Chapter 7: Precipitation Processes

Growth of Cloud Droplet

Forms of Precipitations

Cloud Seeding ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Precipitations

Water Vapor Saturated

Need cloud nuclei

Cloud Droplet formed around Cloud Nuclei

Need to fall down

Precipitation
ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Terminal Velocity
drag force

Terminal velocity is the constant
speed that a falling object has when
the gravity force and the drag force
applied on the subject reach a balance.
r

Terminal velocity depends on the
V
size of the object: small objects fall
slowly and large objectives fall
quickly.

gravity force ESS5

Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Radius = 100 times
Volume = 1 million times

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Raindrops

Rain droplets have to have large enough falling

speed in order to overcome the updraft (that produces
the rain) to fall to the ground.

This means the rain droplets have to GROW to large
enough sizes to become precipitation.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 How Raindrop Grows?

Growth by Condensation (too small)

Growth in Warm Clouds: Collision-Coalescence Process

Growth in Cool and Cold Clouds: Bergeron Process

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Growth by Condensation

Condensation about condensation nuclei
initially forms most cloud drops.

Only a valid form of growth until the drop

achieves a radius of about 20 µm due to overall
low amounts of water vapor available.

Insufficient process to generate precipitation.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Growth in Warm Clouds

Most clouds formed in the Tropics, and
many in the middle latitudes, are warm
clouds.

Those clouds have temperatures greater
than 0ºC throughout.

The Collision-coalescence process
generates precipitation.

This process depends on the differing fall
speeds of different-sized droplets.

It begins with large collector drops which
have high terminal velocities.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Collision

Collector drops collide with smaller
drops.

Due to compressed air beneath falling
drop, there is an inverse relationship
between collector drop size and
collision efficiency.

Collisions typically occur between a
collector and fairly large cloud drops.

Smaller drops are pushed aside.

Collision is more effective for the
droplets that are not very much smaller
than the collect droplet. ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Coalescence

When collisions occur, drops either bounce apart or
coalesce into one larger drop.

Coalescence efficiency is very high indicating that

most collisions result in coalescence.

Collision and coalescence together form the primary

mechanism for precipitation in the tropics, where
warm clouds dominate.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Cool and Cold Clouds

A portion of most mid-latitude clouds have temperatures below

the melting point of ice.

Cold clouds are referred to those have temperature below 0ºC
throughout and consist entirely of ice crystals, supercooled droplets,
or a mixture of two.

Cool clouds are referred to those have temperatures above 0ºC in
the lower reaches and subfreezing condition above.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
An Example of Cool and Cold Cloud
Cumulonimbus clouds contain
both ice (top, fuzzy cloud margins),
liquid drops (bottom, sharp
margins) and a mix of ice and liquid
(middle)

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Growth in Cool and Cold Clouds

Cool month mid-latitude and high latitude clouds are classified

as cool clouds as average temperatures are usually below
freezing.

Clouds may be composed of (1) Liquid water, (2) Supercooled
water, and/or (3) Ice.

Coexistence of ice and supercooled water is critical to the
creation of cool cloud precipitation - the Bergeron Process.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Bergeron Process

Saturation vapor pressure of ice is less than that of supercooled water

and water vapor.

During coexistence, water will sublimate directly onto ice.

Ice crystals grow rapidly at the expense of supercooled drops.

Collisions between falling crystals and drops causes growth through
riming and aggregation.
ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Riming and Aggregation

Riming = liquid water freezing onto ice crystals

producing rapid growth.

Aggregation = the joining of multiple ice crystals

through the bonding of surface water
builds ice crystals to the point of
overcoming updrafts

Collision combined with riming and aggregation allow

formation of precipitation within 1/2 hour of initial
formation.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Forms of Precipitation

Rain

Snow

Graupel and Hail

Sleet

Freezing Rain

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Snow

Snowflakes have a wide assortment of
shapes and sizes depending on moisture
content and temperature of the air.

Snowfall distribution in North America
is related to north-south alignment of
mountain ranges and the presence of the
Great Lakes.

Lake effect: snows develop as the warm
lake waters evaporate into cold air.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Rain

– Rain is associated with warm clouds exclusively and cool clouds

when surface temperatures are above freezing
– Rainshowers are episodic precipitation events associated with
convective activity and cumulus clouds
• Drops tend to be large and widely spaced to begin, then smaller
drops become more prolific
– Raindrop Shape begins as spherical
• As frictional drag increases, changes to a mushroom shape
• Drops eventually flatten
• Drops split when frictional drag overcomes the surface tension of
water
• Splitting ensures a maximum drop size of about 5 mm and the
continuation of the collision-coalescence process ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Graupel and Hail
– Graupel are ice crystals that undergo extensive riming
• Lose six sided shape and smooth out
• Either falls to the ground or provides a nucleus for hail

– Hail forms as concentric layers of ice build around graupel

• Formed as graupel is carried aloft in updrafts
• At high altitudes, water accreting to graupel freezes, forming a layer
• Hail falls but is eventually carried aloft again by an updraft where the
process repeats
• The ultimate size of the hailstone is determined by the intensity of the
updraft.
• Great Plains = highest frequency of hail events

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Hail Formation

Concentric layers of ice

in hail indicate the cyclical
hailstone formation process

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
Hail Frequency in the U.S.

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Sleet and Freezing Rain

– Sleet begins as ice crystals which melt into rain through

a mid-level inversion before solidifying in colder near
surface air
– Freezing Rain forms similarly to sleet, however, the
drop does not completely solidify before striking the
surface
ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Cloud Seeding

The objective is to convert some of the supercooled
droplets in a cool clouds to ice and cause precipitation by
the Bergeron process.

Two primary methods are used to trigger the precipitation
process.

Dry ice is used to lower cloud temperature to a freezing
point in order to stimulate ice crystal production leading to
the Bergeron process.

Silver iodide initiates the Bergeron process by directly
acting as freezing nuclei.

Under ideal conditions, seeding may enhance precipitation
by about 10%.
ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Measuring Precipitation
A raingage

Standard raingages, with a 20.3

cm (8”) collected surface and
1/10 area collector are used to
measure liquid precipitation

Depth of water level conveys a
tenfold increase in total
precipitation

Automated devices provide a
record of precipitation amount
and time of the event

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu
 Measuring Snow

Raingages are inadequate for measuring frozen
precipitation

Measurements of accumulated snow are used

Water equivalent of snow, a 10 to 1 ratio is assumed

Automated snow pillows are common in many
locations

Detect snow weight and convert directly to water
equivalent

ESS5
Prof. Jin-Yi Yu