a language that’s clean and easy eon eC IT WHAT IS PROGRAMMING? It helps to understand what a programming language is before you try to learn one, and Python is no different. Let's take 3 look at how Python came about and how it relates to other languages. ‘A programming language isa listof instructions that ‘a computer follows. These instructions can be as simple ‘as displaying your name or playing a music file, or ascomplexas building a ‘whole virtual world. Python isa programming language conceivedin the late 1980s Eby Guido van Rossum Eat Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (OW) in the Netherlands asa successor to PROGRAMMING RECIPES Programsare ke recipes for computers. recipe to bake a cake could go like this: 2 Put 100 grams of selfaising flourin a bow ‘Add 100 grams of butter tothe bowl, ‘Add 100 mlliitres of milk. Bake for half an hour, CODE Just lke a recipe, @ program consists of instructions that you follow in order. A program that describes acake might run like ths: bowl = the ABC language Heese Bete milk = 100 SEES Bacnae meant) Guido van Rossum, the Father of Python. bon .append( flour, butter mic] Il cake. cookCbon) PROGRAM COMMANDS You might not understand some of the Python commands, lke bowL append and cake.cook(bowl) The firsts alist the second an object; we'l look at both inthis book. The main thing to know is that it’s easy to read commands in Python. Once you learn what the commands do, i's easy to Figure out how a program works, ov tn ise volun 4HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES Computer languages that are easyto read are known as high evel Thisis because they fly high above the hardware (also referred to as ‘the metal’) Languages that fly close to the metal lke Assembly, are known as “low-level”. Low-level languages commands read abit likethis msg db ,@xa len equ $ - msg, PYTHON 3 VS PYTHON 2 Cettngtoknow exten CE ZEN OF PYTHON Python lets you access all the power of a computer in language that humans can understand, Behind all this isan ethos called "The Zen of Python." Ths isa colection of 20 software principles thet influences the design ofthe language. Principles include “Beautiful isbetter than ualy" and "simple i better than complex." Type import: this into Python and it wil dsplay al the principles. Ina typical computing scenario, Python is complicated somewhat by the existence of two active versions of the language: Pee Lene! er oes Roe ates digalittle deeper into the Python site, and investigate PYTHON 2. eer iy Cite prea aioe Plone tee ara ee tons able resource. rome ea Ceres Br at Senet PYTHON 3.X gpusdsiuene eames Rae rearing Pen terre pond Se ea eerste cet ee garnet at poco ripts, modules and tutorial not popular at frst, Python 3 has since become the cutting edge of Coo ER ACER Python 3's arowing popularity h oases ee ea Many development companies, uch as SpaceX and NASA use Python For snippets oF mportank code,z= Say Hello to Python ) How to Set Up Python in Windows Windows users can easily install the latest version of Python via the main Python Downloads page. While most seasoned Python developers may shun Windows as the platform of choice for building their code, it’s still an ideal starting point For beginners. INSTALLING PYTHON 3.X ‘Microsoft Windows doesn't come with Python preinstalled as standard, so you're going to have to install it yourself manually. san easy process to follow. ESTs ERED S2"tby opening your web browser to www.python. ‘ra/downloads/. Look for the button detailing the download link for Python 3.x. The latest version atthe time of \weting fs 3.7.0 but as Python is frequently updated this may bea different version for you. Thankfully, tan Ceensey Python for to help test developmen ae Pee Click the Download button for version 3x, and save the file to your Downloads folder. When the fle is dawnloaded, double-click the executable and the Python installation wizard wil launch, From here you have two choices Install Now and Customise Installation, We recommend opting for the Customise installation link. _ Siar Install Python 3.7.0 (32-bit) wind Chae Pyne 379 EH ET 220 re cite sees vole 4 BITEAED Choosing the Customise option allows you to specify certain parameters, and whilst you may stay with the defaults, i’ 2 good habit to adopt as sometimes (not ‘with Python, thankfully) installers can include unwanted additional Features. On the fist screen available, ensure all boxes are ticked and click the Next button, Optional Features Comes Pear moet nae Spm Beant mw Fi sepmen wind Pal The nest page of optionsinclude some interesting ue additions to Python. Ensure the Associate file with Python, Create Shortcuts, Add Python to Environment Variables, recom Standard brary and talfor Aller option are ticked. These make using Python ater much easier, ick nsalwhen yeue ready to contrue ‘Advanced Options ‘acme tn fi gy ee) mw a [eager RSE windYou may need to confirm the installation with the Windows authentication natifcation Simply lick Yes and Python wil begin to instal, Once the installation is complete the final Python wizard page wil allow you to view the latest release notes, and Fllow some online tutorials, Setup was successful _/ rm windows. Before you close the install wizard window, Sy however, it's bestto click on the link next to the shield detalled Disable Path Length 20 bypass the Windows 260 charac ‘execute Python programs stored in de ‘Again, click Yes to authenticate the process installation window. rit, This will alow Python limitation, enabling you to olders arrangements. en you can Close the © cisabie pathlength iit ‘close ndows 10 users can now = find the installed Python o 3.xwithin the Start button Recently Added section The First ink, Python 3.7 (32-bit will aunch the command line version of Python when clicked (mk fon that in a moment). To ‘open the IDLE, type IDLE sur wyona7 280 How to Set Up Python in Windows Cl BED licking on the IDLE (Python 3.7 32-bit) link wll launch the Python Shell where you can begin your Python programming journey. Don't worryf your version is newer as long at's Python 3.x our code works inside your Python 3 interface, { ster 9 ) IF you now click on the Windows Start button again {and this time type: €MD, you'lbe presented with the Command Prompt ink. Click it to get to the Windows command ine environment. To enter Python within the command line, you need totype: python and press Enter. BED The command line version of Python works in much the sare way asthe Shell you opened in Step 8; note the three leftfacing arrows (>>>). whilst i's a perf Fine environment, it's not tao user-friendly, so leave the command line For now. Enter: exit to leave and close the Command Prompt windoSay Hello to Python How to Set Up Python in Linux PYTHON PENGUIN Linux is such a versatile operating system that it's often difficult to nail down just one way of doing something. Different distributions go about installing software in different ways, but for this particular tutorial, we will stick to Linux Mint. PEPER Fistyounced to ascertain which version of Pyth iscurrently installed in your Linux system. To begin ‘with, drop into a Terminal session from your distro's menu, or hitthe Ctrlsalte keys dovide david tine - SPD Nex enter python =version nto te Terminal Siape screen. You should have the output relating to version 2x Python ithe splay By deta, mos Linu dios ‘come with both Python 2 and 3, as there's plenty of code out there stil available For Python 2. Now enter: python3. =-versicn. avidodavid nine: ~ Inour case wehave both Python 2 and installed SUP ‘As long as Python 3.x.xis installed, then the code in cur tutorials ork les aways worth checking to see the dito has been updated withthe latest versions, enter: sudo apt=get update && sudo apt-get upgrade to update the system, vison nine — ‘BOM Definitive Guide Series- Volume 24 ‘Once the update and upgrade is complete, enter: SUED pythons --version saintoseeifPytion 3x isupdated or even installed. Aslong as you have Python 3x, you're running the most recent major version, The numbers after the 3. indicate patches and Further updates. Often they/re unnecessary, but can contain vital new elements. ‘onever Fyouwantthe atest, cating edge Sug? version, you'll need to build Python from source. Start by entering these commands into the Terminal: sudo opt-get install build-essential checkinstall sudo apt-get install libreadline-gplv2-dev Libncursesn5-dev libssl-dev libsqlite3-dev tk-dev Libgdom-dev Libc6-dev Libbz2-devHow to Set Up Python in Linux pen upyour Linux web browser and go to the BALD eon downoad page: https wwwpython.ora/ downloads. Click onthe Doiloads flowed by the button under the Python Source window. This opens a download dialogue box choose location and tart the download process, In the Terminal, goto the Downloads Folder byentering: ed Downloads/. Then unzip the Contents of the downloaded Python source code using: tar’ =xvF Python-3.Y.Y.tar.xz. (replace the Y's with the version numbers you've downloaded), To access the newly unzipped Folder, enter: ed Python-3..¥/. FEED Within the Python folder, enter: -/configure sudo make altinstall This could take a while, depending on the speed of your computer. (Once finished, enter: python3.7 -=version to check the latest installed version. You should now have Python 3,7 installed, ‘alongside older Python 3.xx and Python 2. Forth GUIIDLE,you'need to ener the Following SH) command into the Terminal: sudo opt-get install iale3 TheIOLE can then be started with the command: tl e3. Note that DDLErunsa diferent verson fromthe one you instaled from source “voc in. -/oomnloda/tyhon 372 Youll ato need iP (ip sal Pacages) hich SHEP tool to help you install more modules and extras. Enter: sudo apt-get install python3-pip IPs then installed, check forthe latest update with pip3 install --upgrade pip ‘When complete, close the Terminal and Python 3 willbe available via the Programming section in your distro's menu. evident -/Domiotrython 72 - Installation of Python on mac0S can be done in much the same way as the Windows instalation, Simply go tothe Python webpage, hover your mouse pointer over the Downloads link and select Mac 0S X from the options. You willthen be guided tothe Python releases for Mac versions and the necessary installers for macOS 64-bit, For 05 X 10.9 and later. vemrimuteatorscom“| have always wished for my computer to be as easy to use as my telephone; my wish has come true, because | can no longer figure out how to use my telephone.” — Bjarne Stroustrup (Developer and creator of C++) IE) 20s eve crests voteGetting Started with Python cl Learning how to code may seem a little daunting at First. Thankfully, the Python language has been designed with simplicity in mind. Like most things, you need to start slow, learn how to get a result and how to get what you want from the code. Inthis section, we will cover the core concepts: saving and executing your code, variables, numbers and expressions, user input, conditions and loops. 30 Starting Python for the First Time 32 Your First Code 34 Saving and Executing Your Code 36 Executing Code from the Command Line 38 _ Numbers and Expressions 40 Using Comments 42 Working with Variables, 44 User Input 46 Creating Functions 48 Conditions and Loops. 50 Python Modules@) Getting Started with Python ) Starting Python For the First Time The Raspberry Pi offers one of the best all-round solutions For learning and coding on, in particular, Python. Raspbian, the Pi’s recommended OS, come pre-installed with the latest stable version of Python 3, which makes it a superb coding platform. STARTING PYTHON We won't go into the details of getting the Raspberry Pi up and running, there's plenty of material already available on that subject. However once you're ready, Fire up your Pi and get ready for coding. FETTSEDD With the Raspbian desktop loaded, click onthe EATERED £0" example, in the Shell enter: 242 "Menu button followed by Programming > Python 3 ‘After pressing Enter, the next line will display the (OLE. This will open the Python 3 Shel. Windows and Mac users can answer: 4. Basically, Python has taken the ‘code’ and produced the Find the Python 3 IDLE Shell from within the Windows Start button relevant output. ‘meni and via Finder. PEPIIP DD The shellis where youcan enter cade andseethe ESB the Python shall acts very much ike a calculator, responses and output of code you've pragrammed since code fs basically a series of mathematical into Python. Thissakind of sandbox, where you're abet try out interactions with the system. Integers, which ae the infinite some simple code and processes. sequence of whole numbers can easily be added, subtracted, multiplied and so on. ise Stee rasa o eas ET 220i sees volunStarting Python for the First Time cl ESTED) While thats very interesting it's not particularly exciting, Instead, try this print(*Hello everyone!”) Just enter it nto the IDLE as you did in the previous steps. licking on the Highlighting tab, However, we don't recommend that _asyou won't be seeing the same as our screenshots, ESSER Thisise litle more tke it, since you've just produced your first bit of code. The Print commands Fairty self-explanatory, prints things. Python 3 requires the brackets as well as quote marks in order to output content to the screen, inthis case the Hello everyone! bit. >>> print("Hello everyone!™) Hello everyone! >>> | FTTED lust lke most programs available, regardless of the ‘operating system, there are numerous shortcut keys avallable. We don’t have room for them all here but within the Options > Configure IDLE and under the Keys tab, you can see alist (of the current bindings. Bare AD You may have noticed the colour coding within the Python IDLE. The colours represent different elements of Python code. They ae: Black -Data and Variables Green Strings Purple—Functions (Orange - Commands Blue— User Functions Dark Red Comments Light Red ~ Error Messages, IDLE Colour Coding [-eeteur [use tor_[exampies antes [Ererrosuote | syntanteror FEPSETR The Pithon IDLEis a power interface, and one that’s actually been written in Pythan using ane (of the available GU! toolkts. F'you want to know the many ins and cuts forthe Shell, we recommend you take afew moments to view ‘www.docs.python.org/3/library/idle.html, wich details many oF the IDLE's FeaturesEA) ceintnatnnenn Your First Code Essentially, you've already written your First piece of code with the ‘print(“Hello everyone!”)’ Function From the previous tutorial. However, let's expand that and look at entering your code and playing around with some other Python examples. PLAYING WITH PYTHON wi most languages, computer or human, it’s all about remembering and applying the right words to the right situation, You're not born knowing these words, so you need to learn them. STEERED you've closed Python 3 IDLE, reopen itin PEPER You can see that instead ofthe number 4, the whichever operating system version you prefer. In outputs the 2+2 you asked to be printed tothe the Shell enter the Familiar Following: screen. The quotation marks are defining what's being outputted tothe IDLE Shell to print the total of 2+2 you need to remove the quotes: print(2+2) print(*Hetlo”) rs ye a a “cfr me att ESTeeE RD vst as predicted, the word Hello appearsin the BITeEE MD You can continue as such, printing 242, 46442343 Shellas blue text, indicating output from a string and s0.on ta the Shell. An easier way is touse a 's airy straightforward and doesnt require too much explanation. variable, which is something we wil cover in mare depth later. For Now try now, enter: print(*2+2") on? ETD 200s velarys ( Your First Cod (Your First Code Cl \What you have done here assign the letters and b two values: 2 and 2. These are now variables, \which can be called upon by Python to output, add, subtract, divide {and soon for as long a their numbers stay the same. Try ths: printCa) print(b) 1s Es Sh One ew Ly BETTE The output ofthe last step displays the current values of both a and b individually, as you've asked them tobe printed separately. Ifyou want to add them up, you can Use the following print(a+b) ‘This cade simply takes the values of a and b, adds them together and outputs the result You cn ply around with afeent kinds of variables SUP and the Print function. For example, you could ‘assign variables for someone's name: nane="David” print(nane) PEED Now let's add surname: surnane="Hayward” print(surnane) ‘You now have two variables containing a frst name and a surname ‘and you can print them independently 1 Ea sh Dt oom nts en TELE ve were to apply the same routine as before, Using the + symbol, the name wouldn't appear correctly in the output inthe Shell. Ty it print (name+surname) You need a space between the two, defining them as two separate values and not something you mathematically play around with, printCname, surname) In Python 3 you can separate the two variables with aspace using a comma: ‘Alternatively, you can add the space ourselves printCnane+” “+surnane) ‘The use of the comma is much neater, as you can see, Congratulations, you've ust taken your First steps into the wide ‘world of Python. ora vmpublcatonscom@) Getting Started with Python Saving and Executing Your Code VCR tea ests trot cee cece Ke Ea em eto Penal cae ca accieul ea ce Mice cca n otha h else introduced to the IDLE Editor, where you will be working From now on. EDITING CODE You will eventually reach a point where you have to move on From inputting single lines of code into the Shell. Instead, the IDLE Editor will allow you to save and execute your Python code. STEERED Fi'st.open the Python IDLE shell and when i's up, JESTESIEMM You can see that the same colour coding isin place dlickon File > New Fie. This will open a new window the IDLE Editor asit is inthe Shell, enabling you ‘with Untitied as its name. Thisis the Python IDLE Editor and within it vo better understand what's going on with your code. However, to you can enter the code needed to create your Future programs. _ execute the code you need to first save It. Press FS and you get a ‘save...Check box open, Thelte eer oratinertssedouosis EERE) clekonthe Ocbuton inte Sve boxandseets Suara simple text editor with Python features, colour cue? destination where you'll save all your Python code. cading and so on; much in the same vein as Sublime. You enter ‘The destination can be a dedicated Folder called Python or you code as you would within the Shell so taking an example from the canst dump it wherever you lke, Remember to keep atidy drive previous tutorial, enter: though, to help you out the Future. print(*Hello everyone!” ET 220i seesEnter a name for your code, ‘print hello’ for ‘example, and clickon the Save button. Once the Python code is savedit's executed and the output will be detalledin the IDLE Shell n this case, the words Hello everyone! FETTER Thisishow the vast majorty of your Python code willbe conducted. Enter it into the Editor, hit F5, save the code and look atthe output inthe Shell. Sometimes things will fer, depending on whether you've requested a separate ‘window, but essentially that’s the process.’ the process we will Use throughout this book, unless otherwise stated (_ Saving and Executing Your Code Cl Let's extend the code and enter afew examples From the previous tutoriat 0-2 be2 rnane="David” surnane="Haynard” printCname, surname) print Casb} IF you press FS now youll be asked to save the file, again, s t's been modified from before. IF you click the OK button, the File willbe ‘overwritten with the new code entries, and Sia ‘executed, withthe output in the Shell. I’s not a problem with just these Few tines butf you weretto edit a larger file, overwriting can become an issue. Instead, use File > Save As from within the Editor tocreatea backup, Ifyou open the file Location ofthe saved Python code, youcan see that it endsin apy extension. Thisis the default Python file name. Any code you create will be whatever py and any code downloaded from the many Internet Python resource sites will be py. Just ensure that the code is written for Python 3 [ie ES Fame fin tom We Now create new fle. Close the Eloy, and open Suid anew instance (File > New File from the Shell). Enter the following and save tas hello: ‘a="Python” be"is” c="cool!” print(a, b, ¢) ‘You will use this code in the next tutorial = we ———Getting Started with Python Executing Code from the Command Line COMMAND THE CODE Using the code we created in the previous tutorial, the one we named hello.py, let’s see how you can run code that was made inthe GUI at the command line level. Ez Python, in Linux, comes with two possible ways ol BED Now you'e atthe command ine we can stat ‘executing code via the command line. One of the Python, For Python 3 you need to enter the th Python 2, whilst the other uses the Python 3 libraries ‘and python3 and press Enter. This will put you into the ‘on. First though, drop into the command line or Terminal on ll, with the familar three right Your operating system, Fae EED sm here you're able to enter the code you've 7 looked at previously, suchas: Windows users will so an2 printCa) You can see that it works exactly the same. macOS users can get access 0 their command line by licking Go> Utities > Terminal ‘BOM Definitive Guide Series- Volume 24Executing Code from the Command Line Cl Now ener: ext to eave the commandtine Pon Suz session and return you back to the command prompt: Enter the Folder where you saved the code from the previous tutorial and list the available Files within; hopefully you should see the hello.py ile, Sy From within the same Folder asthe code you're ‘ong to run, enter the Following into the python3 hello. py This wll execute the code we created, which to remind yous: ‘as"Python” i ca"cool!” print(a, b, ¢) Naturally since this s Python 3 code, usin ED ia: ac ayoutthars unique to Python 3, only works when you use the python3 command. IF you ike, try the same with Python 2 by entering: python hello.py EED The result of running Python 3 code from the Python 2 command lin s quite obvious. Whitt esn't error out in any way, due to the differences between the way Python 3 handles the Pri command over Python 2, the result Using Sublime For the moment, open the isn't as we expecte hellopy file, { ster 9 ) Since Sublime Text isnt available For the Raspberry Pi, you're going to temporarily leave the Pi For the moment and use Sublime as an example that you don't necessarily need to use the Python IDLE. with the hello file open alter itto include the Following: nane=input¢“What is your name? “) printC‘Hello,”, name) Save the heliopy file and drop back tothe commandline. Now execute the newiy saved code with python3 hello. py ‘The result willbe the original Python is cool! statement, togethe with the added input command asking you For your name, and displaying tin the command window.eo Getting Started with Python Numbers and Expressions VA SECTa Colao orton Laat: o(e=1 Roce (OAT ACOA Tn) cae-LeLel Leo AACE like. Let's expand on that now and see just how powerful Python is as a calculator. You can work within the IDLE Shell or in the Editor, whichever you like. IT'S ALL MATHS, MAN You can get some really impressive results with the mathematical powers of Python; as with most, if not all, programming languages, maths isthe driving Force behind the code. FETTER oven up the Gul version of Python3,asmentioned IM You can use all the usual mathematical operations ‘you can use either the Shell or the Ector. For the divide, multiply, brackets and so on, Practise with a time being, you're going to use the Shelljust towarm our maths ew, For example: ‘muscle, which we believe sa small gland located atthe backoFthe 4 brain or not). a 24283 G24") a er met Serine FETED |" the Shell enter the Following: BEEP Youve no doubt noticed, division produces a decimal number. In Python these are called fits, & ‘or floating point arithmetic. However, fyou need an integer as '54356+34553245 ‘99867344°27344484221 ‘opposed to a decimal answer, then you can use a double slash: You can see that Python can handle some quite large numbers = ET 220.C Numbers and Expressions Cl ‘You can also use an operation to see the remainder leftover From dhision, For example: 10/3 ‘ill display 3,333333333, which i of course 3.3-ecurting you nowenter: 103, ‘This will display 1, whichis the remainder let over From dividing 10 into 3, FETED Nex up we have the power operator, or ‘exponentiation if you wantto be technical. To work ‘outthe power of something you can use a double multiplication ‘symbol or double-star on the keyboard: 23, 10*10 Essentially is 2x2x2 but we're sure you already know the basics bbehind maths operators. This is how you would workit out in Python. Numbers and expressions done stop ther. Python Surf has numerous built-in Functions to work out sets of numbers, absolute values, complex numbers and a host of ‘mathematical expressions and Pythagorean tongue-tuisters. For ‘example, to convert a number to binary, use: bing) This be dpayed 051, converting the SIEaS) integer into binary and adding the prefix Ob to the Front Fyou want to remove the 0b prefix, then you can use: format(3, *b’) ‘The Format command converts value, the number3,toa Formatted representation as controlled by the Format specification, the part. ‘ABoolean Expression isa logical statement that will either be true or false. We can use these to compare data and test to see ifit’s equal to, less than or greater than. Try this inaNew File a=6 be? print, print(2, print, a == 6) a== 7) a == 6 ond b == 7) print(4, a == 7 and b == 7) print(5, not a == 7 and b == 7) print(6, a print(?, print(s, print, Execute the code from Step 9, and you can see a series of True ar False statements, depending on the resut of the two defining values: 6 and 7. t's an extension of ‘hat you've looked at, and an important part of programming. setrobetiaconeo Getting Started with Python Using Comments UMass Ae OMAN IE cn UEC come Cicer cial PU ey arle erate oN EL Ese Aol MN Clee Ce hcel UT code line by line but over time, it can become difficult to read. #COMMENTS! Programmers use a method of keeping their cade readable by commenting on certain sections. fa variabl ‘programmer comments on what it’s supposed to do, for example. I's just good practise. is used, the BR sat cresting a new stance ofthe OLE Edtor Sug? (File > New File) and create a simple variable and pane command on10 print(“The value of A is,”, a) Save the file and execute the code. Se (oe tat ram Stan doe BEER Running the code will return the line: The value of A is, 10intothe IDLE Shell window, which is what we ‘expected, Now, add some ofthe types of comments you'd normally see within code: # Set the start value of A to 10 o=10 # Print the current value of A print(“The value of A is,”, a) 220 tie cies voles PSTISEDD Resave the code and execute it. You can see that the ‘outputin the IDLE Shells stil the same as before, ‘despite the extra lines being added, Simply put, the hash symbol (t) denotes line of text the programmer can insert to inform them, {and others, oF what's going on without the user being aware. i yon 342 fe 0 en tne rn ey Soa ow eT) BREE Let's assume that the variable A that we've created Is the number of lvesina game. Every time the player dies, the value is decreased by 1. The programmer could insert aroutine along the lines of ona-1 printC*You’ve just lost a life!”) printC*You now have”, a, “Lives left!”)( Using Comments Cl Whit ve now tha th variable Ais ves and Suse that the player has just lost one, a casual viewer or someone chectng the ce may 8 ko age For amoment thatthe code twenty thousand Ineslong, sted of st ur seven, Youcan se hwvhandy comments ar Inline comments are comments that follow section SARE rode tse ow cxarplestrom dove instead oF inserting the code ona separate line, we could use: 0-10 # Set the start value of A to 10 printCThe value of Ais,”, a) # Print the current value of A a=a-1 # Player lost a life! printC*You’ve just lost a life!” printC*You now have”, a, “Lives left!") # Inform player, and display current value of A (lives) ESTEE Essentially, the new code together with comments could look tke: # Set the start value of A to 10 0-10 # Print the current value of A print(“The value of A is,”, a) # Player lost a life! ona # Inform player, and display current value of A lives) print(*You’ve just lost a life!”) printC*You now have”, a, “Lives teft!”) Fe sore connos maroon fo # This is the best game ever, and has been developed by a crack squad of Python experts 4 who haven’t slept or washed in weeks. Despite being very smelly, the code at Least # works really well. ATER the comment, the hash symbol, can also be used to comment out sections of code you don't want tobe ‘executed in your program. For instance f you wanted to remove the First print statement, you would use: # print(“The value of A is,”, a) ee [eset the start value of Ate 10 10 [F Peine the current value of A Antc*The value of A tes", a] layer lost’ a lif fF Inform player, and display current value of A (Lives) Prant(-You've just lost lifel"> Print(-You non have". a, “lives left!*) ‘Youalso use three single quotesto comment Suid ‘out a Block Comment or multiline section of comments Place them before and after the areas you wet to Comment for them to work This is the best game ever, and has been developed by a crack squad of Python experts who haven’ t slept or washed in weeks. Despite being very smelly, the code at least works really well. ———@) Getting Started with Python Working with Variables SVE ol ga aoc) ole 1) Mele Lm Varela aele|F-]K—2-[eN Pt eel S ronnie Re ernie ener e ues eucecaeia) NUTONE oC VARIOUS VARIABLES You'll be working with the Python 3 IDLE Shell in this tutorial. IF you haven't already, open Python 3 or close down the pr IDLE Shelt to clear up any old code. BBs some prosraming languages youre required Suz? to.use a dollar sign to denote a string, which is a variable made up of multiple characters, such asa name of a person. In Python this isnt necessary. For example, inthe Shell enter: nane="David Hayward” (or use your own name, unless you're also called David Hayward). BETES You can check the type of variable in use by issuing the type (command, placing the name of the variable inside the brackets. In our example, tis would be: type name). Adda new string variable: title="Descended from Vikings". TD 220i sees volun You've seen previously that arabes canbe Buss) concatenated using the plus symbol between the variable names. In our example we can use: print Cname + “: * + title). The middle part between the quotations allows us to adda colon anda spac, variables are connected wut space, owe needto ada them manvaly, (ie ES) oy Ets om EE You can also combine variables within another variable. For ‘example, to combine both name and tile variables into anew variable we use: be ba out ts Bis ee charactersnane +“: + title Then output the content of the new variable as: print character) Numbers are stored as different variables: oge=44 Type Cage) Which are integers, as we know.0 ESTED However, you can't combine both strings and integer type variables inthe same command, a5 You ‘would a set of similar variables. You need to either turn one into the ‘other or vice versa. When you do try to combine both, you get an error message: print Cname + age) ‘Thisis a process known as TypeCasting, The Python codes: Bia print (character + “ is “+ str(age) +“ years old.") oryou can use: print (character, s*, age, “years old.") Notice again thatin the last example, you don't need the spaces between the words in quotesas the commastreat each argument toprint separately >>> print (nane + age) Traceback (most recent call last): File “". line 1, in rane (nave * age) Typetrror: Can't convert “int object to str implicitly SBSprane (enaracter + ss") + str(age) #" years old." David Hayward: bescended fron Vikings is 14 years old. D>> prane (character. "is", age, "Years old.) David! Hayward: bescended fram Vikings is 44 years olé. > enter ‘age= input “How old are you? *) All data stored from the Input commands