Cryogenics for particle accelerators

Philippe Lebrun
CERN, Geneva, Switzerland

African School of Physics 2010

Stellenbosch, South Africa, 1-21 August 2010
 Contents

• Low temperatures and liquefied gases

• Cryogenics in accelerators
• Properties of fluids
• Design of cryogenic equipement
• Refrigeration & liquefaction
 Contents

• Low temperatures and liquefied gases

• Cryogenics in accelerators
• Properties of fluids
• Design of cryogenic equipement
• Refrigeration & liquefaction
• cryogenics, that branch of physics which deals with
the production of very low temperatures and their
effects on matter

Oxford English Dictionary

2nd edition, Oxford University Press (1989)

• cryogenics, the science and technology of

temperatures below 120 K

New International Dictionary of Refrigeration

3rd edition, IIF-IIR Paris (1975)
 Characteristic temperatures of cryogens

Triple point Normal boiling Critical

Cryogen
[K] point [K] point [K]

Methane 90.7 111.6 190.5

Oxygen 54.4 90.2 154.6

Argon 83.8 87.3 150.9

Nitrogen 63.1 77.3 126.2

Neon 24.6 27.1 44.4

Hydrogen 13.8 20.4 33.2

Helium 2.2 (*) 4.2 5.2

(*): Point
 Industrial cryogenics:
densification, liquefaction & separation of gases
LNG Rocket fuels

LIN & LOX

130 000 m3 LNG carrier
with double hull

Ariane 5
25 t LHY, 130 t LOX

Air separation by cryogenic

distillation
Up to 4500 t/day LOX
 What is a low temperature?

• The entropy of a thermodynamical system in

a macrostate corresponding to a multiplicity
W of microstates is
S = kB ln W
• Adding reversibly heat dQ to the system
results in a change of its entropy dS with a
proportionality factor T
T = dQ/dS

high temperature: heating produces

small entropy change
low temperature: heating produces
large entropy change

L. Boltzmann’s grave in the Zentralfriedhof,

Vienna, bearing the entropy formula
 Temperature and energy

• The average thermal energy of a particle in a system in

thermodynamic equilibrium at temperature T is
E ~ kB T
kB = 1.3806 × 10−23 J.K-1
• 1 K is equivalent to 10-4 eV or 10-23 J thermal energy
– a temperature is « low » for a given physical process when kBT is
small compared with the characteristic energy of the process
considered
– cryogenic temperatures reveal phenomena with low characteristic
energy and enable their application
 Characteristic temperatures
of low-energy phenomena

Phenomenon Temperature
Debye temperature of metals few 100 K
High-temperature superconductors ~ 100 K
Low-temperature superconductors ~ 10 K
Intrinsic transport properties of metals < 10 K
Cryopumping few K
Cosmic microwave background 2.7 K
Superfluid helium 4 2.2 K
Bolometers for cosmic radiation <1K
Low-density atomic Bose-Einstein condensates ~ K
 Operating temperature
& DC performance of superconductors

J [kA/mm2]
• Superconductivity only exists
in a limited domain of
temperature, magnetic field and
current density
• Electrotechnical applications
require transport current and
magnetic field
• Operating temperature of the
device must therefore be
significantly lower than the
T [K] critical temperature of the
B [T] superconductor
 Critical field vs. temperature
of LTS and HTS superconductors

Black: Hc2
D. Larbalestier et al.
Red: irreversibility field (jc = 0)
 Optimization of operating temperature
for superconducting RF cavity

• Power per unit length P/L ~ RS E 2 /

• BCS theory RBCS = (A 2 /T) exp (-B Tc/T)
• For practical materials RS = RBCS + Rres
• Refrigeration (Carnot) Pa = P (Ta/T - 1)
optimum operating temperature for superconducting cavities is
well below critical temperature of superconductor
500
Niobium Cavity loss
Carnot efficiency
Cooling power

Arbitrary Units

0
1 1.5 2 2.5
T [K]
 Useful range of cryogens
& critical temperature of superconductors
Nb3Sn
Nb-Ti Mg B2 YBCO Bi-2223

Helium
Below Patm
Above Patm
Hydrogen

Neon

Nitrogen

Argon

Oxygen

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

T [K]
 Contents

• Low temperatures and liquefied gases

• Cryogenics in accelerators
• Properties of fluids
• Design of cryogenic equipement
• Refrigeration & liquefaction
 Superconductivity and circular accelerators