stored asa string variable. fle Gat shel Debug Options wndows eb ion 8 Get. 8k we TTT ee cops raites or cema "for are Satara, elas ste = “Another example of TypeCasting is when you ask for input from the user, such as a name. for example, Thispresets bit ofa problem whenyou want to Sus) work with a number that's been inputted by the use as age +10 wont work dve to beng asting arabe endan integer Instead, you reed enter: intCage) + 10 ‘This will TypeCast the age string into an integer that can be ‘worked with. typettrer: Can't cowert “unt abject to ste implicitly ed TERED The use of typecasting is also important when dealing with floating point arithmetic; remember: rnumbers that have a decimal point in them. For example, enter: shirt=19.99 Now enter type(shint) and you'llse that Python has allocated the number as a float’, because the value contains a decimal point. Python = (eens. type Scepyaghe "ereiter or "Licansey* for wore inforation 33 Gpetahiee) clas "tio Z (aetaulk, Oct 18 2014, THRTTD ‘online When combining integers and eats Python Suid usually converts the integer to a float, but should the reverse ever be applied ’s worth remembering tha Python does return the exat value, When converting = lato an integer, Python lava round own to he nearest integer, Caled resting in urease instead oF 19.9 became 9, thea Sone op Pa Saya OB TTT pe Sepyighes resis” or “License for mare infomation. ———— (Working with Variables Cleo Getting Started with Python User Input WATER o ua erie Sa ee: Ce nea Mea eeole ieee Aloe a kelly earlier, so now would be a good time to Focus solely on how you would get information Pee iecene att ccna USER FRIENDLY The type of input you want from the user depend greatly on the type of program you're coding. For example, a game may ask for a character's name, whereas a database can ask For personal details. FETED is notalready open the Python 31DLE Shell and start a New File inthe Editor. Let's begin with something really simple, enter: printc*Hetto”) firstnane=input ‘What is your first name? “) print¢“Thanks.") surnane=input(“And what is your surname? ) Save and execute the code, and as you already no doubt suspected, in the IDLE Shell the program will ask for your firstname, storing itas the variable firstname, followed bby your surname; also store in its own variable (curname). Siar Fee yw sr mt IT 220 cite sees vole "Now that we have the user'sname stored ina couple of variables we can call ther up whenever Siar) we want: printC*Welcone”, firstname, surname, “. T hope you're well today.”) FID rec yen cance ssh oe ERD i ere Toe vedas den Sen printC‘Welcone”, firstname, surnames. I hope you're well. today.")(User input Cl iG P| ‘ou dort ays haveto nude quoted tex thin Suse the input command. For example, you can ask the userther name, and have the nputinthe tne below print(*Hello. What’s your name?”) ‘nane=inputC) seringut py - home/pi/Documents/Pythan Code/us [Ele Edt Format fun Options windows Hep ‘prant(iello, What's your name) P anesinput() hat youve created hres condition, which we Sus) will cover soon. In short, we're using the input From theuser and measuring against a condtion So, the vsr enters Davis thet name, the guard willow them topes unhindered Else, if they enter aname other than David, the guard challenges them toa fight. ESTEE The code from the previous step is often regarded asbeing alittle neater than having a lenathy ‘amount of text in the input command, butt’s not arule that's setin stone, so do a you lke in these situations. Expanding on the code, tuythis print(“Halt! Who goes there?") ‘names input© eat Farmat Bin Stans woe ep PEPTIED) |: 2 g00d star to atext adventure game, perhaps? Now you can expand on it and use the raw input from the user to flesh out the game litte: ‘if name=="David”: printC*Welcome, good sir. You may pass.”) else: printC*I know you not. Prepare for battle!’ ie Set Fat Bin Stes nde ep ESTEE utes you learned previously, any input from a Users automatically a string, o you need to applya ‘TypeCast in order to turn it into something else. This creates some Interesting additions to the input command. For example: # Code to calculate rate ond distance rint(*Input a rate and a distance”) rate = float CinputC*Rate: “)) BRTTSET DD 1 finalise the rate and distance code, we can ade distance = floatCinput(“Distance: “)) print(“Time:”, (distance / rate)) Save and execute the code and enter some numbers. Using the Float(input element, we've told Python that anything enteredis a Floating point number rather than a string, cemineatscon@) Getting Started with Python Creating Functions Now that you've mastered the use of variables and user input, the next step is to tackle CiMten Coa AULT eM ee eee A en eco Te Dold eaTelA) enables you to define your own functions. FUNKY FUNCTIONS A function ‘a command that you enter into Python to do something. Its a little piece of self-contained code that takes data, Fe sata rtannsscn en ERD ses eseschesrresi te followed by brackets, For example, len(), list() or type(). FETED A function takes data, usually a variable, works on Tedepending on what the Function is programmed todo and,eturnsthe end value. The data being worked an goes Inside the brackets, so if you wanted to know how many letters are in the word antidisestablishmentarianism, then you'd enter: ‘Len¢“antidisestablishmentarianisn’) and the nunber 28, would return, GIT 220 rie cites vole 4 BATeRE DD You can pass variables through Functions in much number of letters in person's surname, you could use the following ode (enter the text editor for tis example): ame=input (“Enter your surname: “) count=Len(name) print C*Your surname has“, count, “Letters in a Press FS and save the code to execute it. Python has tens of functions buil into it, far too ‘many to get into in the limited space available here. However, to view thelist of builtin Functions available to Python 3, navigate to wwv.docs.python.org/3ibrary/Functions.html, These are the predefined functions, but since users have created many’ more, they/re not the only ones available.Creating Functions FER sratnncinc canoe oieiobon They add Functions and can be imported as and when required, For example, to use advanced mathematics Functions enter import math ‘Once entered, you have access tll the Math module Functions. Tousefuncon roma module ete the name of Sur the module Followed by a Full stop, then the name of he function, For instance sing the Math module sce you've Istimportd tint Python youcan us the square ret Function, Todos ete math. sqrtC16) ‘You can see thatthe code is presented as module function(data. FORGING FUNCTIONS Mea see Re Cee re aoc gd ‘across some excellent examples in the Future; you can also create your own with the def command. Cremeans eerie es fcr PPE BD cs now expand the function to accept a ee eens ag rere ee eae a ene ore enact ees the Peace eat Het loC*David") Ce etree Bee What you've just done is import the Hello Function from the saved Hello.py program and then used it Pe ere an ete ee eae@) Getting Started with Python Conditions and Loops Conditions and loops are what makes a program interesting; they can be simple or rather complex. How you use them depends greatly on what the program is trying to achieve; they could be the number of lives left in a game or just displaying a countdown. TRUE CONDITIONS Keeping conditions simple to begin with makes learning to program a more enjoyable experience. Let's start then by checking if something is TRUE, then doing something else if it isn't. BB ces createa new thon prosram tha wilask Suz? the user to input a word, then check it to see iFit's: afoureterwordor not Start wthFe> New Fle, ndbegh wth theinptvaribe wordzinput(“Please enter a four-letter word: “) BEER Yow we can create a new variable, then use the len Function and pass the word variable through it to ‘get the total numberof letters the user has just entered: wordsinput(“Please enter a four-letter word: “) word_Length=LenCword) 220s volun BREED Xow you can use anf statement to checkif the word length variable is equal to Four and print a Friendly conformation if it applies to the rule word=input("Please enter o four-letter word: “) word_Length=LenCword) if word length == 4: print (word, “is a four-letter word. Well done.”) ‘The double equal sign (==) means check f something is equal to something else. BETEEE The colon at the end oF IF tells Python thatif this statements true do everything after the colon thats indented. Next, move the cursor back to the beginning of the Editor: word=input(Please enter a four-letter word: “) word_Length=LenCword) if word_length == 4: print (word, “is a four-letter word. Well done.) else: print (word, “is not @ four-letter word.”)condtonsandtoors CE bressFS and save the code to excite. nter Suz a four-letter word in the Shell to begin with, you should hve theretured message that tthe word our eters Now press agin andrerun the program buts time enter a fvetetter word The Shel ply that snot Furteter word LOOPS Now expand the code to include another conditions. Eventually it could become quite complex. We've ‘added a condition for three letter words: wordsinputC“Please enter @ four-letter word: “) word_Length=lencword) if word_tength == 4: print (word, “is @ four-letter word. Well done.”) elif word_tength print (word, “is a three-letter word. Try again.”) else: print (nord, “is not a four-letter word.) ere ena eee ae ee ve un eed block oF code a number of times, usually with the support of a condition, ae hing is TRUE, then run Lee! corn rie etry Ete eee Je current value of x, then adds one to Deas rp arenes penton ete 5p over a range ees for_word in words: [print (word) Bee tee Cou ee na [for x in range (1, 10):) ) eri Pelee Certo last numbers used.Getting Started with Python Python Modules MASTERING MODULES Think of modules as an extension that's imported into your Python code to enhance and extend its capabilities. There are countless modules available and as we've seen, you can even make your own, BED Mosher ebuteniincinswtninrien REED rhe estsanevornthete shel asthe make mote sophisticated programs. Asyou ste aware, modules Python Tolstals module we ean use PIP (ip sal Packages) are thon sis tht are inprte, sch Inport math Close down the LE shel end drop nto a command prompt or Terminal session, at an elevated admin command prompt, enter: pip install pygame | step2 ) Some modules, especially on the Raspberry Pi BED The PI installation requires an elevated status are included by default, the Math module being a due it installing components at different locations. prime example. Sadly, other madules aren't always available. A good Windows users can search for CMD via the Start button and right example on non-Pi platforms isthe Pygame module, which contains clic the result then click Run as Administrator. Linux and Mac users many functions to help create games. Try: mport pygame. 3 use the Sudo command, with sudo pip install package. ‘BOM Definitive Guide Series- Volume 24(Crtonmeaies RE (Python Modules Close the command prompt or Terminal and relaunch the IDLE Shell when you now enter: ‘import pygame, the module will be imported into the code without any problems, Youll ind that most code downloaded or copied from the Internet will contain a module, mainstream of nique, these are usually the source of errors in execution due to them being missing a ‘Multiple modules can be imported within your code. BARD ecerd our exanole, se import random ‘import math for I in range(s): printCrandom.randint(1, 25)) print¢nath. pi) b ‘The madules contain the extra code needed to Sats achieve a certain result within your own code, as we've previously experimented with. For example: ‘import random Brings in the code from the Random Number Generator module. You can then use this module to create something like: for i in range(10) printCrandom.randint(1, 25)) o PRPTEM) This code, when saved and executed, will display ten random numbers fram 1 to 25. You can play around with the code ta display more or less, and fram a great or lesser range. For example: ‘import: randon for i in range¢2s): rintCrandom.randint(1, 100)) ERTEEED the resultisa string of random numbers Followed by the value of Pi as pulled from the Math module using the print(math.pi Function. You can also pullin certain Functions from a module by using the From and import commands, such as: from random import randint for i in range(s): print(randint(l, 25)) & BETSET DD This helos create a more streamlined approach to programming. You an also use import module ‘which wilimport everything defined within the named module. However, it's often regarded as a waste of resources but it works nonetheless. Finally, modules can be imported as aliases: import math as m print(m.pid ‘Of course, adding comments helps to tell others what's going on. ey Ctenistoameient ney 7 - 3 x cemineatscon“It's OK to figure out murder mysteries, but you shouldn’t need to Figure out code. You should be able to read it.” ~ Steve McConnell (Software Engineer and Author) Datais everything. with it, you can display, control, add, remove, create and manipulate Python to your every demand. Over these coming pages we look at how you can create lists, tuples, dictionaries and multi-dimensional lists then how you can use them to forge exciting and useful programs. It's little wonder that data is now valued more than gold or oil. You will also learn how you can use the date and time Functions, write to Files in your system and even create graphical user interfaces that will take your coding skills to new levels and into new projectideas. Lists Tuples 4 56 58 Dictionaries 60 Splitting and Joining Strings 62 Formatting Strings 64 Date and Time 66 Opening Files Writing to Files 70 Exceptions Python Graphics wetirosicioncn CEeee eons eRe Retest Ceo erect} Python. A list is simply a collection of items, or data if you prefer, that can be accessed as a whole, or individually if wanted. WORKING WITH LISTS Lists are extremely handy in Python. A list can be strings, integers and also variables. You can even include Functions in lists, and lists within lists. EDD 2 istise sequence of data values caled items You BAD cate name of your ist flowed by an ecuss sign, then square brackets and the items separated by commas; note that strings use quotes: numbers = [1, 4, 7, 21, 98, 156] mythical_creatures - [“Unicorn”, “Balrog”, “Vampire”, “Dragon”, “Minotaur”) Beg ge an meee FETE (nce you've defined your list you can call each by referencing ts name, followed by anumber. Lists start the first item entry as 0, Followed by 1,2, 3 and oon. For example: unbers Tocallup the entire contents ofthe lst unbers[3] To call the third From zero item in the lst (21 in this case), GET 200i FER vr asoscon roses onnonnci ‘or the second to last item with [-2] and so on, Trying to reference an unbers[=1 imythical_creatures[~4] Slicing is similar to indexing but you can retrieve Oia ‘multiple ternsin alist by separating item numbers with a colon. For example: unbers[1:3] vill output the 4 and 7, bing item numbers 1 and 2. Note thatthe returned values don't include the second index positon (as you ‘would numbers[1:3] to return 4,7 and 21).ETSI You can update items within an existing ist, remove [ESSEBM You can view what can be done with lists by entering join two lists you can use: Functions, For example, insert and pop are used to add and remove —— items at certain postions. To insert the number 62 at item index 4 ‘Then view the combined list with: umbeerstinSAECASEE2) To remove it ‘nunbers .pop(4) everything ESTEE terns canbe added toast by entering ESTED You ats0 use the lst Function to breaka string down rie into its components. For example: Orfor strings a : griffin] 2° eaksthename David nto’D, a, V, This can then be passed aythical_creatresenythical_creatures+[“Griffinn] revs the (by using the append Function paweatiseCcoavtalnayartE) aythical_creatures.append(“Nessie”) rane runbers.append(278) ‘age=(44] user = none + age ner ate i user PEPE D) Removal oftems.can be done intwoways. The fist [EUSIANB faced on that, you can create a program to stare isby the tem number: someone's name and age as alist: del nunbers{7] namesinputC“What’s your name? “) Alternatively, by item name: Tie TCE) i ‘age=intCinput (“How old are you: “)) mythical_creatures. renove(“Nessie”) ‘age=Lage] ues = min mes mpeg tat 1 user = Inane + lage ‘The combined name and age lists called user, which canbe called ____byetering user into the Shell, Experiment and see what you can do, aTuples are very much identical to lists. However, where lists can be updated, deleted or changed in some way, a tuple remains a constant. This is called immutable and they're perfect for storing Fixed data items. THE IMMUTABLE TUPLE Reasons for having tuples vary deper 19 on what the program is intended to do. Normally, a tuple is reserved for something special but they're also used for example, in an adventure game, where non-playing character names are stored. Auplescenedtbenmeweyescitbutntss — EEREEB voucn cee gondii thantan ou" instance you use curved brackets instead of square Buss ‘multiple sets of data. For instance, here is a tuple brackets. For example: ‘called NPC (Non-Playable Characters) containing the character name tmonths=C*Jonuary”s “February®) “March”; “Aprit”, andthe combat rating For an adventure game: “May”, “June”) NPC=[C"Conan”, 100), (“Belit”, 80), (“Valeria”, months 95)] Pn ae BEE noc, we ee wn FETED st as with ists, the tems within named tuple can [ESSWPM Each of these data items can be accessed asa be indexed according to their position inthe data \whole by entering NPCinto the Shell or they canbe range, indexed according to thelr postion NPC), You canals index the ronths [0] indvdual tuples within the NPC Ist name Necro [2] However, any attempt at deleting or adding tothe tuple wil result will display 100. inan errorin the Shel. ET 220sIesworth noting that when referencing mle Suse tuples within a list, the indexing is slightly different from the norm. Youweuld expect the 95 combat rating ofthe character Valeria to be NPC[4][5], but it's not, It's actually: NPC(2] (1) FETS) Thismeans of course that the indexing Follows thus: @ ma ao 2 a2 20 1 aA 1,0 \which as you canimagine, getsa ite confusing when you've got a lotof tuple data to deal with. Tuples though iia feature called unpacking, SUP where the data items stored within a tuple are assigned variables. First create the tuple with two items (name and combat rating) NPC=C*Conan”, 100) eee Mow unpack the tuple into two corresponding variables name, conbat_rating)=NPC ‘You can now check the values by entering name and combat. rating, ERTERERD Remember, as with lists, you can also index tuples Using negative numbers which count backwards From the end of the data lis. For our example, using the tuple with multiple data items, you would reference the Valeria character with NecrzI£-0] ‘oucanuse the ma and min functionsto find the Suid highest and lowest values of a tuple composed of numbers. For example numbers=(10.3, 23, 45.2, 109.3, 6.1, 56.7, 99) ‘The numbers canbe integers an oats To output the highest and lowest use: primtCmaxCnunbers)) print(minCnunbers)) ————Dictionaries Merten eee ete Tne NAc arate mie ACY of dealing with data items, They can be tricky to get to grips with at first but you'll soon tel Reon oll meals oa KEY PAIRS. jonary is like a list but instead each data item comes as a pair, these are known as Key and Value. The Key part must be ‘unique and can either be a number or string whereas the Value can be any data item you like. Let's say you want to create a phonebook in Python, SALE ovis create the dctonary name and enter the data in curly brackets, separating the key and value by a colon Key:Value. For example: phonebook={“Enma”: 1234, “Daniel”: 3456, “Hannah”: 6789} BETS EDD estas with most ists, tuples and so on, strings need be enclosed in quotes (single or double), ‘whilst integers can be left open. Remember thatthe value can be either a string or an integer, you just need to enclose the relevant. fone in quotes: phonebook2={“David”: “0987 654 321”} GET 220i ED ss wertsinnnesyv cme teens Dork niece hoon catereyae with by now. Eee a TTT EATER the benefit of using a dictionary is that you can enter the key to index the value. Using the phonebook example from the previous steps, you can enter: phonebook [Enna] phonebook “Hannah"™)‘Adding toa dictionary is easy too. You can include a new data tem entry by adding the new key and value items ike: phonebook{“David"] = “0987 654 321” phonebook Next youneedtodefne the user inputs nd Sus) variables: one for the person's name, the other forthelephone number let’ keep spe avid lengthy Python code): ane=inputC“Enter name: “) hunber=intCinputC“Enter phone nunber: *)) FETTER You can also remove items from a dictionary by Issuing the del command followed by the tems key; the value will be removed as wel since both work as a pai of data items: del. phonebook[“David"] Tsing thease rer Now aout» STEP 7 piece of code that will ask the user for the dictionary key and value items? Create a new Editar instance and start by coding in a new, blank dictionary: phonebook={} ere "Note we've kept the number as an integer instead (of astring, even though the value can be both ~aninteger ora string, Now you need to add the users inputted variables to the newly created blank dictionary. Using the same process as in Step 5, you can enter: phonebook{nane] = nunber fens = mer Now henyousave and execute the code, Peon Suid will ask for a name and a number. it will then insert those entries into the phonebook dictionary, which you can test by entering nto the Shel phonebook phonebook[“David”] IF the number needs to contain spaces you need to makeita string, so remove the int part of the input. cemineatsconSplitting and Joining Strings MaKe lias R enna M a eae Ler] AKO TULL R LMU aCeloLel ole eLN] come across long sets of strings. A useful skill to learn in Python programming is being able to split those long strings For better readability. STRING THEORIES. You've already looked at some list functions, using insert, .remove, and .pop but there are also Functions that can be applied tostrings. ‘The main too in the string Function arsenals spit). Note that the text.split part has the brackets, With you're able to spit apart string of data, uotes, then a space followed by closing quotes bbased on the argument within the brackets. For example, here's __and brackets. The space isthe separator, indicating that each lst string with three items, each separated by aspace: item entry s separated by a space. Likewise, CSV (Comma Separated Value) content has a comma, so you'd use: ‘text="January, February,March,April May, June” monthsstext.split(",”) rnonths ‘text="Daniel Hannah Emma” FER cscrnnesninostxausgne ‘eine ena ee nanesstext.split(* “) namesList(“David”) name Then enter the name of the new list; names, to see the three items ‘The retumed value is‘D ‘d Whilst it may seem alittle useless under ordinary ccumstances, it could be handy for creating aspeling game for example. 220i sees volunC Splitting and Joining Strings Cl Theopostesttespthncionjon tee ERT swine stfncon sheep rn illite you will have separate items in a string and can join Sus) have to bea space, it can also be a comma, a full them all together to form a word or just 8 combination of items, ‘stop, a hyphen or whatever you like: depending on the program you're writing. For instance: ‘alphabet="". join([“a","b”,"c”,"d","e"]) ‘alphabet. This will display ‘abcde’ the Shel. -[*Red”, “Green”, “Blue”] 1” joinCcolours) ESTISED) You can therefore apply jon to the separated name EINEM there's some interesting Functions you apply toa ‘you made in Step 4, combining the letters again to string, such as. capitalize and title, For example: formthe name: ‘title="conan the cinmerian” nane="". joinCname) title.copitalizeO ‘name title. title We've joined the string back together, and retained thelist called ‘name, passing it through the join Function, Aspdeampic wnt sintncin ston EEEEAB Youcato etn opetosonctigs STEP 7 you have a list of words you want to combine into a Suid ‘with the ‘in’ and ‘not in’ functions. These enable sentence: youto check string contains (or does not contain) a sequence Liste[*Conan”, “raised”, “his”, “mighty”, “sora”, fcharectes and”, “struck”, “the”, “denon™] mnessage="Have a nice day” texte" «.joinclist) “nice” in message = "ead" not in message Note the space between the quotes before the join function (where “day” not in message there were no quotes in Step 6's join. “ight” in message Te EOS) BG Es aH cemineatscon@) Working with Data Formatting Strings When you work with data, creating lists, dictionaries and objects you may often want Pormmset dred crane cna eis o neo a arene Cd earlier versions of Python tended to complicate matters. STRING FORMATTING Since Python 3, string Formatting has become a much neater process, using the format Function combined with curly brackets. It’s a more logical and better formed approach than previous versions. Trebaicfomstinginronstocaeach RETIRE oucanofcuse aoc teens thei SIE variable into the string using the curly brackets: Buss) nunber=10000 ‘nane="Conan” printC*{} of {} was a skilled mercenary, printC*The barbarian hero of the Hyborian Age is: and thief too. He once stole {} gold from a 4”. formatCnane)) merchant..”.format(nane, place, nunber)) se is Fatt tT emeinmen ESTEGERD Remember to close the print function with two sets [ESNSSWAM There are many different ways to apply string of brackets, as you've encased the variable in one, formatting, some are quite simple, as we've shown {and the print function in another. You can include multiple cases of youhere; others canbe significantly more complex. Itall depends string formatting ina single print Function: ‘on what you want from your program. A good place to reference Frequently regarding string Formatting is the Python Docs webpage, Found at www.docs.python.org/3.1/ibrary/string.html. Here, you will Find tons oF help. ‘nane="Conan” place="Cimmeria” printC*{} hailed from the North, in a cold land known as {}”.format(name, place)) TD 220i cine sees volunE Formatting Strings Cl \ Interestinly you can reference alist using the string HEED You can also print aut the content of a user's input SUPE Formatting Function. You need to place an asterisk in plEtg inthe same Fashion: front ofthe stare ce numbers=1, 3, 45, 567546, 3425346345. print(“Hello {}.”.format(name) printCSone numbers: 0,0, 0, 0, OP. Format Cnunbers)) ESTEE With indexing nists, the same appliesto calling — EEEM Youcan extend this simple code example to display list using string formatting. You can index each item the irstletter in a person's entered name: ‘according to its position (from 0 to however many are present} Fome=tnputCovbatsivourInane?s®) funbers=1, 4, 7, 9 printC‘Hello {}.”. format(name)) print¢‘More numbers: {3}, {0}, {2h, Iname=1ist(nane) {1}.”. Format C¢nunbers)) print(“The first Letter of your name is a {0}". format *1name)) FE vc scpciyscnctgovanaaiies EBB ox nascar casera characters=[“Conan”, “Belit”, “Valeria”, 19, 27, names=[“Conan”, “Belit”, “Valeria”] 20) ‘ages=[25, 21, 22] Prim CU{0} is {3} years old. Whereas {13 18 {4 Creating twolists. Now you can cll each ist, and individual items: years old.”. format(*characters)) printC*{0[0}} is {1(0]} years old. Whereas {0[1]} is {21} years old.”.formatCnames, ages)) cemineatsconDate and Time PMO RR en eet amen reel a CCRT Uo en eure rac ae enter cinel arse ur For how long. Luckily acquiring the date and time is easy, thanks to the Time module. TIME LORDS ‘The Time module contains Functions that help you retrieve the current system time, reads the date From strings, Formats the time and date and much more. Feayouneedtingoterinemodie sone TREE Youcensee este thow ine speed ou" that’s built-in to Python 3 so you shouldn't need to Buss) byentering: dropintoa command prompt and pista. OneleSIMPOES, sane ageat time) you can athe current time and date with simpe commands ee The outputs displayed as such: time. struct time tm ee yeor=2017, tmnon-9, tnnday=7, tm-hour=9, : ‘tmmina6, ‘tmsecei3, tmnday=3, tm_yday=250, tm ‘isdst=0)’; obviously dependent on your current time as opposed tothe time ths book was witen Eee Sa tt ome rin ESTEE Thetime Function sspit into nine tuples, these are EWA There are numerous functions built into the Time divided up into indexed items, a with any other ‘module. One of the most common of these is tuple, and shown in the screen shot below. strftime0. With t, you'e able to present a wide range of arguments ‘as it converts the time tuple into a string For example, to display the ‘current day of the week you can use: oT ar ‘time. strftimec*%A’) a = oo ves Pee ne ome oes ee eee = GT) 220i volun7 (. Date and Ti (Date and Time Cl Thisratraly mane youcan heoporate various Suse functions into your own code, such as: time. strFtimeC*%a") time. strFtimeC“%B") time. strFtimeC“%b") time. strftimeC“%H") time. strFtimeC“HAN") FETTER Note thelast two entries, with 6H and %H9%M, as {you can see these are the hours and minutes and as the last entry indicates, entering them as %H¥6M doesn't display the Lume correctly in the Shell. You can easily rectify this wth: time. strFtimeC*xH:90") FED tres sve guste sts ED oie catia eae import time nanesinputC“Enter Login name: “) printc‘Melcome”, nane, “\d”) print(“User:”, name, “logged in at”, time. strftime *#H:36")) ‘Try to extendit Further to include day, month, year and so on ‘You saw at the end of the previous section, inthe BALD coc to calcite Pito however many decal laces the users wanted, you can time a particular event in Python. Take the code from above and alter it slightly by including start_time=time.timeC) ‘Then there's endtime=time. timeC)-start_time [Ss gre ae eres ws gy _} EATEEED the output wil ook similar to the screenshot below. ‘The timer Function needs tobe either side ofthe input statement, as that’s when the variable name is being created, ‘depending on how long the user took to login. The length of time is then displayed on the last tine ofthe code asthe endtime variable. ‘There's a lot that can be done with the Time module; some of itis quite complex too, such as displaying the number of seconds since January 1st 1970. IF you ‘want to drill down Further into the Time module, then in the Shell enter: help(time) to display the current Python version help file forthe Time module. cemineatsconIn Python you can read text and binary files in your programs. You can also write to file, Miia neuen RR cel eastern iene feohfl eters) output and store data from your programs. OPEN, READ AND WRITE In Python you create a file object, similar to creating a variable, only pass ‘categorised as text or binary. FETED s2rtbyentering sometextintoyoursystem'stext EIB sr younow enter poem into the Shell, you will get editor. The text editoris best, not a word processor, some information regarding the text file you've just ‘8s word processors include background formating and other ‘asked to be opened. You can now use the poem variable to read the elements, In our example, we have the poem The Cimmerian, by contents of the file: Robert E Howard. You need to save the file as poem.bxt, poem. readC) Note than a in entry inthe text represents a new tine, as you used previously. FETED You use the opend functionto passtherileintoa EAM Fyou enter poem ead) a second time you will variable as an object. You can name the file object ‘notice thatthe text has been removed from the fle. anything you like, butyou will need to tell Python the name and —-—_-Youwill need to enter: poem=open(“/home/pi/Documents/ location of the text file you're opening: Poem. txt”) again to recreate the fil. This time, however, enter: oemsopen("/home/pi/Documents/Poem.txt”) printpoem.read()) This time, the n entries are removed in Favour of new lines and readable text. 220i sees volunPata etdmaaeeeaa poem.read(S) Displays the First five characters, whilst again entering: poem.read(5) ‘will display the next Five. Entering (1) wil display