• Beam energy, field in bending magnets and machine radius are

related by:
Ebeam = 0.3 B r
[GeV] [T] [m]
At the LHC (r = 2.8 km), B = 8.33 T to reach Ebeam= 7 TeV
• Superconductivity permits to produce high field and thus to limit size
and electrical consumption of the accelerators
Normal Superconducting
conducting (LHC)
Magnetic field 1.8 T 8.3 T
(iron saturation) (NbTi critical surface)

Field geometry Defined by magnetic Defined by coils

circuit

Current density in 10 A/mm2 400 A/mm2

windings

Electromagnetic 20 kN/m 3400 kN/m

forces

Electrical 10 kW/m 2 kW/m

consumption
 Limiting energy stored in beam

• Energy W stored in the beams of circular accelerators and colliders

W [kJ] = 3.34 Ebeam [GeV] Ibeam [A] C [km]
C circumference of accelerator/collider
building compact machines, i.e. producing higher bending field B
limits beam stored energy
• Example: the LHC
Ebeam = 7000 GeV
Ibeam = 0.56 A W = 350 MJ!
C = 26.7 km
 Low impedance for beam stability

LHC beam pipe

• Transverse impedance
ZT( ) ~ r / b3
wall electrical resistivity
r average machine radius
b half-aperture of beam pipe
• Transverse resistive-wall instability
– dominant in large machines
– must be compensated by beam feedback, provided growth of instability
is slow enough
– maximize growth time ~ 1/ ZT( ) i.e. reduce ZT( )
for a large machine with small aperture, low transverse
impedance is achieved through low , i.e. low-temperature wall
 Cryopumping maintains good vacuum

1.E+04
1.E+03
He
1.E+02 H2
1.E+01 Ne
1.E+00 N2
1.E-01 Ar
O2
1.E-02
CH4
Psat [kPa]

1.E-03
CO2
1.E-04 H2O
1.E-05
1.E-06
1.E-07
1.E-08
1.E-09
1.E-10
1.E-11
1.E-12
1 10 100 1000
T [K]
Saturation pressure of all gases except
helium vanish at cryogenic temperature
 Rationale for superconductivity & cryogenics
in particle accelerators

Beam vacuum

Beam stability

Cryogenics Superconductivity Compactness Reduce cost

Limit beam
stored energy

Reduce power
consumption
 Contents

• Low temperatures and liquefied gases

• Cryogenics in accelerators
• Properties of fluids
• Design of cryogenic equipement
• Refrigeration & liquefaction
 Properties of cryogens compared to water

Property He N2 H 2O

Normal boiling point [K] 4.2 77 373

Critical temperature [K] 5.2 126 647

Critical pressure [bar] 2.3 34 221

Liq./Vap. density (*) 7.4 175 1600

Heat of vaporization (*) [J.g-1] 20.4 199 2260

Liquid viscosity (*) [ Pl] 3.3 152 278

(*) at normal boiling point
 Vaporization of normal boiling cryogens
under 1 W applied heat load

[l.h-1] [l.min-1]
Cryogen [mg.s-1]
(liquid) (gas NTP)

Helium 48 1.38 16.4

Nitrogen 5 0.02 0.24

These numbers may be used for measuring heat load to a cryogen

bath from boil-off flow measurements at constant liquid level
At decreasing level, the escaping flow is lower than the vaporization
rate and a correction must be applied
 Amount of cryogens required to cool down 1 kg iron

Latent heat and

Using Latent heat only
enthalpy of gas

LHe from 290 to 4.2 K 29.5 litre 0.75 liter

LHe from 77 to 4.2 K 1.46 litre 0.12 litre

LN2 from 290 to 77 K 0.45 litre 0.29 litre

⇒ recover enthalpy from cold gas (i.e. moderate flow of cryogen)

⇒ pre-cool with liquid nitrogen to save liquid helium
 Phase diagram of helium

10000
SOLID

1000 SUPER-
LINE CRITICAL
Pressure [kPa]

He II He I
CRITICAL
100 POINT
PRESSURIZED He II SATURATED He I
(Subcooled liquid)

10
VAPOUR

SATURATED He II

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Temperature [K]
 Helium as a cooling fluid

Phase domain Advantages Drawbacks

Fixed temperature Two-phase flow

Saturated He I
High heat transfer Boiling crisis

Supercritical Monophase Non-isothermal

Negative J-T effect Density wave instability

Low temperature
Second-law cost
He II High conductivity
Subatmospheric
Low viscosity
 High thermal conductivity of helium II
suppresses boiling