one character at atime. Extending tis Further, you can use readtines() to SALAD grate ines ofthe tex ond store themes multiple lists. These can then be stored as a variable: poen=open("/home/pi/Documents/Poem. txt”) ‘Tines=poem.readlines() Lines[0] Lines {1] Lines [2] Similarly, you can display one line of text at atime by Using the readline() Function. For example: Bia poem=open(“/home/pi/Documents/Poem.txt”) poem. readlineC) wil display the first tine ofthe text with poen. readline) Displaying the next line of text once more. You may have quested that you can pas the SUP readline() Function into a variable, thus allowing you to.allitagain when needed: oenopen("/home/pi/Docunents/Poem.txt”) Line=poem. readline) line em ome ao You can also use the For statement to read the lines of text backto us: for Lines in Lines: printClines) ‘Since this 's Python, there are other ways to produce the same output: Oia poem=open(“/home/pi/Documents/Poem. txt”) for Lines in poem: print(Lines) FET i csneinayrovon opiate import time oem=open("/hone/pi/Documents/Poen. txt”) ‘Tines=poem.read() for Lines in lines: printClines, end="") time. sleepC.15) ‘The outputis un to view, and easly incorporated into your own code. wurubémpubicatonscomAeron eer Ca na eee MMe aN rene) OPCs eee Mec AMO mietr rok ster tect eter Medicus! afile, that you can then read() back into Python. WRITE AND CLOSE The write() Function is slightly more complex than read(). Along with the filename you must als determines whether the file in question isin read or write mode. Start by opening IDLE and enter the Following ‘teopen(*/hone/pi/Documents/text. STEP 1 txt?) Change the destination From /home/pi/Documents to your own system. This code will create a text file called text.txt.in write mode Using the variable there's no file ofthat name inthe location, it will create one. Fone already exits, it will overwrite it, so be careful BETS You can now write tothe textile sing the write function. This works opposite to read, writing lines Instead of reading them. Try this: ‘t.write(“You awake in a small, square room. A single table stands to one side, there is a locked door in front of you.") [Note the 109. t's the number of characters you've entered. rersccene | se st nr ET 220i sees vole However. the acl ext lest blank youcan Buss) ‘check by opening it up). This is because you've | wen thetn of texto te le objec bt not commitedittothe Me sel Pat oF te wre uncon stat you need to commit the changesto the le; you can dots by entering t.closeQ) |f you now open the text file with a text editor, you can see thatthe line you created has been ‘written tothe file. This ives us the foundation for some interesting possiblities: perhaps the creation of your awn logfile or even the beginning of an adventure game.‘To expand this code, you can reopen the file using HEED YYoucan pass variables toa file that you've created Suse ‘a’, For access or append mode. This will add any text Sus) jin Python, Perhaps you want the value of Pito be atthe endof the rg inelnstead oF wiing thee and creating _wktento ale You can cl fom the Math module, reste ew ‘anewone, For example: file and pass the output of Pinto the new file: ‘teopen(/home/pi/Documents/text .txt”,"a") import math tenmitteC*\n") printC*Value of Pi is: “,math.pi) t.write( You stand and survey your surroundings. print(“\nliriting to a file now..") On top of the table is sone meat, and a cup of water.\n”) FETTER You can keep extending the text ine by line, STE! Now lets create a variable called piand assign tthe tending each with anew line \n), When you're value of Pi done, finish the code with tclose() and open the file intext = editor to see the results: pasate tawritec“The door is made of solid oak with iron’ Yous need tocreate anew fein which towne Pt: strips. It’s bolted from the outside, Locking you t=open(“\/home/pi/Documents/pi.txt”,"w") in. You are @ prisoner!.\n") ticloseO Remember to change your file location to your awn particular system setup, Tarexevarouoperoisacesstoconiee | ESRI roth yucanuse sig emattogto ci SUP using the open() Function. Each depends on how the Suid variable and write it to the file, then commit the fleisacessdandeventhe postion ofthe cursor ror empl, r+ changes and dose the le: cous feinedandwiteadpiesthecerat testo weeacnatue of PLB! (7 FOrHkCODD erie t.closeQ) You can see from the results that you're able to pass any variable to afile, woratémpubicatonscom GyMieaneore emote Roepe re SMe Rel cree Meet sts etek Matte una eke cop cc will create an error and break your code. EXCEPTIONAL OBJECTS Rather than stop the Flow of your cot , Python includes exception objects which handle unexpected errors in the code. You ‘ean combat errors by creating conditions where exceptions may occur. PEPER You can create an exception error by simplytrying EIB Youcanuse the functions raise exception to create to divide a number by zero. This will report back ‘our own error handling code within Python. Le’s with the ZerobivisionError Division by zero message, as seen in the assume your code has you warping around the cosmos, too much scteenshot. The ZeroDivisionError parts the exception class,of however results in 8 warp core breach. To stop the game from Which there are many. ‘exiting due tothe warp core going supernova, you can create 3 ‘custom exception: raise Exception(“warp core breach”) ee ‘Scop oyonarnnclsoem eae anonaaynon douecmeleantccertiacesnon venice ee arousing tesa ce inherently wrong with the cade. ee eee senate oe atte wapoatie see ET 220i cite sees volunFor example, use the divde by zero errr. You can Suse create an exception where the code can handle the errr without Python uiting due tothe problem: try: a=intCinputC“Enter the first number: baintCinputC*Enter the second nunber print(a/b) except ZereDivisionError: rint¢*You have tried to divide by zero!”) else: print(*You didn’t divide by zero, Well done!) p>) “I ‘Naturally, you can quickly fix the issue by changing Sus) the “r” read only instance with a “w* for write. This, asyouabeady now, wl ceae the fle andunte the content then ‘commit the changes tothe file, The end result wil report a different set of circumstances, inthis case, a successful execution ofthe code, PTSD) You can use exceptions to handle a variety of useful tasks. Using an example from our previous tutorials, let's assume you want to open a file and write toi try: ‘txt = opent“/home/pi/Document's/textfile.txt”, “r”) txt.nriteC“This is a test. Normal service will shortly resume!”) except I0Erro print (“Error: unable to write the file. Check permissions”) else: print (“Content written to file successfully. Have a nice day.”) ‘txt-closeQ) FETED viously this won't work due tothe file textile txt being opened as read only the “” part). Soin this, case rather than Python telling you that you're doing something wrong, you've created an exception using the |OEzrar class informing the user that the permissions are incorrect. ESTED You canalso use a finally: block, which worksina similar Fashion but you cant use else with it. To use ‘our example from Step 6: tr ‘txt = open(“/home/pi/Documents/textfile.txt”, “n”) te txt.writeC“This is @ test. Normal service will shortly resume!”) finally: print (“Content written to file successfully. Have a nice day.”) ‘txt.closeQ, except I0Error: print C*Error: unable to write the file. Check permissions”) PEPTET DD 2 before an ecror will occuras you've used the read-only permission. Fyou change Itto aw", then the cade will execute without the error being displayed inthe IDLE Shell. Neecless to say, it can be a tricky getting the exception code right the first time, Practise though, and you will get the hang oft. vtec ( (Exceptions ClMERCH Manette er eae Ueda y cel ene eae MUN nae egelesiies ictccscnleounl tee eee oo) Pee MMe ie mecnlavetacirla cat lcs GOING GRAPHICAL You can draw simple graphics, lines, squares and so on, or you can use one of the many Python modules available, to bring out some spectacular effects ‘One of the best graphical modules to begin learning ll Python graphics is Turtle, The Turtle module is, as tre ae suggests based onthe treet used nay seo, Sateen be pograried to dow sorting oo age oF paeronthe or The Tutlemedl canbe mp Saport tort. Let's begin by drawing a simple circle, Start a New Siar File, then enter the following cade: ‘import turtle turtle. circle(sa) turtle. getscreen(). root .mainLoop() ‘As usual press 5 to save the code and execute it. A new window will, ‘now open up and the Turtle’ will draw a circle [80M Definitive Guide Seris-Volume 24 Thecommand turtle. crcle(50) shat cravsthe Buss) circle on the screen, with 50 being the size. You can play around with the sizes if you like, going up to 100, 150 and beyond; you can draw an arc by entering: turtLe.circle(s®, 180), where the size is 50, but you're telling Python to only draw 400" othe crc BITEEE MD "he last part ofthe circle code tells Python to keep the window where the drawing staking place to remain open, sothe user can clckto close it. Now, let's make a square: import turtle printC“Drawing a square.”) for t in rangeCa): ‘turtle. forward(100) turtle. leFt(90) turtle. getscreen()._root.mainloop() ‘You can see that we've inserted a loop to draw the sides of the square,© Python Graphics cl PEPTSD You can add anew line tothe square code to add some colour: turtle.colorc*Red”) ‘Then you can even change the character to an actual turtle by entering: turtle.shopeC“turtle”) You can also use the command turtle, begin ALLO, and turtLe.end_fl1Q tofll inthe square withthe chosen colours; ‘ed outline, yellow filin this case, BETTS You canssee thatthe Turtle module can draw out some pretty good shapes and become a ite ‘more complex as you begin to master the way itwork. Enter this example from turtle import * color(‘red’, ‘yellow’) begin fL1C) while True: Forward(200) leFtc170) if abs(pos()) < 1: break end_AlLO done) Isa different method, butvery effective FETE EEA nother way in which you can display graphicsis by using the Pygame module. There are numerous ‘ways in which pygame can help you output graphics to the screen but for nowlet’s lookat displaying a predefined image. Start by ‘opening a brawser and finding an image, then saveit to the Folder Where you save your Python code. as Ei s& Nowlet' get the code by importing the ygame module ‘import pygane ygane.init() ‘img = pygane. image. load“RPi.png”) white = (255, 255, 255) w= 900 h= 450 screen = pygane.display. set_mode((n, h)) screen. fill((white)) screen. fill((wite)) screen. blitCing, (0,0) pygane.display.fiipQ while True: for event in pygane.event.get(): ‘if event.type = pygane QUIT: Pygane.quit() ESTEE 2 the previous step you imported pygame, initiated the pygame engine and asked to import our saved Raspberry P logo image, saved as RPi.png. Next you defined the background colour of the window to display the image and the ‘window size as per the actual image dimensions. Finally youhavea loop to clase the window. w = 900 h = 450 screen = pygame.display.set_mode((w, h)) screen. fill((white)) screen. fill((white)) screen. blit(img,(0,0)) pygame. display. flip() while True: for event in pygame.event.get(): if event. type == pygane. QUIT: pygane.quit() PRET Press F5 to save and execute the code and your image willbe displayed in a new window. Havea play around with the colours, sizes and so on and take time to look tp the many functions within the Pygame module too.>) Index } “First, solve the problem. Then, write the code.” — John Johnson (Developer and author) FA) cows detnkive Guide Series: Volume 34Using Modules ‘Python module is simply a Python- created source File which contains the necessary and unique code for custom classes, Functions and global variables. You can bind and reference modules to extend functionality and create even more spectacular Python programs. Want to see how to better use these modules to add a little something extra to your code? Then read on and learn how they can be used to Fashion Fantastic code. There's even some basic animations in this section, to help you get more from the Python modules. 76 78 80 82 88 90 Calendar Module (OS Module Random Module Tkinter Module Pygame Module Basic Animation Create Your Own Modules vwonabdmpubcatonscom — (8@) Using Modules ) Calendar Module ‘WORKING WITH DATES The Calendar module is bul into Python 3. However, if For some reason it’s not installed, you can add it using pip install calendar asa Windows administrator, or sudo pip install calendar for Linux and macOs. Launch Python 3 and enter: import calendar to call up the module and its inherent Functions, Once Itisloaded into memory stat by entering: ‘sep=calendar. TextCalendar(calendar.. SUNDAY) sep.prmonth(2019, 9) fle Eat Shel Debug gptons wow Help Cues recorder SS tc catenin ar Seema Lcense()" for more snfornation. You can see thatthe days of September 2019 are displayed in a wal calendar fashion. Naturally you can change the 2019, 9 part ofthe second tine to any year and ‘month you want, a birthday for example (1973, 6).The first-line configures TextCalendar to start its weeks an a Sunday, you can opt for Monday if you prefer. ie tat Oh tg soto done § ta be ase WIFE) 201 ote cite sees ean Leaps=calendar.Leapdays(1900, 2019) printCleaps) The results 29, starting from 1904 onward. ‘le Eat Shel Debug Ortons now Hp PEPER Hee ee mt iti Soe aSaPY calendar eee, import calendar print(S>>>>>>>>>Leap Year Calculator< Using Modules ) OS Module INTO THE SYSTEM (One of the primary Features of the OS module is the ability to list, move, create, delete and otherwise interact with files stored on the system, making it the perfect module for backup code. FETED You can startthe 0S module with some simple ESTEED The windows output is different as that’s the Functions to see howit interacts withthe operating current working directory of Python, as determined system environment that Python is running on. Fyou're using Linux by the system; as you might suspect, the os getcwd Function is or the Raspberry Pi, try this: ‘asking Python to retrieve the Current Working Directory, Linux users an wise something along the sae nes the Raspes hone=os.getcwdC) print (home) PEPTIPD) The returned result From printing the variable home BEVFB yer ancther interesting element to the OS module, isthe current user's home folder on the system. 'sits ability to launch programs that are installed Inour example thats /home/pi:it willbe different depending on _inthe host system. For instance, iFyou wanted to launch the the username you og in as and the operating system you use. Chromium browser From within a Python program you can use For example, Windows 10 will output: C\Program Files (x86)\ the command Python36-32 iment rT bronsersos. system(“/usr/bin/chromiun-bronser”) WUD) 2ov. ote cite seis elaESTED the ossystem0 function is what allows interaction with external programs; you can even call up previous Python programs using thismethod. You wil obviously ‘need to know the Full path and program Fle name foritto work successfully. However, you can use the following ‘import os os. system(‘start chrome “https://nwa. youtube. com/ feed/music””) The ably to manipulate decors or Folders Sas you prefer, is one of the OS module's best Features. Fovevampletocete anew rectory you cane import os (0s .mkdirC*NEW") ‘This creates a new directory within the Current Working Directory, named according to the object the mkdir Function, FETTER For Step 5's example we used Windows, to show that the OS module works roughly the same across all platforms. n that case, we opened YouTube's music Feed page, so itis therefore possible to open specific pages: ‘import os os.system(‘chromium-browser “http:// bdnpublLications..con/”*) REDD ots inthe previousstep' example the use of single and double quotes. The single quotes encase the entire command and launching Chromium, whereasthe double quotes open the specified page You can even use variables to call ‘multiple absinthe same browser: inport 0s a=(‘chromium-browser “http: //bdmpublications. con/"") b=C'chromium-bronser “het os.system(a + b) ‘Jun. google co.uk”? BSED scr storsronesny drecoresyuve ress import os os.renameC*NEW", “OLD”) Todelete ther: import os os.rmdirC“OLD") Another module that goes together wth OSis SusPild shutil. You can use the Shutil module together vith OS ndtne to create a timestemped bacup rectory and copy lesitot import os, shutil, time root_src_dir = r’/hone/pi/Documents? root dst_dir = ‘/home/pi/backup/? + time.asctimeC) for srcdir, dirs, files in os.walk(root_src_dir): dst_dir = src_dir.replace(root_sre_dir, root_ dst_dir, D if not os.path.exists(dst_dir): os.makedirs(dst_dir) for file_ in files: sre_file = os.path.join(sre_dir, file_) dst_file = 0s.path. join(dst_dir, file_) if os.path.exists(dst file): 0s. renoveCdst_file) shutil.copy(sre file, dst_dir) print(sssssss>>>Backup completeccccceceee”) wnentinoticoncn CS \ OS Module Cll@) Using Modules ) Random Module RANDOM NUMBERS There are numerous Functions: Python programs. in the Random module, which when applied can create some interesting and very useful FRE swans moatsyeuceiorwon we're going to look at in this tutorial, Let’s begin by simply printing a ‘import random printCrandomint(0,5)) Inour example Suave the number Four was returned, However enter the pn ncn afew more times nd pay erent imager values romthe st oF numbers given, eo ve The Overalefect though eeudo: fandom s adequate forthe average programmer to ulise in ther code Fora bigger set of numbers, including floating point values, you can extend the range by using the ‘multiplication sign import random printCrandom.random() *100) Will display a Floating point number between 0 and 100, tothe tune (of around Fifteen decimal points. DD) 20ers olan However. the Random module aitused exclusely Bue for numbers. You can use it to select an entry From a lst From random, and thelist can contain anything: import random random. choiceC{*Conan”, “Valeria”, “Belit”]) This will display one of the names of our adventurers at random, which fsa great addition toa text adventure game. You can extend the previous example somewhat by hhaving random. choice) select froma list of mixed variables. For instance: import random Lst=[“David”, 44, “BOM Publications”, 3245.23, “pi”, True, 3.14, “Python”] rnd=random. choiceCIst) print(rnd)Interesting, youcan ao ea function whine Suze Random module to shuffle the items in the list, thus ‘adding alittle more randomness into the equation: random. shuffleClst) print(ist) ‘This way, you can keep shuffling the list before displaying a random item from it. Using shuffle, you can create an entirely random lst ‘of numbers. For example, within a given range: Sis ‘import_random Ast=[[i] for I in range(20)] random. shuffleClst) print(1st) Keep shuffling the list and you can havea different selection of items from 0to 20 every ime. PEPTID) You can also select.a random number framagiven range in steps, using the start, stop step loop: ‘import random for i in range(10): printCrandom.randrange(®, 200, 7)) Results will vary but you get the general idea as to howit works. (Random Module Cll Levsuse an example pec of code wich ipsa EUSP) virtual coin ten thousand times and counts how many times itwil land on heads or tails: import random ‘output={*Heads”:0, “Tails”:0} coin-listCoutput.keys()) for i in rangec10000): ‘output[random. choi ceCcoin)]+=1 print(‘Heads:”, output[“Heads”]) print(“Tails:”, output[“Tails”]) Here's an interesting piece of code. Using atext File containing 466 thousand words, you can pluck ‘user generated number of words from the file (text file Found at: ‘www. github.com/dwyl/english-words): import random print(>ss>>ss>59Random Word Finderc>>>25>5>>Your adventure rolecceceece=600 or pos[t] <0: ya = -ya if pos[2] >=800 or pos[0] <0: gui -updateC) time.sleep(.025) Remove the codeyouenteredin Step 2andinsr. Size the code from Step 5 in its place; again, between the ball = canvas. create_oval(S,5,60,60, fill=’red’) and the gui .mainL.oop() tines. Save the code and Run it as normal you've entered the code correctly, then you wil see the red ball ‘bounce off the edges of the window until you close the program. The bouncing animation takes place within the While True loop. First, we have the values (of xa and xy before the oop, bath of $ and 10. The pos=canvas..coords(bal11) line takes the value of the balls location in the window. When it reaches the limits oF the window, 800 or 600, will make the values ‘negative; moving the ball around the screen PRD eons nowrsisrmasete poate ue sti = 250 def init_stars(screen): “© Create the starfield “” global stars stars = for i in rangeCMAX_STARS): # A star is represented as a list with this Format: [X,Y star = [randrange(®, screen.get_width©) - 1), randrange(@, screen.getheight©) - 1)] stars.append(star} def move_and_draw_stars(screen): “© Move and dran the stars “”* global stars for star in stars: star[1] += STAR_SPEED if star[1] >= screen.get_height©: star[i] = 0 star[0] = randrange(@,639) screen. set_at(star, (255,255,255)) FETED ow add the Following: def main(): pygane. init© screen = pygane.display. set_mode((640,480)) pygane. display. set_captionC*Starfield Simulation”) ‘clock = pygame. time.Clock() init_stars(screen) while True: # Lock the framerate at 50 FPS clock. tick(S0) # Handle events for event in pygane.event.get(): if event.type == pygame. QUIT: return screen. fl1((0,0,0)) move_and_draw_stars(screen) pygame.display. flip) if _name__ == main) “_main_ det main) yaame: nse) Pyoane-dsbplay.Set-eaption( "= EXeek = pyoane-eine-cioek() (640, 0) Mfct8'Staabatson) | snst_stara(screen) ‘hock: eiek(S0) ° handle events event. get) yoame: rt screen. F511((0,9,9)) ee eee Prasee.sisplay- F300), PEPPER) Seve and Run the code. You will agree that the simulated starfield code looks quite impressive. Imagine this s the beginning of some game code, or even the start toa presentation? Using a combination of Pygame and Tkinter, your Python animations wil look fantastic.@) Using Modules Create Your Own Modules BUILDING MODULES ‘Modules are Python files, containing code, that you save using a py extension. These are then i now Fa ported into Python using the import command Lette by creating aset of bast matheratis SIE Functions. Multiply @ number by two, three and square or raise a number to an exponent (power). Create a New File Inthe IDLE and enter def timestwoCx): return x * 2 def timesthree(x): return x * 3 def square(x): return x * x def power(x,y): return x ** y print Ctimestwo(2)) print Ctimesthree(3)) print Csquare(4)) print Cpower(5,3)) Save the program as basic math.py and execute itto get the results. Under the above code, enter Functions to call the code: rane Ptentenso) = DBD) 201 ote cite sees olan BATEREDD Now you're going to take the Function definitions ‘out of the program and into a separate file Highlight the Function definitions and choose Edit > Cut. Choose File > New File and use Edit > Paste in the new window. You now have two separate files, one with the Function definitions, the other with the Function calls IF you now try and execute the basic_math,py code ‘again, the error’ NameError: name timestwo' is not defined! willbe displayed, This is due to the code no longer having access to the Function definitions ED Returnto thenewly created window containing the Function definitions, and Click ile > Save As. Name this minimath.py and save it in the same location as the original basic_math.py program. Now close the minimath.py window, so the basic_math.py window fs left openPEPTID G2ck to the basic_math.py window: at the top ofthe code enter: from minimath import * ‘Thiswillmport the Function definitions asa module, Press F5 to save and execute the program to see itn action, FEPTIED You can now use the code Further to make the program alittle more advanced, utilising the newly created module to its Full Include some user interaction. Start by eating a basic menu the user can choose from: print(“select operation.\n") print(“1.Times by two”) print(“2.Times by Three”) print(“3.Square”) print(“4.Power of”) choice = input¢“\nénter choice (1/2/3/4):”) ‘nun = intCinput(“\nénter number: “)) This illsave the user-entered number asthe variable num? Now we can add the user input to get the number the code will work on: Tron minimath Inport * print("Select operation.\n") Hee 1.Times by two irint("2.Tames irint("3.Square") print(~4:Poner of") choice = input("\nénter choice (1/2/3/4):") punt = int¢input("\nenter number: ")) - ( Create Your Own Modules finaly youcan now create a range off statements EUSP) to determine what to do with the number and utilise the newly created function definitions: if choice == ‘1’: printCtimestwoCnumt)) elif choice == 2 print(timesthreeCnunt)) elif choice == ‘3’: print(squareCnum)) elif choice == <4": ‘und = intCinput(“Enter second nunber: print(poner(numl, nun2)) else: printC*Invalid input”) le Est Fmt Ban opera swe tp ») gman Note that forthe ast avalable options, the Power Surly of choice, we've added a second variable, num2. This pases asecond number trough the function defniton cle power. Sve and execute the program o seein action, wnentinotictoncn GT“The most important property of a program is whether it accomplishes the intention of its user.” syictooc CRE C++ is an excellent, high-level Programming language that’s used in a multitude of technologies. Everything from your favourite mobile app, console and PC game to entire operating systems are developed with C++ as the core, together with a collection of software development kits and custom libraries. C++ is the driving force behind most of what you use on a daily basis, which . makes it a complex and extraordinarily ee powerful language to get to grips with. In this section, we look at how to install a C++ IDE and compiler on your computer. 94 Why Cos? 96 Equipment You Will Need 98 Howto Set Up C++ in Windows 100 How to Set Up Cr+ ona Mac i 102 How to Set Up C++ in Linux Other C++ IDEs to Installz= Say Hello to C++ ) Why C++? eee gas Ce cc eateries et ACH called C with Classes, the language was renamed C++ in 1983. t's an extension of the original C language and is a general purpose object-oriented (OOP) environment. C EVERYTHING Due to how complex the language can be, and its power and performance, C++ is often used to develop games, programs, device drivers and even entire operating systems. G &conemeraterduntstrrton Dating backto 1979, the start ofthe golden era of home ‘computing labs and by regular people who didn't have access tothe Computing, C++, or rather C with Classes, was the brainchild of mainframes and large computing data centres. Danish computer scientist Blame Stroustrup while working on his PhO thesis. Stroustrup's plan was to further the original language, Cts impactin the digital word is immense. Many of the programs, which was widely used since the early seventies. applications, games and even operating systems are coded using Cr+. For example, all of Adobe's major applications, such as C++ proved to be popular among the developers ofthe 80s, Photoshop, InDesign and so on, are developed in C++. You will find since it was a much easier environment to get to grips with and that the browser you surf the internet with i written in C++, as ‘more importantly, it was 99% compatible with the original C ‘well as Windows 10, Micrasoft Office and the backbone to Google's language. This meant that it could be used beyond the mainstream search engine. Apple's macOS is writen largely in C++ (with samme PET 220 cite sees vole(why c+4? Cl \ ven summary Microsoft's Visual Studio is a great, Free environment to learn C++ in. ‘other languages mixed in depending on the function) andthe likes begin with Python and spend some time getting to grips with ‘of NASA, SpaceX and even CERN use C++-For various applications, _programming structure and the many ways and means in which ‘programs, controls and umpteen other computing tasks. you Find a solution to a problem through programming, Once Yyou can happily power up your computer and whip ‘outa Python program with one hand tied behind your back, then move on to C++. OF course, there's nothing stopping you from jumping straight into C+ if you Feel up tothe task, go fort. C++ salso extremely efficient and performs well across the board as well as being an easier addition tothe core C language. This higher level of performance over other languages, such as Python, BASIC and such, makes it an ideal development environment For moder computing, hence the aforementioned companies Using itso widely Getting to use C+ is as easy as Python, all you need isthe right set of tools in which to-communicate with the computer in C++ and you can start your journey. A C++ IDEs Free of charge, even the immensely powerful Visual Studio from Microsoft 's freely avalable to download and use. You can get into C++ from any operating system, be it macOS, Linux, Windows or even mobile platforms. While Python is great programming language to learn, C++ putsthe developer Ina much wider world of coding. By ‘mastering C++, you can find yourselt developing code forthe likes of Microsoft, Apple and so.0n. Generally, C++ developers enjoy a higher salary than programmers of some other languages and due toitsversatliy, the C++ programmer can move between Justlke Python, to answer the question of Why C++ isthe Jobs and companies without the need to relearn anything specific. answer is because it's fast, efficient and developed by most ofthe However, Python is an easier language to begin with. you're ‘applications you regularly use l's cutting edge and a fantastic completely new to programming then we would recommend you language to master. using is written in Ces. = & © @ “_ Mac — debian ubuntu ——— GS Indeed, the operating system you're\ Say Helloto C++ ) Equipment You Will Need Sor Meee eee eM MR ol Keen NT don’t need an entire computing lab at your disposal either. Providing you have a fairly modern computer, everything else is Freely available. C++ SETUPS ‘Most, if not all, operating systems have C++ in their code, so it stands to reason that you can learn to program in C++ no matter what OS you're currently using. COMPUTER Unless you Fancy writing out your C++ code by hand on a sheet of paper (which is something many older coders used to do), 2 computer isan absolute must have component, PC users can have any recent Linux distro or Windows OS, Mac users the latest macOS. [_] AN IDE _ code. Many IDEs come with extensions and plugins that help make provides enhancements depending on the core OS being used, such as — being enhanced for Windows 10. COMPILER ————< ‘compiler isa program that converts the C++ language into binary, so that the computer can understand, While some IDEs come with 3 compiler builtin, others don't. Code: Blocks s our Favourite IDE that comes ith a C++ compiler as part ofthe package. More on ths later. |_| TEXT EDITOR Sete en eat arena es Cee code before running ttirough a compiler Essentaly you can Use any text editor to wre code just save with a.cpp extension eee tee |_| INTERNET ACCESS While it’s entirely possible to learn how to code on a computer that’ not attached tothe Internet, it's extraordinarily difficult. Youneed to install relevant software, keep it up to date install any extras or extensions and look for help when coding, All of these require access to the internet. L] TIME AND PATIENCE Yes, as with Python, you're going to need to set aside significant time tospend on learning how to cade in C++. Sadly, unless you're a genius, isnot going to happen overnight, or even a week. A good C++ coder has spent many years honing their craft, so be patient, start small and keep learning BET 200 cies eure(Equipment You will Need Cl OS SPECIFIC NEEDS ‘C++ will work in any operating system but getting all the necessary pieces together can be confusing to a newcomer. Here are some OS specifics For C+. ay We have mentioned previously that a good IDE is Microsoft's Visual Studio. However, a better IDE and compiler is Code:Blocks, which is regularly kept up to date with a new release twice a year. Otherwise