Electrical heater in saturated liquid helium

He I (T=2.4 K) He II (T=2.1 K)
 Contents

• Low temperatures and liquefied gases

• Cryogenics in accelerators
• Properties of fluids
• Design of cryogenic equipement
• Refrigeration & liquefaction
 Basic thermodynamics at low temperature

• Minimum refrigeration work Wmin to extract heat Q at temperature T

and reject it at ambient temperature Ta

Wmin = Q (Ta/T – 1) = Ta S – Q
[Carnot] [Clausius]

• At cryogenic temperature T « Ta

Wmin ≃ Q Ta/T ≃ Ta S

entropy is a good measure of the cost of cryogenic refrigeration

strategies minimizing S improve cryogenic design
 Cryogenic design strategies
Ln Q

Q refri Cooling scheme

Q device
Shielding, heat interception
Q shield
Insulation

T refri T device T shield Ln T

 Typical heat transfer
coefficients at cryogenic
temperatures

T [K]
 Heat conduction in solids

S
T 2 Fourier’s law: Q con kT S
dT
dx
x

Q k(T): thermal conductivity [W/m.K]

d

con

dT S T2
Integral form: Q con
L
k(T) dT
T1

k(T) dT : thermal conductivity integral [W/m]

T 1 Thermal conductivity integrals for standard

construction materials are tabulated
 Thermal conductivity integrals
of selected materials [W/m]

From vanishingly low temperature

20 K 80 K 290 K
up to

OFHC copper 11000 60600 152000

DHP copper 395 5890 46100

1100 aluminium 2740 23300 72100

2024 aluminium alloy 160 2420 22900

AISI 304 stainless steel 16.3 349 3060

G-10 glass-epoxy composite 2 18 153

Non-metallic composite
support post
with heat intercepts

5 K cooling line (SC He)

Aluminium intercept plates

glued to G-10 column

Aluminium strips to thermal

shield at 50-75 K
 Thermal radiation

Qrad1
• Wien’s law T1 T2 >T1
– Maximum of black body power spectrum
Qrad2
max.T = 2898 [ m.K]
1 2

• Stefan-Boltzmann’s law
– Black body Qrad = A T4
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
(Stefan Boltzmann’s constant)
– “Gray”body Qrad = A T4
emissivity of surface
– “Gray” surfaces at T1 and T2 Qrad = E A (T14 –T24)
E function of 1, 2, geometry
 Emissivity of technical materials
at low temperatures

Radiation from 290 K Radiation from 77 K

Surface at 77 K Surface at 4.2 K
Stainless steel, as found 0.34 0.12

Stainless steel, mech. polished 0.12 0.07

Stainless steel, electropolished 0.10 0.07

Stainless steel + Al foil 0.05 0.01

Aluminium, as found 0.12 0.07

Aluminium, mech. polished 0.10 0.06

Aluminium, electropolished 0.08 0.04

Copper, as found 0.12 0.06

Copper, mech. Polished 0.06 0.02

 Residual gas conduction

T1 T2

molecule : mean free path of gas molecules

d

• Viscous regime
– At high gas pressure molecule << d
– Classical conduction Qres = k(T) A dT/dx
– Thermal conductivity k(T) independant of pressure
• Molecular regime
– At low gas pressure molecule >> d
– Kennard’s law Qres = A (T) P (T2 – T1)
– Conduction heat transfer proportional to pressure, independant of
spacing between surfaces
depends on gas species
– Accommodation coefficient (T) depends on gas species, T1, T2,
and geometry of facing surfaces
 Multi-layer insulation
(MLI)

• Complex system involving three heat transfer processes

– QMLI = Qrad + Qsol + Qres
– With n reflective layers of equal emissivity, Qrad ~ 1/(n+1)
– Due to parasitic contacts between layers, Qsol increases with layer
density
– Qres due to residual gas trapped between layers, scales as 1/n in
molecular regime
– Non-linear behaviour requires layer-to-layer modeling
• In practice
– Typical data available from (abundant) literature
– Measure performance on test samples
 Typical heat fluxes at vanishingly low temperature
between flat plates [W/m2]

Black-body radiation from 290 K 401

Black-body radiation from 80 K 2.3

Gas conduction (100 mPa He) from 290 K 19

Gas conduction (1 mPa He) from 290 K 0.19

Gas conduction (100 mPa He) from 80 K 6.8

Gas conduction (1 mPa He) from 80 K 0.07

MLI (30 layers) from 290 K, pressure below 1 mPa 1-1.5

MLI (10 layers) from 80 K, pressure below 1 mPa 0.05

MLI (10 layers) from 80 K, pressure 100 mPa 1-2

 Transport of refrigeration
in large distributed cryogenic systems

0.5
Pressurised He II Saturated LHe II He I
Temperature difference [K]

0.4
SSC (HEB)

0.3
SSC (main Ring)

0.2
UNK
LHC
0.1 Tevatron
HERA

LEP2 TESLA
Tore Supra
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance [km]
 Cryogenic distribution scheme: design issues

• Monophase vs. two-phase

– temperature control
– hydrostatic head & flow instabilities
• Pumps vs. no pumps
– efficiency & cost
– reliability & safety
• Use of liquid nitrogen
– cooldown and/or normal operation
– capital & operating costs of additional fluid
– safety in underground areas (ODH)
• Lumped vs. distributed cryoplants
• Separate cryoline vs. integrated piping
• Number of active components (valves, actuators)
• Redundancy of configuration
 Contents

• Low temperatures and liquefied gases

• Cryogenics in accelerators
• Properties of fluids
• Design of cryogenic equipement
• Refrigeration & liquefaction
 Thermodynamics of cryogenic refrigeration
T0= 300 K
Q0 First principle [Joule] Q0 Qi W

R W : mechanical Q0 Qi
work Second principle [Clausius]
T0 Ti
Qi
Ti
(= for reversible process)
Qi
Hence, W T0 Qi which can be written in three different ways:
Ti
Qi
1 W T0 ΔS i Qi introducing entropy S as ΔS i
Ti
2 T0
W Qi 1
Ti Carnot factor
T0
3 W ΔE i introducing exergy E as ΔE i Qi 1
Ti
 Minimum refrigeration work

Consider the extraction of 1 W at 4.5 K, rejected at 300 K

The minimum refrigeration work (equation 2) is:

T0 300
Wmin Qi 1 1 1 65.7 W
Ti 4.5

In practice, the most efficient helium refrigerators have an

efficiency of about 30% w.r. to the Carnot limit

Wmin 65.7
Wreal 220 W
η 0.3
 Efficiency of cryogenic refrigerators
(Strobridge)
102

30 - 90 K
10 - 30 K
1.8 - 9 K

101
Percent Carnot

100

10-1
10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
Cryogenic power (W)
 Refrigeration cycles and duties
Introduction to the T-S diagram
T
B Heat involved in thermodynamic transformation
from A to B, if reversible:
A B
ΔQ T dS
Q A
S, entropy

To make a refrigeration cycle, need a substance, the entropy of

which depends on some other variable than temperature
D
T2
T
C Pressure of gas: Compression/expansion cycle
Magnetization of solid: magnetic refr. cycle
Q2
T1 A B Q1: heat absorbed at T1
Q2: heat rejected at T2
Q1
S  Refrigeration cycle A B C D
 T-S diagram for helium
25
24 140

23
Isenthalp
22 130

Isobar 21
20 120

Isochore 19
110
18
17
100
16
Temperature [K] 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 P= 0.1 MPa
15
90
14
13
80
12
11
70
10
Critical point 9
100 50 20 10 5 = 2 kg/m³
60
8
7 50
6
Liquid only exists 5 40
in this area 4
3 H= 30 J/g
2
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Entropy [J/kg.K]
 A Carnot cycle is not feasible for helium liquefaction

613 kbar 82 kbar

T
300 K
• It would need a HP of 613 kbar!
• There exists no true isothermal
compressor
• There exists no true isentropic
compressor or expander

1.3 bar

4.5 K
S

3.89 J/g.K 8.07 J/g.K

 A real cycle for helium liquefaction
internal heat exchange and para-isothermal compression

Practical compressors are adiabatic, need

T aftercooling and if multistage, intercooling

300 K

Heat exchanger between

HP and LP streams

20 bar

1.3 bar

4.5 K
S

3.89 J/g.K 8.07 J/g.K

 Elementary cooling processes on T-S diagram
T
P1

A P2 (< P1)