Windows users can enter their code in Notepads-, then compile it with MinGW as used by Code:Bi Linux users ae lucky thatthey already have a compiler and text editor butt into their operating system. Any text editor allows you to type out your C++ cade, when i's saved with a cpp extension, use gr+ to compile RASPBERRY PI MAC } The Raspberry P's operating system's Raspbian, which isLinux based, Therefore, you're able to write your code ‘out using a text editor, then compile twith g++ as you would in any other Linux distro. Mac owners willneed to download and install Xcode tobe able to compile their C++ code natively, Other ‘options For the macoS include Netbeans, Eclipse or Code:Blocks. Note: the latest CodesBlocks srt available For Mac due to a lack ‘of Mac developers.. Say Helloto C++ ) How to Set Up C++ in Windows AU YinNeCo RUE VER IMl eRolm eae AU aM eon nA Co Dols CTU aN Cae eK E are plenty of IDEs and compilers available, including Visual Studio from Microsoft. However, in our opinion, the best C++ IDE to begin with is Code::Blocks. CODE::BLOCKS Code:Blocks is a free C++, C and Fortran IDE that’s Feature rich and easily extendible with plug-ins. It's easy to use, comes with a compiler and has a vibrant community behind it. FETED S2tby visting the Code:Blocks downloadsite, at EEEEM when you've located the file, click on the worw.codeblocks.org/downtoads, From there, click Sourceforge.net link atthe end ofthe line and a ‘on the ‘Download the binary releases’ ink tobe taken to the latest download notification window appears; click on Save File to start downloadable version fr Windows. the download and save the executable to your PC. Locate the TS ‘downloaded CodeBlocks installer and double-click to start. Follow oo the on-screen instructions to begin the installation Welcome to CodeBlocks Setup Sup ge you tru eaten Cs Rereomnendet lyases ote eet ‘fuer Sun ere pe aoe ‘Seeder teers wre rs PEPIPD You cansee that there are several Windows versions [EFM once you've agreed to the licencing terms, thereisa available. The one you want to download has choice of installation options avalable. You can opt ‘mingw-setup.exe' atthe end of the current version number. At fora smaller install, missing out on some of the components but we the time of writing this: codeblocs-17.12mingwesetup.exe. The would recommend you opt forthe Ful option as default differences that the mingw-setup version includes a C++ compiler td debuage rom TDMECe (acompir suite ® a ao cee | Peon - cnc nme rma soe: = aes a a ET 220 cite sees ene(_ Howto Set Up C++ in Windows Cl Next choose an instal ocation fr the Codes Blocks Suse files. It's your choice, but the default will generally suc, ules ofcourse you hoe any pede equements When you click Next, the install begins; when it's inished a notification ops up asking you iF you want to start Code:Blocks now, so click Yes rae rte Cs atta oaneg Mew rcs at Mar os) ere le Cis ber ea. aye j =< =< rant a oe | aeRO FETTER The Fisttime Code:Blocks loadsitruns an auto-detect for any C++ compilers you may already have installed on you system. you don’t have any, click on the first detected option, GNU GCC Compiler, and clckthe Default button to set it as the system's C++ compiler. Clik OK when you're ready to continve. iebitieeeeeesatcc! BERT) When the program starts another message appears, informing you that Code:Blacks is currently not the default application For C++ files. You a couple of options: to leave everything ast sor alow Code: Blocks to associate all C++ fle types. Again, we would recommend you opt forthe last choice to ‘associate CodeBlocks with every supported file typ. Before youstart using Code:Blos t's worth Sua ‘explaining exactly why you need the added complet rst, acomplerise seperate program tht reads throughyour Cvs code and cheds agaist the atest acceptable programing standards why youneed te mest rece Evatble comple Te caren Cor wth C20 undery FETED Essentially, computers work and understand only binary, ones and zeros, or Machine Language Programming in binary isnt effective For human beings. For ‘example, to outputthe words "Hello World!” tothe screen in C++ ‘would appear in binary as: 1100011 01101111 01110101 21110100 e0100000 00111100 0111100 90100000 90100010 01001000 01100101 01101100 01101100 @1101111 @0100000 1010111 01101111 01110010 @1101100 01100100 00100001 00100010 o0111011 Select FETS eR ED the compiler therefore takes what you've entered as C++ code and translates that to Machine Language. To execute C++ code the IDE builds the code, ‘checking for errors, then pass it through the compiler to check standardisation and convert i to ones and zeros For the computer toact upon. It's rather clever stuff, when you stop to think about ft ora bdmpublications com. @) Say Helloto C++ ) How to Set Up C++ ona Mac To begin C++ coding on a Mac you first need to install Apple’s Xcode. This is a Free, Full featured IDE that’s designed to create native Apple apps. However, you can also use it to create C++ code relatively easily. XCODE Apple's Xcode is primarily designed for users to develop apps For macOS, iOS, tvOS and watchOS applications in Swift or ‘Objective-C but you can use it for C++ too. Start by opening the App Store on your Mac, Apple ‘when you're ready, clickon the Get button which "Menu > App Store. Inthe Search box enter Xcode’ then tumnsinto install App Enter your Apple ID and press Return, There are many suggestions filing the App Store and Xcode begins to download and install It may take some time ‘window butts the first option, Xcode, that youneed tocickon. depending on the speed of your Internet connection PEPTPD Take amoment to browse through the app's EEPPD when the installation is complete, click on the information, including the compatibility, to ensure ‘Open button to launch Xcode, Click Agree to the you have the correct version of macOS. xcode requires macOS licence terms and enter your password to allow Xcode to make 10.126 or later to install and work. ‘changes tothe system. When that is done, Xcode begins to install, ‘additional components, FEED sorts Detnive cide seris- volume 34With everything now installed, including the additional components, xcode launches, displaying the version number along with three choices and any recent projects that you've worked on; with afresh install though, this is blank you're developing code For. Click the macOS tab, then click the Command Line Tool option. Click Next to continue. Start by clicking on Create New Xcode Project; this ‘opens a template window to choose which platform SET erey Del Fillin the various fields but ensure that the Language option atthe bottom i set to C++; simply choose it from the drop-down list. When you've iled inthe field, ‘and made sure that C++ isthe chosen language, click an the Next button to continue, Te next step asks hereto create aGitRepostory plEtg for all your Future code. Choose a location on your Mac oranetwor action, and ickthe Create buton when You've done althat you can start to code. Thelethand pane deta the ies used Inthe C+ program youre codhng, Conte maine le inthe You can see that Xcode has automatically completed a basic Hello World program for you STEP 9 ‘hile it may not make much sense at present, you wil discover more as you progress, the content is just Xcade utlising what's ‘available on the Mac. corr Tr ‘when ouwantto run the code, ikon Product» Suid Run. You may be asked to enable Developer Mode nthe Mac tisistosuthorse Xcode to perform uncions without needing your password every seson Whenthe rogram execs, the output is dsplyed atthe bottom ofthe Xcode window Pron a wmvinociccoson CT (How to Set Up C++ on a Mac ClBE) sito. How to Set Up C++ in Linux aed endo tC ne eee ee cect Coon oN ee el re ene Reon | MN Ae el Cole E eK anna entering code into, including colour coding. There’s also tons of extra software available oh helt helt a LINUX++ IFyou're not familiar with Linux, then we recommend taking a look at one of our Linux titles From the BOM Publications range. IF you have a Raspberry Pi The fist step isto ensure Linux is ready For your C++ code, so check the system and software are up to date. Open a Terminal and enter- sudo apt-get update && sudo apt- ‘get upgrade. Then press Return and enter your password. These ‘commands update the entice system and any installed software. le Edk_Vew Sear Terminal Hp PEPER ost Linux distros come preinstalled with all the necessary components to start coding in C+s;however, i's always worth checking to see if everything 's present, Stil within the Terminal, enter:sudo apt-get Install build-essential and press Return. you have the right components nothing is installed; iF you're missing some then they are installed by the command, EEE cores etntive Guide Seris-votume 24 he commands used below work just Fine and for this example we're using Linux Mint FETED srazinaly thats. everthing is already for you tostart coding. Here's how to get your First C++ program up and running, In Linux Mint the main text editors Xe, ‘hich you can launch by clicking on the Menu and typing Xed into, the search bar. Clickon the Text Editor button inthe right-hand pane toopen it. FPP M 10 Xed, or any other text editor you may be using, enter the lines of code that make up your C++ Hello ‘World program. t'sa little efferent to what the Mac produced: #include int main i 7iMy first C++ program std::cout << “Hello World!\n”; ¥ pealns xen aavowtostvcrninx CR FTIR) When youve entered yourcode,cickFile>Saveas ERIM sefore you can execute the C++ file you need to and choose a folder in which to save your program. compile In Linux t's common to use g++, an open Name the Fle ashelloworld.cpp (it can be any name aslong as ithas source C++ compiler; as you're now inthe same folder as the C++ pas the extension), Click Save to continue. file, enter: g++ helloworld.cpp in the Terminal and press Return, Fe tt Vow tach Terie FETTER The Fist thing to notice is that Xed has FETTER takes short time while the code is compiled by automatically recognised this asa C++ file, since the {g++ but providing there are no mistakes o errors in file extension is now set to cpp. The colour coding is present in the the code you are returned to the command prompt. The compiling code and iF you open up the file manager you can also.see thatfil’s of the cade has created a new file. If you enter into the Terminal icon has C++ stamped onit, you can see that alongside your C++ files aout. BEPTSER) With your code now saved, drap into the Terminal SIIB the aout files the compiled C++ code. Torun again. You need to navigate to the location of the code enter: fa.out and press Return. The the C++fileyou'veust saved. Qur examples inthe Documents words ‘Hello World appear on the screen. However, a.out ist Folder, so we can navigate to it by entering: ed Documents, very friendly. To name it something else postcompiling, you can Remember, the Linux Terminals case sensitive, so any capitals recompile with: g++ helloworld.cpp-0 helloworld, This creates an ‘must be entered correctly ‘output file called helloworld which can be run with: /helloworl. tlt Vow Seach Teri tp Fit Yon tech Tb ele@) Say Helloto C++) Other C++ IDEs to Install Tana SECT ech N geet Meee plenty of options available to you. Windows is the most prolific platform for C++ IDEs but there are plenty for Mac and Linux users too. DEVELOPING C++ Here are ten great C++ IDEs that are worth looking into. You can install one or all of them if you like, but Find the one that works best For you. ren Ste Eclnseis a hugely popular C++ IDE that offers FREE TE Codelite isa free and open source IDE that's the programmer a wealth of Features, has a regularly updated and available for Windows, ‘reat, clean interface, is easy to use and available For Windows, Linux and macOS. t's lightweight, uncomplicated and extremely Linux and Mac. Head over to www.ecipse.org/downloads/ to powerful. You can find out more information as well as how to download the latest version. If you're stuck, click the Need Help link download and instalit at www.codelite.ora/. for more information, FAD The GNAT Programming Studio (GPS) isapowerful — INPEMSSNNER Another popular choice is NetBeans. This ‘and intuitive IDE that supports testing, debugging [s another excellent IDE that's packed with and code analysis. The Community Edition is Free, whereas the Features and a pleasure to use. NetBeans IDE includes project based ro version costs; however, the Community Editionis available for templates for C++ that give you the ability to build applications with \windows, Mac, Linux and even the Raspberry Pi You canfinditat dynamic and static libraries. Find aut more at www.netbeans.org/ wwrw.adacore.com/downtoad. Features/cpp/index.html. ov tn ise volun 4( XX Other C++ IDEs to Install Cl Microsoft's Visual Studio is 2 mammoth C++ IDE that allows you VISUAL STUDIO to create applications for Windows, Android, iOS and the web. The Community version s Free to download and install but the other versions allow 2 ree tral period, Go to www.visualstudio.com/ to see what itcan do For you. ESRD Ths ross platform IDEs designed to create C++ applications For desktop and ‘mobile environments. Itcomes with a code editor and integrated tools For testing and debugging, as well as deploying to you chosen platform, i's nat free but there sa tial period an offer before The Anta Devstudi ia Uru ony DE that AoHoE Features some of the more advanced features you would nermaly dina pad software development tudo, There's {GUI designer source edtor pp wierd, nteracve debugger and Inch more Goto wnwanjuta.r/ for more formation Ia eee Ts excellent IDE allows developers towrite C++ code For desktop and ‘web applications across all the major platforms. There's an advanced text editor, integrated debugger and a configurable workbench to help you create your code. I's available for Windows, Mac and Linux andis free to download and use: www.monodevelop.com/. PYSYTSIEMD Bloodshed Dev C+, despite its colourful name, isan older IDE that is for Windows systems only. However, many users praise its clean interface and uncomplicated \way of coding and compiling. Although there's nat been much updating for some time, it's certainly one to consider if you want something ifferent: www.bloodshed.net/devcpp.html a =e 4 Ultimate +s cross-platform C++ IDE that boasts a rapid development of code through the smart and ‘aggressive use of C++. For the novice, it's beast of an IDE but behind its complexity s a beauty that would make a developer's knees go ‘wobbly. Find out more at www.ultimatepp.org/index.html wmvinociccoson CI(C+ Fundamentals \ Within this section, you will begin to understand the structure of C++ code and how you can compile and execute that code. These are the core Fundamentals of C++, which teach you the basics such as using comments, variables, data types, strings and how to use C++ mathematics. These are the building blocks of a C++ program. With them, you will be able to Form your own code, produce an output tothe screen, store and retrieve data and be well on your way to creating your own custom code. 108 Your First C++ Program 110 Structure of a C++ Program 112 Compile and Execute 114 Using Comments 116 Variables £ 118 Data Types i 120 Strings C++ Maths: SCRE (Pioneer programmer) when interviewed by pec ora vmpublcatonscom= Zz 2 ) C++ Fundamentals ) Your First C++ Program SME CMe ee Rech ace gM aCe STs [ Cs Marre Ueh AIA Ia acu Keeton: ee enema Ma your First C++ program and taking the First small step into a larger coding world. HELLO, WORLD! nal in programming for the first code to be entered to output the words ‘Hello, Wor stra 0 the screen. Interestingly, this dates back to 1968 using a language called BCPL. ESTEE 5 mentioned, we're using Windows 10 and the FETED A:the momentit doesnt look tke much, and latest version of Code:Blocks forthe rest ofthe C++ itrakes even less sense, but we'llget to that ode in this book. Begin by launching Code:Blocks, When open, click in due course. Now click on File > Save File As. Create or find @ (on File> New > Empty File or press Ctri#Shift#N on the keyboard. suitable location on your hard drive and inthe File Name box, call ithelloworld.cpp. Click the Save as type box and select C/C++ Files. ‘lick the Save button. ESTEE ow you can see a blank screen, withthe tab Bea You can see that Code:Blocks has now changed labelied *Untitiedt, and the number one inthe top the colour coding, recognising thatthe file's now left of the main Code:Blocks window. Begin by clicking in the main C++ cade. This means that code can be auto-selected from the window, so the cursors next to the number ane, and entering Codes.Blocks repository, Delete the tinclude line and re-enter it. You can see the autoselect boxes appearing, #include [80M Definitive Guide Seris-Volume 24C Your First C++ Program Cl BERTSED) 2utoselection of commands is extremely handy and cuts out potential mistyping, Press Returnto get to line 3,then enter: int main "Note: there's no space between the brackets. PeimveisaliSias hie SEErrr es x ESTEE) onthe next line below int maind, enter a curly bracket: { ‘This can be done by pressing Shift and the key tothe right of Pon an English UK keyboard layout. asim S eae veeeaitgdoborb ade scasee oe My first C+ program [esis wiSiae mie. [Note again the colour coding change. Press Return at the end of the previous steps ine, and then enter: std: ‘cout << “Hello, world!\n"; es reel SRE ele eee sexu sl emligee Bes tam Just. as before, Coder:Blocks auto-completes the Code you're entering, including placing a closing Sia speech mark as soon as you enter the first. Dont forget the semicolon atthe end of the line; this sone of the most important ‘elements to a C++ program and wel tell you why in the next section. For naw, move the cursor down to the closing curly bracket and press Return. (eealaeiors: ecusieaig ig ere Sit she Be sa= is ee Tact pended moms ta wmvinectccoson CE= zk C++ Fundamentals ) Structure of a ; C++ Program ae eM ine eaten eu Me Ram OTe a een fata Pee eeu hac neem cil tema cris isctetck NEE ecu ae ene alco eetastice #INCLUDE Learning the basics of programming, you begin to understand the structure of a program. The commands may be different from one language to the next, but you will start to see how the code works. on #INCLUDE Stxthere | “helloworldcyp | ‘#include includes the while making ta more iostream header to support User friendly environment inputjoutput operations. through anew structure Blame Stroustruy INT MAIN() [Serthee %| *helloword.epp x | Intmaind inotes the dectartion oF function, which isa group of code statements under the name main ll C++ code beginsat the main Function, regardless of where it actualy lies within the code Finclude int main) BRACES Starthere | *helloworkd.cpp The open brace (curly brackets) is something that youmay not have come across before, ‘especially if you're used to Python, The ‘open brace indicates the beginning of the main function and contains allthe code that belongs to that Function ETD 2s recuse sets net #include int main() feCOMMENTS Lines that begin with a double slash ace comments.This means they won't be executed in the code and are ignored by the compiler. Comments are designed to help you, or another programmer (ooking at your code, expainwhats going on. There ae two types of comment: /* covers multiple ine comments, single ln, Lines that sin with a double slash are comments.This means they won't be executedinthe code and are ignored bythe comptr. Commentsare designed | tohelp you, or another programmer looking at yourcodeexplainwhat’s | going on. There eto types of comment: /* covers | ‘multiple ine comments, //2_|| single line, C Structure of a C++ Program Cl << ‘The two chevrons used here are insertion operators, Thismeans that whatever Follows the chevrons isto be inserted into the std:cout statement, In this case they're the words Hello, world, ‘hich are to be displayed on the screen when you compile and execute the code, STD \while std stands for something quite different, in C++ it means ‘Standard. I's part ofthe Standard Namespace in C+, which covers. ‘a number of ciffecent statements and cormmands. You can leave the stds part out of the code but it must be declared atthe start with: using namespace std; not both. For example: #include using namespace std; 4 COUT Inthis example we're using cout, which isa part of the Standard "Namespace, hence why t's there, as you're asking C++ to use irom that particular namespace. Cout means Character OUTput, which displays, or prints, something to the screen. If we leave std: out we have to declare it atthe start of the code, as mentioned previously. [Sathee —%<) *hellowordepp = 1 | finclude 2 | using namespace sta; 3 4 | ant main) 5 lac 6 7 cont, ° ° 20 OUTPUTS Leading on, the “Hello, world” partis what we want to appear on the screen when the code is executed. You can enter whatever you lke, as long asits inside the quotation marks. The brackets aren't needed but some compiles insist on them, The \n partindicates a new line is tobe inserted //My first C++ program cout << “Hello, world!\n” ; AND} Finally you can see that lines within a Function cade block (except ‘comments) end with a semicolon. This marks the end ofthe statement and all statements in C++ musthave one at the end or the compiler Fails to build the code. The very last ine has the closing brace to indicate the end of the main Function. [Satiee DN] “retoworae x Vinciude ing namempace att int main() cout << *Hello, world! \n"; EB weveuaune| az= C++ Fundamentals ) Compile and Execute You've created your First C++ program and you now understand the basics behind the Rte omer eee ea au aku eke mrtg you prefer, the program and see how it looks. GREETINGS FROM C++ Compiling and executing C++ code from Code::Blocks is extraordi result. Here's how it's done. (Open Code:Blocks,f you haven't already, and load up the previously saved Hello World code you created. Ensure that there are no visible errors, such as missing semicolons at the end of the std:cout lin, IF your code is looking similar tothe one in our screenshot, then look to the menu bar along the top of the screen. Under the Fortran entry in the topmost menu you can see a group of cons: a yellow cog, green play button and a cog/play button together. These are Build Run, Build and Run functions. ly easy; just a matter of clicking an icon and seeing the ESTED t2rtby clicking onthe Build icon, the yellow cog the CodeBlocks compiler and checked For any errors. You can see the results of the Build by looking to the bottom window pane. Any messages regarding the quality ofthe code ae displayed here. fo Aeseaoe se SI Res =] Seattg x1 faim At [Now click on the Run icon, the green play button. ‘command line box appears on your screen displaying the words: Hello, world, followed by the time it’s taken. toexecute the code, and asking you press akey to continue. Well done, you ust compiled and executed your First C++ program. EEE corset Gude Seris-votume 24Conpieandeeate OR 12a deliberate errarin the code. Remove the semicolon from the cout line, soit reads: cout << “Hello, world! \n" Presingayyinibeconmendinetoccet, SD NSPE returning you to Code::Blocks. Let's alter the code Sua slighty Under the sinclude ine, enter using nanespace std; ‘Then, delete the std: part of the Cout ine; like so: Starthere x cout << “Hello, world\n”; using namespace std; int masn( Finclude using namespace std; cout << a3 : cout << "\n"s me cout << bs Sing ames mae 7 ‘The cout <<" par ee man simply places new line between the output of tands, wees Fined: int main() ; FEED Se2ttsimple by creating two variables, aandb, with [ESSE Naturally you can declare anew variable, call it ‘one having a value of 10 and the other S. You can result and output some simple arithmetic: use the data type int to declare these variables. Within the curly : brackets, enter: TESS result «a +b; = Goes] wren % cout << result; = § = Insert the above into the cade as per the screenshot b=5; soot ieee oieveiates CE Youcenssignavaietoneralessconasyas TREAD) Teepeussten ets evar ates, Suz declare it. The code you've typed in could look like: Sua which is a global variable. in a game, for example, ths stead 2 plye sve oup or down depending on how wel how bad int a = 20; recs tots defo sates Hereweve asrgned 3s thet int b= 55 : ees subtracted 1, leaving 2 lives left cout << result FETED The modern C++ compiler is far more intelligent. than most programmers give it credit. While there are numerous data types you can declare for variables, you can in d fact use the auto Feature: include using namespace std; ‘auto pi = 3.141593; BETTER Soeciictoci+.youcanalsousethefollowing int main) toassign values to a variable as soon as you : declare them: double area, radius = 1.5; int @ 10); = pi * radius * radius; — area = pi * rad dius; ‘Then, from the C++ 2011 standard, using curly Brac EEN int result {orb}; ‘ FSTeER AD You can create global variables, which are variables that are declared outside any Function and used in any Function within the entire code, What you've used so far are local variables: variable used inside the Function. Far example: ‘Acouple of new elements here: ist, auto won't work unless you go to Settings > Compiler and tick the box labelled ‘Have G++ Follow the C++11 150 C++ Language #include Standard [std=c++1J. Then, the new data type, double, which using namespace std; means double-precision floating point value. Enable C++, then, int StartLives = 3; build and run the code, The result should be 7.06858, int main © at { startLives = StartLives = 1; cout << Startlives; _ } vwonatdmpublcatonscom QRS= zk C++ Fundamentals ) Data Types Variables, as we've seen, store information that the programmer can then later call up, ETM Clem Cee LeU e ETE Ate Rena Cele Le Cot Tenet cee Me Teme ue Ke lea tree THE VALUE OF DATA There are many different datatypes avaliable forthe programmer in C+, suchas an integer, floating point, Boolean, character and so on. I's widely accepted that there are seven basic datatypes, often called Primitive Bultin Types; however, you can create your Own, data types should the need ever arise within your code. ‘The seven basic data types are: TYPE COMMAND Integer Gone Dealers | ems] ‘These basic types can also be extended using the Following modifiers: Long, Shot, Signed and Unsigned. Basically this means the modifiers can expand the minimum and maximum range values for each data {ype. For example, the int datatype has a default value range of 2147483648 to 2147483647, fair value, you would agree. ‘Now, if you were to use one of the modifiers, the range alters: Unsigned int = 0to 4294967295 Signed int =-2147483648 to 2147483647 Short int =-32768 to 32767 Unsigned Short Signed Short int =-32768 to 32767 Long int =-2147483647 to 2147483647 Signed Long int =-2147483647 to 2147483647 Unsigned Long int = 0 to 4284967295 "Naturally you can get away with using the basic type without the ‘modifier, as there's plenty of range provided with each datatype. However, its considered good C++ programming practise to use the ‘modifiers when possible. ‘There are issues when using the modifiers though. Double represents a double-floating point value, which you can use For BEEP sorts etnive cide seris- volume 34 incredibly accurate numbers but those numbers are only accurate upto the fifteenth decimal place. There's also the problem when clsplaying such numbers in C++ using the cout Function in that cout by default only outputs the First five decimal places. You can combat that by adding a cout precision () Function and adding a valve inside the brackets, but even then you're stil limited by the accuracy of the double data type. For example, try this code: #include using namespace std; double PI = 3.141592653589793238463; int mainQ) { ¥ cout <«< PI; Stathere %| Datatypescpp > using namespace st | doubie pr = 3-1sisszessseoros2se<63; © Urea Document\Co\DatTypen Build and run the code and as you can see the outputs only 3.14158, representing cout’ limitations inthis example You can alter the code including the aforementioned cout:precision Function, For greater accuracy. Take precision allthe way up to 22 decimal places, with the following code: #include using namespace std; double PI = 3.141592653589793238463; int mainQ) {cout precision(22); cout << PI; 3 Sarthee | DataTypescop 2 using namespace std: 3 double PY ~ 3.141592653589753230463/ 4 6 ® cout << PI? n | ‘Again, build and run the code; as you can see from the command ine window, the number represented by the variable Plis diferent, to the number you've told C++ to use in the variable. The output reads the value of Pas 3.141592653589793115998, with the numbers going awry from the fifteenth decimal place Calculator = Scientific D 15.142857142857142857142857142857 DEG HYP FE Me ms 2 sin cos tan 10* log Exp Mod = cE c ae co oN WO recsion standard occ oF data, of which 52-bits ae dedicated to the significant (the ant digits in a floating-point number) and roughly 3.5-bits are taken holding the values 0 to 9. I you divide 53 by 35, then you ‘attive at 15.142857 recurring, which is 15-digts oF precision fe that needs to be accurate to ou wouldn't be using Cr+, ould use some scientific specific language with C++-as the To be honest, if you're creating more than fifteen decimal places, then y nective tissue between the two languages, You can create your own data types, using an allas-ke system called typedef. For example: include using namespace std; int main © #include = using namespace std; } int main © Xea|Qaforson as { we [reel 2 Vid + bLO char greet{] = “Welcome”; 1 Oo cout << greet << “\n”; i tenes coer, a PEPPER is casyto confusea string with an array. Here'san RSPB in c++ there's also a string function, which works in array, which can be terminated with anull character: ‘much the same way. Using the greeting code again, #include Solfcanentert using namespace std; #include ae using namespace std; int main © char greet(8] = {"W", ‘e’, ‘1, tc’, to", tm, fe, N07}; string greet = “Welcome”; cout << greet << “\n"; cout << greet << “\n"; 3 3 BED 2s rece sets winesERED Tere are also many diferent operations that you can apply wth the string Function. For instance, to getthe length ofa string you can use #include using namespace std; int main © { string greet = “Welcome”; cout << “The length of the string is: “; cout << greet.size() << “\n"; You cansee thet we ved oe set output the SUPE length, the number of characters there are, of the contents the sting. Natural, fyoucllyourstng something other than geet, then ou needt change the commando refi ths I's alayssingname operator Bud andrunthe code tosee Just. as you might expect, you can mix in an integer {and store something to do with the string, n this example, we created int length, which stores the result oF string sizeQ and outputs itto the user: #include using namespace std; int main © { ‘int Length; string greet = “Hello”; string greet2 = “, world!; string greet3 = Length = greet3.sizeQ; cout << “The Length of the combined strings is: “<< length << “\n"; greet + greet2; BPD sins avataie operation that come withthe Sra?) ‘string Function, you can manipulate the contents of a string. For example, to remave characters From string you could use: #include using namespace std; int main © 1 string strg (“Here is a long sentence ina string.”); cout << strg << ‘\n’; stra. cout, stra. cout. You can of course add strings together, or rather combine them to Form longer strings: #include } using namespace std; stra. cout, int main © inthe string, right, so practice makes perfect. Take a look at the screenshot to see the result of the code. string greet = “Hello”; string greet2 = “, world!”; string greet3 = greet + greet2; cout << greet3 << “\n"; erase (10,5); << strg << ‘\n"s erase (strg.begin()+8); << strg << S\N; erase (strg.begin()+9, strg.end()-9); << strg << ‘\n5 les worth spending some time playing around with the numbers, which are the character positions jonally, it can be hit and miss whether you get it 121 ora bdmpublications com