B3
B1 H
isenthalpic
(Joule-Thomson valve)
B'2
isobar
(heat exchanger) B2
adiabatic (expansion engine)

isentropic
S
Brazed aluminium plate heat exchanger
 Cryogenic
turbo-expander
 Maximum Joule-Thomson inversion temperatures

Maximum inversion
Cryogen
temperature [K]
Helium 43

Hydrogen 202

Neon 260

Air 603

Nitrogen 623

Oxygen 761

While air can be cooled down and liquefied by JT expansion from room
temperature, helium and hydrogen need precooling down to below
inversion temperature by heat exchange or work-extracting expansion
(e.g. in turbines)
Two-stage Claude cycle
Commercial Claude-cycle helium refrigerators/liquefiers
(Air Liquide & Linde)
HELIAL SL HELIAL ML HELIAL LL
Max. Liquefaction capacity without LN2 25 L/h 70 L/h 145 L/h
Max. Liquefaction capacity with LN2 50 L/h 150 L/h 330 L/h
Compressor electrical motor 55 kW 132 kW 250 kW
Specific consumption for liquefaction w/o LN2 645 W/W 552 W/W 505 W/W
% Carnot 10% 12% 13%
 E1 Process cycle & T-S diagram of
T1 LHC 18 kW @ 4.5 K cryoplant
E3

E4 T2
20 K - 280 K loads
(LHC current leads)

Pa

Pa

Pa
M

M
9

1
1.

0.

0.
LN2
Precooler 201 K
T1
from LHC loads
50 K - 75 K loads E6 T3
(LHC shields) T2
75 K
E7 T3

49 K
E8 T4 LHC shields
32 K
Adsorber T4
E9a
20 K

E9b 13 K T5 T7
from LHC loads
10 K

9K
E10 T5 T7 T8
4.5 K - 20 K loads T6
(magnets + leads + cavities) 4.4 K
Pa
M

E11
3
0.

To LHC loads

E12
T6

E13 T8
LHC 18 kW @ 4.5 K helium cryoplants

33 kW @ 50 K to 75 K
23 kW @ 4.6 K to 20 K
41 g/s liquefaction
4 MW compressor power
C.O.P. 220-230 W/W @ 4.5 K
Oil-injected screw compressor
 Compressor station
of LHC 18 kW@ 4.5 K helium refrigerator
 Carnot, Stirling and Ericsson cycles

In practice, many small cycles

thermally in series, each with
limited temperature span

Cooling
power
Gifford-McMahon cryocooler (Ericsson cycle)

CRYOMECH PT407 & CP970 compressor

~ 0.7 W @ 4.2 K & 25 W @ 55 K
Stirling and pulse-tube cryocoolers

ESA MPTC development model

1W @ 77K
 « Cryogen-free » superconducting magnets

4 T magnet (Accel) cooled by Gifford- MRI magnet (Bruker) with active

McMahon cooler shielding and recondensation of
helium vapor by pulse-tube cooler
 Selecting the right cryogenic refrigerator
106

105
REFRIGERATION POWER (W)

104

103

102

101

100

10-1

10-2

H. Quack
 Some references

• K. Mendelssohn, The quest for absolute zero, McGraw Hill (1966)

• R.B. Scott, Cryogenic engineering, Van Nostrand, Princeton (1959)
• G.G. Haselden, Cryogenic fundamentals, Academic Press, London (1971)
• R.A. Barron, Cryogenic systems, Oxford University Press, New York (1985)
• B.A. Hands, Cryogenic engineering, Academic Press, London (1986)
• S.W. van Sciver, Helium cryogenics, Plenum Press, New York (1986)
• K.D. Timmerhaus & T.M. Flynn, Cryogenic process engineering, Plenum Press, New
York (1989)
• Ph. Lebrun, An introduction to cryogenics, CERN-AT-2007-01 (2007)
http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/1012032?ln=en
• Proceedings of CAS School on Superconductivity and Cryogenics for Particle
Accelerators and Detectors, Erice (2002)
– U. Wagner, Refrigeration
– G. Vandoni, Heat transfer
– Ph. Lebrun, Design of a cryostat for superconducting accelerator magnet
– Ph. Lebrun & L. Tavian, The technology of superfluid helium
http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/503603?ln=en
• Ph. Lebrun, Superconductivity and cryogenics for future high-energy accelerators,
Proc. ICEC21, Icaris, Prague (2006) 13-21
http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/1026936/files/at-2007-004.pdf
• Proceedings of ICEC and CEC/ICMC conferences